By:

Engr. Jayson M. Narito,

REE, RMP

SAMPLING (FOR M.S. Construction

Management
Student No.: 2014 -

RESEARCH)
11475-MN-O
Polytechnic University
of the Philippines
(Open University)
 PURPOSE OF
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
WHY SAMPLE?
 WHY SAMPLE?
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SAMPLES
DETERMINATION OF SAMPLING SIZE
 PURPOSE
WHY SAMPLE? OF
SAMPLE
 SAMPLING is used when it is not possible or
practical to include the entire research
population in your study, which is usually the
case.
 WHAT IS SAMPLING?

 SAMPLING is the process of selecting a few from

many the many in order to carry out empirical
research. It needs to be accepted from the outset
that a sample represents a form of trade -off
between the desirable and the attainable, but this
is more often the case and the goal is rarely to
make inferences about the wider population based
on this discovery.
 PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

 In most quantitative research the point is to take

a sample and make inferences about the rest of
the population based on that sample. With both
approaches it may well be much more
informative to study the entire population but
this would almost always be impossible based on
cost and time. For this reason we sample.
NOTE:

 _METHOD OF SAMPLING USED PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN

ANY RESEARCH INVESTIGATION.

 _VERY OFTEN IT IS THE CHARACTERISTICS, COMPOSITION

AND SCALE OF THE SAMPLE THAT GIVE WEIGHT TO ANY
FINDINGS THAT EMERGE FROM THE INVESTIGATION.
 _WHEN SELECTING A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE :

 There are a number of different approaches to sampling and

choice of approach should be influenced largely by the
purpose of the investigation.

 There is a need to demonstrate the appropriateness of the

chosen sample to the nature and output of the research.

 It is totally inappropriate to engage in a small scale,

localized qualitative study then attempt to generalize from
the findings.

 It is inappropriate to engage in large scale, broad study and

attempt to provide any real detail concerning individuals.
 WHAT SAMPLE TECHNIQUE?

 _A SIMPLISTIC RULE OF THUMB:

Assume that quantitative research will tend to
use probability sampling techniques and
qualitative research will tend to use purposive
sampling.
 Qualitative Research may produce theoretical generalization, which
means it is possible to generalize from, for example, a case study to a
wider theor y based on the findings of the case study.

 Your sample selection must be directly related to the type of study you
intend to conduct, the research question you are asking, and the type
of evidence you need to present in order to respond to that question.

 For example: Would you take a random sample of 13 to 16 year old

teenagers from a par ticular region if you wanted to investigate their
use of the internet? What if, when your random sample was decided,
none had ever touched a computer?
 Think carefully about the research question you are asking and the
nature of the response you want: do you want to be in the position to
make general statements or do you want to provide detailed insight?
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

 How do we go about selecting a sample and what do we select

the sample from?

 Your research population is the entire set of individuals about

which inference will be made.

 For example: before a political election opinion polls are used to

gauge the general trends that are emerging within the
population; these opinion polls are drawn from a small section of
the entire population in order to make inferences concerning the
likely outcome of the election, when every member of the
population should cast their own vote.

 So, the expressed opinion of a small number of the population is

used to infer political preferences within the entire population.
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

 Be wary of making over-exaggerated claims or extended

generalizations based on relatively small samples.

 Remember you are making a trade of f but that does not mean
your discovery has no significance; you just need to be honest
with your reader when you put forward your inferences, make
aware of the sample and also make them aware that it is
impossible to account for all individual traits. This is discovery
based on a ‘best possible estimation’.
 Simple
Random
sampling

Stratified
Random
sampling

Cluster
sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Quota
sampling
 PROBABILIT Y SAMPLING

 Probability sampling is applied in order to provide a statistical

basis for generalizing from a research study to a wider
population.

 There are a number of techniques available that allow or

statistical generalizations but remember that the logic of
statistical generalization demands that certain conditions are
met.
 The conditions are as follows:
 Sample is representative of a wider population
 Wider population is properly defined
 Sample was drawn from a population using probability sampling methods
 PROBABILIT Y SAMPLING

 Even where a sample is obtained using probability

sampling methods, the ability of such sampling to produce
a representative sample will depend on:
 The adequacy of the sampling frame from which the sample was
drawn;
 Any bias in response and non-response from the selected sample
units
(De Vaus, 2002a, 149)
 These conditions apply regardless of the sampling
procedure you choose and you must always be aware of the
limitations of your final sample when you discuss the
nature and consequences of your research findings
 PROBABILIT Y SAMPLING

 It is always preferable to calculate the sampling error present

in your research as this provides your reader with a more
realistic understanding of the significance of your findings.
‘Error’ in this case does not mean a ‘mistake’, it is the term
used to demonstrate the likely variance between results
obtained from the sample and characteristics of the
population as a whole. A general rule is that the larger the
sample size the smaller the sampling error.

 Example: Assume that the research population is the entire

membership of professional organization
 SIMPLE
 Random sampling is a RANDOM
procedure of creating a sample SAMPLING
where each member of the P r o b a b il i t y

defined population has an equal s a m p l in g

chance of being selected for

inclusion and the selection of
one participant depends on the
selection of any other from that
population. A simple random
sample can be drawn in several
ways.
 Example:
We could write the name of every
member of the professional association SIMPLE
on a separate slip of paper; all of the RANDOM
names could then be placed in a large SAMPLING
container. We then draw out random P r o b a b il i t y
slips of paper until we have the number s a m p l in g
required for our sample.
Remember that each slip would need to
be replaced after the name was noted in
order to ensure the number of slips in
the container named constant. If these
number decreases (if we did not replace
the slips) then the probability of
selection would improve for each new
participant.
 This method is the most basic way of
selecting a simple random sample, but it can
also be the most unwieldy; if the research
population is ver y large this could prove a
ver y arduous task . SIMPLE
RANDOM
 An alternative is to use a random number SAMPLING
table, a table of number s where the number s
are listed in no par ticular order and no order P r o b a b il i t y
and no number occur s any more frequently s a m p l in g
than any other. Using the example by
assuming the association had a membership
of 3000 we would give each association
member a number from 1 to 3000 on a
separate population list.
 Using the random number table and entering
the table at any point we would work
horizontally or ver tically through the table
until we had drawn the required sample,
ticking of f the membership number on our
population list as they were selected. This
process can be per formed using a computer
program that number s each member of the
population, generates a list of random
number s and then produces a sample list
based on those number s.
 Stratified random sampling allows
for random selection within each STRATIFIED
group or strata. It has a two stage RANDOM
process. First, the group is SAMPLING
identified and the research P r o b a b il i t y
population is listed within their Sampling
groups. Once this list has been
prepared a random sample is
taken from the group in the same
way as a simple random sample
would be drawn from the entire
research population.
 It is important to remember that
each group should be represented
in the sample in equal proportion
to the size of that group in relation
to the entire research population.
 Each group within the research
population should be taken as a STRATIFIED
separate population, then simple RANDOM
random sampling can be carried SAMPLING
P r o b a b il i t y
out to draw the correct number Sampling
from the group using one of the
techniques discussed in the
previous section.
 Clusters may be selected by the
researcher when the research
population is very large and often CLUSTER
spread over a wide geographical SAMPLING
area, or groups demonstrate a P r o b a b il i t y
common characteristic that a Sampling
direct relationship with a main
variable in the research question
(similar to stratified sampling).

 Clusters can be identified based

on geographic location. In the case
of our example – professional
association this could be done
based on regional groups if it were
a national association.
 If we were identifying clusters based
on the nature of professional activity,
clusters could be identified as sub-
groups within the association. This CLUSTER
type of sampling is most common in SAMPLING
educational research (Burns, 2000) P r o b a b il i t y
where it would be impossible to take Sampling
a sample based on, for example, the
entire population of children in
compulsory education.

 Based on the assumption that all

state run schools will be following a
similar curriculum it is possible to
select individual schools based on
geographic location.
 Quota sampling is sometimes referred
to as convenience sampling as it is
based on the researcher’s ease of
access to the sample. QUOTA
SAMPLING
 With quota sampling, a required P r o b a b il i t y
Sampling
percentage of the total research
population is identified (quota). There
may be some visible characteristics
that are used to guide the sample, for
example the researcher wishes to draw
a sample that is 50% female, 50%
male. The researcher then takes up
position in a convenient location and
asks all possible participants who pass
to be involved in the research. This is
often the technique used by markets
researchers when identifying random
members of the public in shopping
centers or other such public places.
 Using the example – professional
association, the researcher would QUOTA
set a quota, that is determine the SAMPLING
size of sample required for the P r o b a b il i t y
Sampling
research. The researcher would
then seek permission to take up
position in one of the central
common rooms in the association
headquarters. The researcher
would approach every member
who enters the common room until
the quota for the sample has been
achieved.
 A Priori
Criteria
Sampling
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING Snowball
Sampling
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

 There are two possible approaches to purposive sampling: a

priori sampling, which establishes sample framework before
sampling begins; and snowball sampling which takes an
inductive approach to ‘growing’ the sample as the research
progresses.
 If this is your first attempt at qualitative research, or if you
are very restricted by time, you may want to create some
boundaries to your sample by applying a more rigid structure
such as a Priori sampling. It is not strictly speaking,
consistent with the concept of emerging theory but from a
practical sense it of fers some security while still allowing for
theoretical sampling within the structure.
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

 As with all sampling, it is the purpose of the research that

should drive the choice of sampling technique; a priori criteria
sampling is more useful for ‘analysing, dif ferentiating and
perhaps testing assumptions about common features and
dif ferences between groups’ (Flick,2002,63).

 Snowball and theoretical sampling are processes that allow

for ‘on-going joint collection and analysis of data associated
with the generation of theory.’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, 48).
 A priori criteria sampling may
represent a trade off between a A PRIORI
CRITERIA
totally emergent research design SAMPLING
and a more structured a priori P u r p o s i ve
design but it also allows for an Sampling

element of inductive design within

the framework that is created. In a
similar way to probability sampling
criteria are identified from the
conceptual framework of the
research study, those cognitive
signposts developed from the
literature review.
 Criteria are identified and used to
create a grid. Once this is done A PRIORI
CRITERIA
each cell within that grid needs to SAMPLING
be represented in the final sample. P u r p o s i ve
This is as far as the a priori Sampling

determination of the sample goes;

within each cell sampling can be
done in an inductive way. The
researcher can now engage in
snowball sampling to populate
each cell.
•From our example: we have investigated the literature on the issue
and have discovered that the significant criteria that appear to
influence a professional’s attitude towards their association are A PRIORI
gender type of membership and location. Using this information, we CRITERIA
construct a sample grid for our investigation. We know we have to SAMPLING
identify members who fit these cells and attempt to fill each cell as P u r p o s i ve
evenly as possible to build our sample. Sampling

•Once the overall structure has been determined we can identify

individuals in an inductive manner more appropriate to qualitative
research until the cells are evenly populated.
Associate Affiliate Fellow
Male Female Male Female Male Female
NE
NW
MID
SE
SW
 Snowball sampling or Interactive
sampling is the technique that is
SNOWBALL
most commonly used to identify a SAMPLING
theoretical sample and it can be P u r p o s i ve
accomplished in two ways. Sampling

 The first and original method of

this type of sampling is to make
initial contact with key informants
who, in turn, point to information-
rich cases. The second is to begin
with an initial participant who
issues that needs further inquiry.
 These characteristics form the criteria
used to identify subsequent cases in order
to provide a suitable sample (Lincoln and
Guba, 1985; Patton, 2002).
 ‘Purposive and directed sampling through
human instrumentation increases the SNOWBALL
range of data exposed and maximizes the SAMPLING
researcher’s ability to identify emerging P u r p o s i ve
themes’ (Erlandson et al., 1993, 82) Sampling
 ‘ The sample was not chosen on the basis
of some “a priori” criteria but inductively
in line with the developing conceptual
requirements of the study’ (Ellis, 1993,
473).

 This type of sampling demands a viable

exit strategy. As there are no ‘a priori’
numerical restrictions placed on the
sample, the danger of over-saturation
could become highly significant.
 Lincoln and Guba do suggest that a
dozen or so interviews, if properly
selected, will exhaust most available
information; to include as many as
twenty will surely reach well beyond SNOWBALL
the point of redundancy’. SAMPLING
 As they relate this suggestion only to P u r p o s i ve
the interview situation, it could not be Sampling
as readily applied to long term
observation and multiple interviews,
which may be a part of an in-depth
study of each case.

 The researcher makes the decision to

terminate sampling, based on
information redundancy and other
restrictions on the study, such as time
and resources. Like any form of
sampling, snowball sampling may also
be subject to compromise.
 Snowball sampling can be applied
to building various types of
SNOWBALL
sample. Patton (2002) provides SAMPLING
definitions of six types of sample P u r p o s i ve
that can be built applying snowball Sampling

sampling techniques: extreme or

deviant cases, typical cases,
maximum variation cases, critical
cases, politically relevant cases, or
convenience samples. The type of
case (sample unit) that is
identified depends on the purpose
of the research.
 Theoretical sampling follows a
very similar process to snowball
SNOWBALL
sampling; the difference is in the SAMPLING
purpose of sample selection. With P u r p o s i ve
theoretical sampling emerging Sampling

theory drives the selection of

subsequent participants. This
technique is particular to
grounded theory, where the
purpose of the research is to
generate theory, not to produce
generalizations about a wider
population outside the study
sample;
 ‘Theoretical sampling is the
process of data collection for
SNOWBALL
generating theory whereby the SAMPLING
analyst jointly collects, codes and P u r p o s i ve
Sampling
analyses his data and decides
what data to collect next and
where to find them, in order to
develop his theory as it emerges.
This process of data collection is
controlled by the emerging the
theory’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967,
45).
 GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING
ADEQUATE SAMPLING

The size of a sample is usually determined before

the conduct of any study. There are no fixed rules in
determining the size of a sample needed. However,
there are broad guidelines that should be observed
in determining the size of a sample (J.F. Calderon
1993 p.175):
When the universe or
population is more or less
homogeneous and only the GUIDELINES
typical, normal, or average is FOR
DETERMINING
desired to be known, a smaller ADEQUATE
sample is enough. However, if SAMPLING
differences are desired to be
known, a larger sample is
needed.
When the population is more or
less heterogeneous and only
the typical, normal, or average GUIDELINES
is desired to be known, a larger FOR
DETERMINING
sample is needed. However, if ADEQUATE
only their differences are SAMPLING
desired to be known, a smaller
sample is sufficient
The size of a sample varies
inversely as with the size of the
population. A larger proportion
is required of a smaller GUIDELINES
population and smaller FOR
proportion may do for a bigger DETERMINING
ADEQUATE
population (i.e. For a SAMPLING
population of 5000, a sample
of 10% may do but for a
population of 500, a proportion
of 30% may be required)
For a greater accuracy and
reliability of results, a greater
sample is desirable.
In science experiments such as GUIDELINES
testing the effects of FOR
DETERMINING
chemicals, the use of a few ADEQUATE
persons is enough. If the SAMPLING
chemical is harmful to humans,
animals such as mice may do
as a replacement of sample.
1. Determine the size of the
study population.
2. Decide the margin of error
(3%-5% is enough) STEPS IN
COMPUTING
3. Use the formula: THE SIZE OF A
𝑁 SAMPLE
𝑛=
1+(𝑁𝑒 2 )
Where: n= Size of Sample
N= Size of Population
e= Margin Error
4. If the sampling is multistage
or if the population is
stratified (to arrange in
layers), compute the sample
proportion or percent by
dividing the result in step 3 by
the population.
STEPS IN
5. Multiply the number of COMPUTING
sampling units in each final THE SIZE OF A
sampling stratum by the rate SAMPLE
or percent to find the amount
of sample from each final
sampling stratum.
6. Add the samples from all the
final sampling strata to find
the total sample.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose an investigation of the
teaching of Science Subject in
High School of a region is to be
conducted, in which the science
teachers are to be made
STEPS IN
respondents. COMPUTING
There are 2243 teachers THE SIZE OF A
handling biological sciences, SAMPLE
1406 handling chemical
sciences, and 992 teachers
handling physical sciences, a
total of 4641 teachers.
SOLUTION:
Step 1: The population is
4641
Step 2: The margin error to
be used is 3% STEPS IN
COMPUTING
Step 3: THE SIZE OF A
SAMPLE
𝑁 4641
𝑛= =
1+(𝑁𝑒 2 ) 1+(4641 𝑥 0.03 2 )
𝑛 = 896.4825 ≈ 900
SOLUTION:
Step 4: The teachers are
grouped into three
categories according to the
branch of science they are STEPS IN
COMPUTING
handling, so we use THE SIZE OF A
stratified sampling. SAMPLE

Sample Proportion = n/N =

900/4641 = 0.1939 ≈ 0.2 or
20%
 SOLUTION:
Step 5 & 6:
Teaching Handling Number Percentage Sample

Biological Sciences 2243 20% 449

STEPS IN
Chemical Sciences 1406 20% 281 COMPUTING
THE SIZE OF A
Physical Sciences 992 20% 198 SAMPLE

Total 4641 - 928

The answer is 928

 SUMMARY

 Sampling is a vital stage in the research process; the

outcomes , rigour and trustworthiness of your research all rely
on the robustness of the sample and how that sample was
identified. The sampling technique you applied must be
appropriate to your research goals and conform to the
research tradition you have chosen for your investigation. Any
claims you make concerning generalization, applicability,
transferability and significance will all be judged in view of
your empirical evidence and the source of that evidence.
 SUMMARY

 But we are all aware that reality and theory are rarely a
perfect match; compromise is inevitable in research and all
sampling has limitations. What is important is that you
choose a technique that matches your research design, you
are open and honest about your sample composition and you
provide your reader with sufficient detail to understand the
significance of your findings and any bias that may exist as a
result of your sampling: ‘ These techniques are, of course, the
ideal. Few researchers, apart from government bodies, have
the resources and time to obtain truly representative samples.
For most research, investigators often have to make do with
whatever subjects they can gain access to.
-END-