micromachines

Article
Three-Dimensional Interaction of a Large Number of
Dense DEP Particles on a Plane Perpendicular to an
AC Electrical Field †
Chuanchuan Xie 1 , Bo Chen 1 and Jiankang Wu 2, *
1 School of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, China; d201277385@hust.edu.cn (C.X.); chbo76@hust.edu.cn (B.C.)
2 School of Urban Construction Engineering, Wenhua College, Wuhan 430074, China
* Correspondence: wujkang@hust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-027-8755-3389
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in the 2016 International Conference of
Microfluidics, Nanofluidics and Lab-on-a-Chip, Dalian, China, 10–12 June 2016.

Academic Editors: Yongxin Song, Junsheng Wang, Dongqing Li and Nam-Trung Nguyen
Received: 17 October 2016; Accepted: 16 January 2017; Published: 20 January 2017

Abstract: The interaction of dielectrophoresis (DEP) particles in an electric field has been observed in
many experiments, known as the “particle chains phenomenon”. However, the study in 3D models
(spherical particles) is rarely reported due to its complexity and significant computational cost.
In this paper, we employed the iterative dipole moment (IDM) method to study the 3D interaction
of a large number of dense DEP particles randomly distributed on a plane perpendicular to a
uniform alternating current (AC) electric field in a bounded or unbounded space. The numerical
results indicated that the particles cannot move out of the initial plane. The similar particles (either
all positive or all negative DEP particles) always repelled each other, and did not form a chain.
The dissimilar particles (a mixture of positive and negative DEP particles) always attracted each other,
and formed particle chains consisting of alternately arranged positive and negative DEP particles.
The particle chain patterns can be randomly multitudinous depending on the initial particle
distribution, the electric properties of particles/fluid, the particle sizes and the number of particles.
It is also found that the particle chain patterns can be effectively manipulated via tuning the frequency
of the AC field and an almost uniform distribution of particles in a bounded plane chip can be
achieved when all of the particles are similar, which may have potential applications in the particle
manipulation of microfluidics.

Keywords: dielectrophoresis; particle interaction; iterative dipole moment (IDM) method; alternating
current (AC) field

1. Introduction
An electric force exerted on a non-conducting particle when a locally non-uniform electric field is
applied is called dielectrophoresis (DEP) [1–3]. The particle is polarized in a non-uniform electric field,
which arises from the spatial variation or time variation of the field (direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC)). The DEP force is dependent on the electric properties of the particle and fluid, the shape
and size of the particle, and the frequency of the AC field. The particle is forced to move toward higher
or lower electric field regions according to the difference in the electric properties of the particle and
electrolyte, which are called positive and negative DEP, respectively. DEP can be easily applied to
manipulate the particles and has become one of the most popular techniques in applications in biology
and chemistry, such as cell separation [4–6], sorting [7], trapping [8,9], and assembly [10–12].
The electric polarization of a particle can also disturb the local electric field of the surrounding
particles. When one particle is close to another, the local electric field around them becomes more

Micromachines 2017, 8, 26; doi:10.3390/mi8010026 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 2 of 16

non-uniform, even under a uniformly-applied field and, thus, this induces a DEP interaction force for
each particle. The interaction force gets larger as the particles get closer. This electrical phenomenon is
called a “particle chain”, which has been observed in other experiments [13] and is the basis of the
particle assembly technique, which has been used in many applications [14–17]. Kevin et al. developed
a new class of microwires by dielectrophoresis assembly from suspensions of metallic nanoparticles [14].
Shalini et al. co-assembled live cells and surface-functionalized synthetic microparticles on electrically
controlled chips to yield permanent chains and one-cell-layer-thick membranes [15]. Zhou et al.
used dielectrophoresis assembly to rapidly align ensembles of CdSe semiconductor nanowires near
patterned microelectrodes for polarization-sensitive photodetection and biosensing applications [16].
Julia et al. developed a new microfluidic test system for liver toxicity, devising a microfluidic
chip featuring cell culture chambers with integrated electrodes for the assembly of liver sinusoids
by dielectrophoresis [17]. In recent years, a significant amount of effort has been devoted to the
study of the DEP interactions of particles. Giner et al. [13] studied the characteristics of the particle
chaining process in a mixture of polystyrene beads and yeast cells, applying a Monte Carlo simulation.
Aubry et al. [18,19] developed a Lagrange multiplier–based numerical model to study the DEP
interactions of particles. The DEP force is calculated by a simplified dipole method, which is sufficiently
accurate when the particles are not too close. Ai et al. [20,21] and Xie et al. [22,23] performed direct
numerical simulations on the interactions of two or three particles both in two-dimensional DC and
AC fields by using the Maxwell stress tensor (MST) method and the arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian
(ALE) method, and the effect of the frequency was studied. The numerical computation of the ALE
method requires continuous grids moving and remeshing in the case of a larger number of particles.
The MST method is the most rigorous approach to calculate the DEP forces. However, it is not
practical in cases of 3D DEP interactions of a larger number of particles due to the numerical errors
and the significant cost of computation. Kang et al. [24–27] performed direct numerical simulations to
study the 2D interactions of five particles in both DC and AC fields by finite difference simulations.
Hossan et al. [28] studied 2D interactions of a few particles in a DC field using a hybrid immersed
interface-immersed boundary method. The above studies were all for a small number of 2D cylindrical
particles in an electric field parallel to the particle plane. These results have deviated somewhat in
comparison with the experimental results [29–32]. The DEP interactions of a large number of particles
in a 3D electric field have not been well studied due to great difficulties in numerical computation.
Recently, the iterative dipole moment (IDM) method, first developed by Liu and Wu et al. [33–36],
has been an effective method to simulate the DEP interactions of a large number of particles. IDM is an
algebraic algorithm without complicated numerical computation for solving the Laplace equation and
the Navier-Stokes equation. The accuracy, convergence, and simplicity of the IDM method have been
demonstrated by comparing them with the results of the MST method in both DC and AC fields [33,34].
The motion trajectories and final chains of the particles are in good agreement with the results of the
previous numerical studies and consistent with the experiments. This method has been successfully
applied in the interaction of a large number of particles in 2D DC and AC fields [35,36].
In this work, the IDM model is used to simulate the DEP interactions of 3D spherical particles in a
special 3D scenario where the particles are initially positioned in a plane. A uniform AC electric field is
applied perpendicular to the particle plane, which is different to the prior 2D studies. No correlational
numerical studies have been found so far. The phenomena of the interactions in this scenario are
novel and notable, and they are distinguished from the results of previous studies. The mechanism of
particle motions and the particle chains of DEP interactions of a large number of dense particles are
investigated in situations of different sizes, different initial distributions, and different frequencies.
Furthermore, the effect of a circular boundary to the DEP particle interactions is also investigated.
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 3 of 16
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 3 of 16

2.2. Mathematical
MathematicalModel
Model

2.1. Physical
2.1. PhysicalDescription
Description
Inpractical
In practicalmicrofluidic
microfluidicchips
chipsthe
thedepth
depthisismuch
muchsmaller
smallerthan
thanthe
thehorizontal
horizontalscale.
scale.The
Theparticle
particle
motion in the chip is almost confined to a plane in cases where the particle size is of
motion in the chip is almost confined to a plane in cases where the particle size is of the same orderthe same order
asthe
as thechip
chipdepth.
depth. The
The 2D2DDEP
DEPparticle
particleinteractions
interactions onon aaplane
planeparallel
parallelto
tothe
theelectric
electricfield
fieldhave
havebeen
been
well studied. In the present study, the 3D spherical particles are randomly distributed
well studied. In the present study, the 3D spherical particles are randomly distributed on a plane chip, on a plane
chip,a and
and a uniform
uniform AC electric
AC electric field perpendicular
field perpendicular to the is
to the plane plane is applied
applied as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 1. 1.

Figure1.1.AAnumber
Figure number of of particles
particles randomly
randomly suspended
suspended on chip
on a flat a flatfilled
chipwith
filled with electrolyte
electrolyte and a
and a uniform
uniform alternating
alternating current
current (AC) (AC)
electric electric
field e0 isfield
E 
E0
applied is applied
perpendicularperpendicular
to the chip to the
plane. chip plane.

2.2.
2.2. The
The Iterative
IterativeDipole
DipoleMoment
MomentMethod
Method(IDM)
(IDM)

i i ) (i = 1,2, ⋅⋅⋅N ) , respectively. When an AC electric field

The
Theparticles
particlesare
arelocated ( xi(, yxi ,, zyi ),(zi =
locatedatat 1, 2, · · · N ), respectively. When an AC electric field E
e0 is
i
applied, the particles can be polarized as dipole moments p ei , expressed as [2]
E 0 is applied, the particles can be polarized as dipole moments p i , expressed as [2]
ei = 4πa3i 3ε f Ki (ω)E
p (1)
p i = 4πai ε f K i (ω) E 0
e0
(1)
where ai is the radius of the ith particle, Ki (ω) is the Clausius–Mossotti (C–M) factor, given by
where ai is the radius of the ith particle, Ki (ω) is the Clausius–Mossotti (C–M) factor, given by
ε pi − e
εf
Ki (ω) = ε pi − ε f
e
(2)
K (ω) = eε pi + 2eε f
i (2)
ε pi + 2ε f
where e ε pi = ε pi − jσ pi /ω and e ε f = ε f − jσ f /ω are the complex permittivities of the ith particle and
√
fluid, ε pi = ε pi − jσj =
whererespectively; pi / ω − and
1 and ε fthe
= εsuperscript
f − jσ f / ω “~” denote the complex variables; ε pi and ε f are
are the complex permittivities of the ith particle
the
andpermittivity of the ith particle
fluid, respectively; j = −1 and andfluid, respectively;“~”
the superscript and σ f the
σ pidenote are complex
the conductivities
variables;ofεthe ith
and
pi
particle and fluid, respectively; ω = 2π f is the angular frequency of the AC electric field.
ε f The
are dipole
the permittivity
moment willofinduce the ith particle
a local electricand
field,fluid,
calledrespectively; σ pi and
the dipole-induced σ fthisare
field in the
work,
conductivities
written as follows [2] ith particle and fluid, respectively; ω = 2πf is the angular frequency of the AC
of the
electric field.
The dipole moment e · ri
p a3 Ki (ω) · ( E
e0x ( x − xi ) + E
e0y (y − yi ) + E
e0z (z − zi ))
e i = i will3 induce
ϕ = i a local electric field, called the dipole-induced field in this work,
(3)
written as follows [2] 4πε f ri ri3

ai 3 K i (ω)
p i ⋅ ri vector
where ri (ri = |ri |) is the position ⋅ ( E 0 x ( x from
originating + Eith
− xi ) the E 0 z ( z −( xzii,))yi , zi ) to any point
y − yi ) +location
0 y (particle
i =
φ =
( x, y, z). When the particles
4πε rare 3 close to each other, the electric
r3 field can be strikingly influenced(3) by
f i i
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 4 of 16

the local electric fields. In our work, we correct the electric field with the dipole-induced fields of the
neighboring particles, written as follows:

N
e (j 1) = E
E e0j + ∑ e ij(0)
E (4)
i =1,i 6= j

where E e ij(0) is the dipole-induced field of the neighboring particles,

e0j is the original electric field, E
and the components can be expressed as

ϕ
( Eex )ij = − ∂∂xei
= − a3i Ki (ω)
 
E e0x ( x j − xi )+ E
3( E e0y (y j −yi )+ E
e0z (z j −zi ))( x j − xi )
× r3 −
e0x
ij r5ij
ϕ
( Eey )ij = − ∂∂yei
= − a3i Ki (ω)
(5)
 
E
e0y e0x ( x j − xi )+ E
3( E e0y (y j −yi )+ E
e0z (z j −zi ))(y j −yi )
× r3 − r5
ij ij
ϕ
( Eez )ij = − ∂∂zei
= − a3i Ki (ω)
 
3( E0x ( x j − xi )+ E
e0y (y j −yi )+ E
e0z (z j −zi ))(z j −zi )
× Er0z
e
−
e
3 r5
ij ij

q
( x j − xi )2 + (y j − yi )2 + (z j − zi )2 , rij is pointed from ith particle to
 
where rij = rij  =
the jth particle.
The corrected field induces a new dipole p e and a new dipole-induced electric field E e ij(1) ,
i
e (j 2) is obtained in the same way. The local electric field,
and then a second corrected electric field E
dipole moment and the dipole-induced electric field will be iteratively corrected, until a converged
e (j n) is obtained by
electric field E
     
( n +1) (n) ( n +1) (n) ( n +1) (n)
E
 exj − Eexj  E
 eyj − Eeyj  E
 ezj − Eezj 
  ≤ τ,   ≤ τ,  ≤τ (6)
 e(n+1)
E
  e(n+1)
E
  e(n+1)
E

xj yj zj
     

where τ denotes the convergence criteria of the iteration error.

When the electric field is corrected, the time-averaged DEP interaction force F DEP can be obtained
by [34]
 2
hF DEP i = 2πa3 ε f Re[K (ω)]∇E (7)
e


2.3. The Modified Stokes Formula of a Large Number of Dense Particles

When a particle is suspended in a still fluid, and an electric field is applied to drive the particle
by dielectrophretic (DEP) force, a hydrodynamic force is passively generated on the particle due to
the particle motion. Generally, the fluid flow is induced by the particle motion under a low Reynolds
number ( Re ∼ 10−3 ), and the traditional Stokes formula has been widely accepted to calculate the
hydrodynamic force on a particle, written as

F d = 6πaη(u − v) (8)

where η is the viscosity of the fluid, u and v are the velocities of the fluid and the particle, respectively.
However, when a large number of particles are densely distributed in the fluid and move close to
each other, the near-field hydrodynamic hindrance must be taken into consideration. In this work,
a modified Stokes formula is proposed to consider the hydrodynamic aspects.
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 5 of 16

When a spherical particle moves in a fluid, the stream function and the velocity distribution of
the fluid around the particle in local Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z) located in the particle center can be
expressed as [37]
3 xz
u x = U (− 34 ar + 3a )
4r3 r2
3a3 yz
uy = U (− 34 ar + )
4r3 r2
(9)
2 2 2 2
3a a3 3 a x +y 3a3 x +y
u z = U (1 − 2r + 2r3
+ 4 r r2 − 4r3 r2 )

where U is the magnitude of the relation velocity

q of the fluid and the particle, and the direction of the
relative velocity is the same as z axis and r = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Suppose that a large number of particles with global Cartesian coordinates ( xi , yi , zi ) are randomly
suspended in the fluid, and the relative velocity of the fluid and the particles is uri = ui − u pi , uri = |uri |.
q q
Two angles are introduced by sin α = u2rix + u2riy /uri , cos α = uriz /uri , sin β = uriy / u2rix + u2riy ,
q
cos β = urix / u2rix + u2riy . The flow velocity at particle j disturbed by particle i in local Cartesian
coordinates can be written as
3a3i xij zij
u xij = uri (− 43 rai + )
4rij 3 rij 2
ij
3a 3 y zij
uyij = uri (− 43 rai + 4r i3 ) rij 2 (10)
ij ij ij
2 2 2 2
3 ai a3i 3 ai xij +yij 3a3i xij +yij
uzij = uri (1 − 2 rij + 2rij 3
+ 4 rij rij 2 − 4rij 3 rij 2 )

where ( xij , yij , zij ) is the coordinate of particle j with respect to particle i and rij =
q
( x j − xi )2 + (y j − yi )2 + (z j − zi )2 . The net disturbed velocity can be obtained by

3a3i xij zij

∆u xij = u xij − urix = uri (− 34 rai + )
4rij 3 rij 2
ij
3a 3 y zij
∆uyij = uyij − uriy = uri (− 34 rai + 4r i3 ) rij 2 (11)
ij ij ij
2 2 2 2
3 ai a3i 3 ai xij +yij 3a3i xij +yij
∆uzij = uzij − uriz = uri (− 2 r + 2r 3 + 4 r rij 2 − 4rij 3 rij 2 )
ij ij ij

Then we can get the net disturbed velocity at particle j by particle i in global Cartesian
coordinates as
q
∆u xij = cos ϕ( ∆u2xij + ∆u2yij cos α + ∆uzij sin α)
q
∆uyij = sin ϕ( ∆u2xij + ∆u2yij cos α + ∆uzij sin α) (12)
q
∆uzij = − ∆u2xij + ∆u2yij sin α + ∆uzij cos α

By adding the net disturbed velocities of the surrounding particles to the flow field at particle j,
the flow velocity at particle j can be corrected as

N
u1xj = u xj + ∑ ∆u1xij
i =1,i 6= j
N
u1yj = uyj + ∑ ∆u1yij (13)
i =1,i 6= j
N
u1zj = uzj + ∑ ∆u1zij
i =1,i 6= j

where u xj , uyj , uzj are the initial flow field without disturbance.
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 6 of 16

The net disturbed velocities and flow field will be iteratively corrected, until a converged flow
field unxj , unyj , unzj is obtained as

 u − u n −1   u − u n −1   u − u n −1 
 n   n   n 
 xj xj   yj yj   zj zj 
 ≤ τ,  ≤ τ, ≤τ (14)
unxj unyj unzj
  
     

where τ = 10−3 denotes the convergence criteria of the iteration error; then we can get the corrected
fluid drag force by substituting the initial flow field with the corrected one in the Stokes formula as

Fdxi = 6πµai (unxi − u xpi )

Fdyi = 6πµai (unyi − uypi ) (15)
Fdzi = 6πµai (unzi − uzpi )

2.4. The Governing Equation of the Particles and the Dimensionless Method
The motion of the particles is governed by the kinematic equation as follows

d2 r p
mp = F DEP + F d (16)
dt2
where m p , r p are the mass and the position vector of the particles, respectively.
All of the governing equations can be normalized by the characteristic length a0 = 5 µm, potential
ϕ0 = 10 V, velocity U0 = ε f ϕ20 /(ηa0 ), time t0 = a0 /U0 , force F0 = a0 ηU0 , and mass m0 = a20 η/U0 .
The normalized equations are written as:
 2
∗ e∗ 
F DEP = 2πa∗ Re[K (ω)]∇∗ E  (17)

F ∗d = 6πa∗ (u∗ − v∗ ) (18)

d2 r ∗p
m∗p ∗
= F DEP + F ∗d (19)
dt∗2
where ∗ denotes the dimensionless variables.

2.5. The Validation of the Accuracy of the Modified Stokes Formula

To verify the accuracy of the modified Stokes formula in consideration of near-field hydrodynamic
hindrance, the dimensionless hydrodynamic forces Fh∗ , Fs∗ and Fm∗ , respectively calculated by
integrating the hydrodynamic stress tensor, the traditional Stokes formula and the modified Stokes
formula, are compared. Three spherical particles (a = 5 µm) are suspended in a channel (L × W × H =
300 µm × 200 µm × 200 µm) with a pressure-driven flow (∆p = 1 Pa) along the length direction.
The three particles are distributed on the plane parallel to the flow direction, as shown in Figure 2a,
where d is the distance between the particle center and the origin. The dependences of the
hydrodynamic forces on the ratio of the distance d and the particle radius a of the three particles
are shown in Figure 2b–d. As we can see, when the particles get closer to each other, the traditional
Stokes formula is not applicable for calculating the hydrodynamic force, while the modified Stokes
formula can describe the hydrodynamic hindrance accurately. In this paper, the modified Stokes
formula is able to calculate the hydrodynamic forces of dense particles.
dependences of the hydrodynamic forces on the ratio of the distance d and the particle radius a of
the three particles are shown in Figure 2b–d. As we can see, when the particles get closer to each
other, the traditional Stokes formula is not applicable for calculating the hydrodynamic force, while
the modified Stokes formula can describe the hydrodynamic hindrance accurately. In this paper,
Micromachines
the modified 2017, 8, 26 formula is able to calculate the hydrodynamic forces of dense particles.
Stokes 7 of 16

Figure 2. (a) The distribution of three particles; (b–d) the dimensionless hydrodynamic forces versus the
Figure 2. (a) The distribution of three particles; (b–d) the∗dimensionless hydrodynamic forces versus
ratio of the distance and the particle radius. Fh∗ , Fs∗ and Fm ∗are the hydrodynamic forces, respectively
the ratio ofby
calculated theintegrating
distance and
thethe particle radius.
hydrodynamic Fh∗tensor,
stress , Fs the Fm∗ are the
andtraditional hydrodynamic
Stokes formula and forces,
the
respectively
modified calculated
Stokes formula. by integrating the hydrodynamic stress tensor, the traditional Stokes
formula and the modified Stokes formula.
3. Numerical Examples and Discussions
3. Numerical Examples and Discussions
The fluid and particles in the present example were water and polystyrene beads, respectively.
The fluidof
The densities andtheparticles
particles in were
the present
the same example
as thewere water
fluid, ρ =and103polystyrene
kg/m3 ; thus, beads, respectively.
the gravity was
3 3
The densities of the particles were the same as the fluid, ρ = 10 kg/m
ignored. The permittivities and conductivities of the fluid were ε f = 78ε0 and σ f = 2 × 10 S/m, ; thus, the −
gravity3 was
ignored. Thewhere
respectively, permittivities
ε0 = 8.854 and× 10 − 12
conductivities
F/m wasof thethe fluid wereinε af =
permittivity 78ε0 and
vacuum. f = 2 × 10
Theσ viscosity −3
ofS/m
the,
− 3
fluid was η = 10 Pa · s. The properties of the fluid were specified as the same in all examples of this
respectively, where ε 0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m was the permittivity in a vacuum. The viscosity of the
work. Two types of −3
particles with same permittivities but different conductivities ε p1 = ε p2 = 2.5ε0 ,
σfluid= was
2 × η−=4 10
10 S/m, Paσ⋅ s .=The
6 × properties
10 of theadopted
−3 S/m were fluid were
in thisspecified
work toasstudy
the same in all examples
the particle of
interactions.
p1 p2
this real
The work.
part Two
K R of typesthe C–M of factors
particles with
of the twosame
types permittivities
of particles versus but frequency
different conductivities
are shown in
ε p1 = ε3.
Figure p2 =
As2.5ε
we0 canσ psee,
, 1 = 2 in× the
−4
S/m, σ p 2 = 6 × 10
10 low-frequency −3
S/m for particle 1, K R = −0.4286
region, were adopted in this work tosuffering
< 0, study the a
particle interactions. The real part K R of the C–M factors Rof the two types of particles versus
negative DEP force, called an nDEP particle. For particle 2, K = 0.4 > 0, suffering a positive DEP
force, calledare
frequency a pDEP
shownparticle.
in Figure In this case,
3. As wethey
can are
see,called
in the dissimilar particlesregion,
low-frequency in thisfor
work. In the
particle 1,
transition region, particle 2 was rapidly transformed from a pDEP particle into an nDEP particle while
K R = −0.4286 < 0 , suffering a negative DEP force, called an nDEP particle. For particle 2,
particle 1 remained as an nDEP particle. In the high-frequency region, both types of particles were
nDEP particles as K R = −0.4759. Accordingly, they are called similar particles in the present example.
K R = 0.4 > 0 , suffering a positive DEP force, called a pDEP particle. In this case, they are called
dissimilar particles in this work. In the transition region, particle 2 was rapidly transformed from a
pDEP particle into an nDEP particle while particle 1 remained as an nDEP particle. In the
high-frequency region, both types of particles were nDEP particles as K R = −0.4759 . Accordingly,
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 8 of 16
they are called similar particles in the present example.

Thereal
Figure3.3.The
Figure realparts
partsofofthe
theC–M
C–Mfactors
factorsofofthe
thetwo
twotypes
typesofofparticles
particlesasasa afunction
functionofofthe
thefrequency.
frequency.
In the low-frequency region, particle 1 is an nDEP particle, while particle 2 is a pDEP particle.particle.
In the low-frequency region, particle 1 is an nDEP particle, while particle 2 is a pDEP In the
In the transition
transition region, particle
region, particle 2 is transformed
2 is transformed from aparticle
from a pDEP pDEP particle
into an into
nDEPanparticle.
nDEP particle.
In the
In the high-frequency
high-frequency region,region, both particles
both particles are nDEP are particles.
nDEP particles.

3.1.The
3.1. TheInteraction
InteractionofofFive
FiveParticles
Particleswith
withDifferent
DifferentConductivities
Conductivities
Five particles
Five particles with withthethesame
samesize (a∗ (=
size a∗1)= were positioned
1 ) were positionedon a plane perpendicular
on a plane to the uniform
perpendicular to the
field Ee0 = 0.02 
uniform AC field E0 =0.02 in the electrolyte. The initial locations of the five particles are listed in1.
AC in the electrolyte. The initial locations of the five particles are listed in Table
Four particles were symmetrically distributed about the central particle 1. The permittivities and
Table 1. Four particles were symmetrically distributed about the −3central particle 1. The
conductivities of the particles were ε pi = 2.5ε0 , i = 1, 5 and σ p1 = 6 × 10 S/m, σ p2 = σ p3 =−3 σ p4 =
permittivities−and conductivities of the particles were ε pi = 2.5ε 0 , i = 1,5 and σ p1 = 6 × 10 S/m ,
σ p5 = 2 × 10 4 S/m, respectively. When a uniform AC field with f = 103 Hz was applied, particle 1
3
p2 =
σbehaved σ p3 =
as σ a =
pDEP
p4 σ p5 = 2 × 10
particle
−4
S/m
while , respectively.
the other four When
particles a uniform
behaved AC
as field
nDEP with f
particles, = 10 Hz was
according to
Figure 3.particle
applied, The initial particle locations
1 behaved as a pDEP and particle
the final while
particle thechain
other arefour
shown in Figure
particles 4, where
behaved asthe blue
nDEP
and red colors denote pDEP and nDEP particles, respectively. As we can
particles, according to Figure 3. The initial particle locations and the final particle chain are shown see, the four nDEP particles
were
in attracted
Figure 4, where by the
the central
blue and pDEP
red particle and moved
colors denote pDEPtowards
and nDEP theparticles,
center. Finally the nDEP
respectively. Asparticles
we can
distributed
see, the foursymmetrically
nDEP particles around the pDEPby
were attracted particle as the pDEP
the central neighboring
particlenDEP
and particles
moved towards kept almost
the
the same distance from each other, and a cross-shaped particle chain
center. Finally the nDEP particles distributed symmetrically around the pDEP particle as the was formed.
The particle
neighboring nDEPtrajectories
particles keptare shown
almostinthe Figure
same5.distance
It can befrom seen each
that all particles
other, and amoved only on
cross-shaped
the initial
particle plane
chain wasinformed.
a perpendicular electric field. The central pDEP particle 1 did not move all the
timeThe dueparticle
to symmetrical
trajectoriesforces.
are The
shown nDEP particles
in Figure 5. 2Itand
can3be simultaneously suffered moved
seen that all particles attractiveonlyforces
on
from
the particle
initial plane 1 and
in arepulsive forces from
perpendicular each
electric other.
field. TheAscentral
a result,pDEP theyparticle
moved towards
1 did notparticle
move 1allwhile
the
moving
time dueaway from each other,
to symmetrical forces.as did
ThenDEPnDEPparticles
particles4 and
2 and 5. 3 simultaneously suffered attractive
forces from particle 1 and repulsive forces from each other. to
These in-plane motions and DEP behaviors can be connected Asa aspecial case
result, observed
they movedin towards
previous
studies.1 It
particle is well
while known
moving thatfrom
away similareachparticles
other, as form
did particle chains parallel
nDEP particles 4 and 5. to the electric field and
dissimilar
These in-plane motions and DEP behaviors can be connected tofield
particles form particle chains perpendicular to the electric [2]. However,
a special when the
case observed in
particles studies.
previous are initiallyIt is positioned
well known inthat
the special
similar situation
particles where the connecting
form particle line of the
chains parallel particles
to the electricis
perpendicular
field and dissimilar to theparticles
electric field,
formthe similar
particle particles
chains will repel each
perpendicular other
to the whilefield
electric dissimilar particles
[2]. However,
attract each other. Both the directions of the repulsive force and the attractive force are parallel to their
connecting line. In this present 3D model, any two particles are always in the special situation as the
electric field is perpendicular to the particle plane. As a result, the interactive forces of the particles are
always parallel to their initial plane and they can only move in the plane.
particles
particles is
is perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the electric
electric field,
field, the
the similar
similar particles
particles will
will repel
repel each
each other
other while
while
dissimilar
dissimilar particles
particles attract
attract each
each other.
other. Both
Both the
the directions
directions of
of the
the repulsive
repulsive force
force and
and the
the attractive
attractive
force
force are
are parallel
parallel to to their
their connecting
connecting line.
line. In
In this
this present
present 3D
3D model,
model, any
any two
two particles
particles are
are always
always inin
the
the special
special situation
situation as as the
the electric
electric field
field is
is perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the particle
particle plane.
plane. As
As aa result,
result, the
the
interactive
interactive forces
Micromachines forces of
of the
2017, 8, 26 the particles
particles are
are always
always parallel
parallel to
to their
their initial
initial plane
plane and
and they
they can
can only
only move
move in
9 of in
16
the
the plane.
plane.

Table
Table 1.
Table 1. The
The initial
initial locations
locations of the five
of the five particles.
particles.

Coordinate Particle
CoordinateParticle
Coordinate Particle
1 11 Particle
Particle
Particle2 22 Particle
Particle 3
Particle 33 Particle
Particle 44 4 Particle
Particle Particle 55 5
Particle
∗∗
xx 00 22 −2
−2 −2
−2 22
x∗ 0 2 −2 −2 2
y∗ yy∗∗ 0 00 3 33 333 −3
−3−3 −3
−3 −3
z∗ zz∗∗ 0 00 0 00 000 00 0 00 0

Figure
Figure 4.4. The
4. The DEP
DEP interaction
interaction of of five
five particles
particles initially
initially positioned
positioned on on aa plane
plane perpendicular
perpendicular to to an
an AC
AC
electric
electric field
field with
with
electric field with E0 =
e 

EE000.02 and f = 10ff ==Hz.
== 0.02
0.02 and
and 3 10 33
10 (a)Hz
HzThe initial particle locations; (b) the final cross-shaped
.. (a)
(a) The
The initial
initial particle
particle locations;
locations; (b)
(b) the
the final
final
particle chain.
cross-shaped The blue
particle and
chain. red
The colors
blue denote
cross-shaped particle chain. The blue and red colors
and red pDEP and nDEP
colors denote
denote pDEP
pDEPparticles,
and
and nDEPrespectively.
nDEP particles,
particles, respectively.
respectively.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. The
The particle
particle trajectories
trajectories andand the
the final
final positions
positions of
of five
five particles
particles in
in aa perpendicular
perpendicular AC
AC field
field
with EE
 = 0.02 f =
f = 10
10 33
Hz. HzHz
0E0=
0 =0.02
0.02and f = 10
with
with e and
and 3 .. The
The blue
blue and
and red
red colors
colors denote
denote pDEP
pDEP and
and nDEP
nDEP particles,
particles,
The blue and red colors denote pDEP and nDEP particles, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
The variations of the DEP interactive forces of particle 1 and particle 2 with time are shown in
Figure 6, where the blue color denotes particle 1 and the red color denotes particle 2. It can be seen
that the force of particle 1 was zero all the time due to the symmetrical distribution of the other four
particles, which is consistent with Figure 5, while the force of particle 2 increased rapidly with time and
finally reached a constant value when particle 2 came into contact with particle 1. The DEP interactive
forces of particles 3, 4, and 5 are similar to particle 2 and will not be presented.
Figure 6, variations
The where the of blue
thecolor
DEPdenotes particle
interactive 1 and
forces the red1 color
of particle denotes2particle
and particle 2. Itare
with time can be seen
shown in
that the6,force
Figure whereof particle
the blue1color
was zero all the
denotes time due
particle 1 andto the
the red
symmetrical distribution
color denotes particle of
2. the other
It can be four
seen
particles, which
that the force of is consistent
particle 1 waswith
zeroFigure
all the5,time
while
duethe
toforce of particle 2distribution
the symmetrical increased rapidly with time
of the other four
and finally
particles, reached
which a constant
is consistent withvalue when
Figure particle
5, while the2force
cameofinto contact
particle with particle
2 increased rapidly 1. with
The DEP
time
interactive
and finallyforces
reachedof particles 3, 4,value
a constant and 5when
are similar to particle
particle 2 came 2intoandcontact
will notwith
be presented.
particle 1. The DEP
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 10 of 16
interactive forces of particles 3, 4, and 5 are similar to particle 2 and will not be presented.

Figure 6. The DEP interactive forces of particle 1 and particle 2 with time. The force of particle 1 is
almost
Figure zero,
Figure 6. Thethe
6. The DEPforce
DEP of particle
interactive
interactive 2 increases
forces
forces of rapidly
of particle
particle 11 and
and asparticle
particle222with
particle get closer
with to particle
time. The
time. The force of
force 1,particle
of and finally
particle 11 is
is
reaches
almost a constant
almost zero,
zero, the value
the force
force of when
of the22particle
particle
particle increasesgroup
increases is formed.
rapidly
rapidly as particle
as particle 22 get
get closer
closer to
to particle
particle 1,
1, and
and finally
finally
reaches aa constant
reaches constant value
value when
when the
the particle
particle group
group is
is formed.
formed.
When the conductivities of particles 2 and 4 were changed to σ p 2 = σ p 4 = 6 × 10 −3 S/m and the
−3
to p 2 = particles
changed to σ σ p2 =σσp 4p4== 6 ×610 10S/m
When
rest of the conductivities
the parameters remainedof particles
the same 2 and
as in44 were
the changedexample,
previous 1, − and the
When the conductivities of particles 2 and were × 2, and3 S/m4 were
and
pDEP
the ofparticles
restrest the
of the and particles
parameters
parameters 3 andthe
remained
remained 5 the
were
same nDEP
sameasasinparticles
inthe as shown
theprevious
previous in Figure
example,
example, 3. The1,1,
particles
particles initial
2,
2, and
and locations
44 were
were
and
pDEP
pDEP the final particle
particles
particles and chain are
and particles
particles shown
33 and
and in Figure
55 were
were nDEP 7,
nDEP where as
particles
particles the blue and
as shown
shown red colors
in Figure
in Figure 3. The
3. denote
The initialpDEP
initial and
locations
locations
nDEP
and particles,
the final respectively.
particle chain areIt can
shownbe seen
in that
Figure the
7, two
where nDEP
the particles
blue and were
red respectively
colors
and the final particle chain are shown in Figure 7, where the blue and red colors denote pDEP and denote attracted
pDEP and
by
nDEP
nDEPtheparticles,
neighboring
particles, two pDEP
respectively.
respectively. ItItcanparticles,
canbebeseen moving
seenthat
thatthe
the towards
two
two nDEP
nDEP the regions
particles
particles between
were
were the attracted
respectively
respectively two pDEP
attracted
by
particles.
by the The pDEP
neighboring particles
two pDEP repelled each
particles, other
moving and, finally,
towards an
the alternately
regions arranged
between
the neighboring two pDEP particles, moving towards the regions between the two pDEP particles. particle
the two chain
pDEP
was
The formed.
particles.
pDEP The pDEPrepelled
particles particles repelled
each other each other and,
and, finally, finally, anarranged
an alternately alternately arranged
particle chainparticle
was formed.chain
was formed.

Figure 7. The
Figure 7. The DEP
DEP interaction
interaction of
of five
five particles
particles with
with same
same properties
properties and
and initial
initial positions
positions as
as Figure
Figure 4,
4,
−3
except
Figure the
7. conductivities
The DEP of
interaction particle
of five 2 and
particles particle
with 4
same
except the conductivities of particle 2 and particle 4 (σ =( σ = σ
properties = 6
and × 10
initial
p 2 σ p 4= 6 × 10
p2 p4
− S/m
3 S/m) are on aa plane
) are
positions on
as plane
Figure 4,
−3 3
p 2 =f σ =36Hz.
×f10
except the conductivities of particle 2 and particle 4E ( σ 10S/m
=(a) Hz)initial
. are on
Thea initial
plane
0 = 0.02
perpendicular
perpendicular totoa uniform
a uniform AC AC electric
electric field field
with ewith
E0 = 0.02 and =pand
410 The (a) positions of
the particles;
perpendicular
positions (b)
of the tothe final line-styled
a uniform
particles; ACfinal
(b) the particle
electric chain with
field particle
line-styled  = 0.02
E0chain
alternately arranged
and
with pDEP
alternately
3 and nDEP particles.
f = 10 Hz . (a) The
arranged pDEP initial
and
The
nDEPblue and red
particles. colors
The bluedenote
and pDEP
red and
colors nDEP
denote particles,
pDEP and respectively.
nDEP particles, respectively.
positions of the particles; (b) the final line-styled particle chain with alternately arranged pDEP and
nDEP particles. The blue and red colors denote pDEP and nDEP particles, respectively.
The particles’ trajectories are shown in Figure 8, where the blue and red colors denote pDEP and
nDEP particles, respectively. It can be seen that the central particle 1 did not move due to symmetrical
forces, while the nDEP particle 3 was attracted by two pDEP particles 1 and 2, moving towards the
region between them. Similarly, particle 5 moved towards the region between particles 1 and 4. Finally,
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 11 of 16

The particles’ trajectories are shown in Figure 8, where the blue and red colors denote pDEP
and nDEP particles, respectively. It can be seen that the central particle 1 did not move due to
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 11 of 16
symmetrical forces, while the nDEP particle 3 was attracted by two pDEP particles 1 and 2, moving
towards the region between them. Similarly, particle 5 moved towards the region between particles
1a line-styled
and 4. Finally, a line-styled
particle particleofchain
chain consisting consisting
alternating of alternating
arrangements arrangements
of nDEP and pDEP of nDEP was
particles and
pDEP particles was formed
formed on the initial plane. on the initial plane.

Figure 8. The particle

particletrajectories
trajectoriesand
andthe
the final
final positions
positions of five
of five particles
particles under
under a perpendicular
a perpendicular AC
AC field
field
with Ewith 
E0 = 0.02
e0 = 0.02 and f =and
10 3
f = 10 Hz
3 Hz. The .
blue The
and blue
red and
colors red colors
denote pDEPdenote
and pDEP
nDEP and nDEP
particles, particles,
respectively.
respectively.
3.2. The Interaction of a Large Number of Particles with the Same Size
3.2. The Interaction of a Large Number of Particles with the Same Size
One hundred particles with the same size a∗ = 1 were randomly distributed on a plane chip
filledOne
withhundred
electrolyte perpendicular
particles with the to size a∗AC
a uniform
same = 1electric field E
were randomly e0 = distributed
0.02, as shown on ainplane
Figure 9a.
chip
The electrical
filled properties
with electrolyte of the fluid were
perpendicular to athe same as
uniform ACthat of thefield
electric E 0 =0.02
previous examples,
, as shownwhile in50 particles
Figure 9a.
had the properties of ε p1 = 2.5ε0 , σ p1 = 6 × 10−3 S/m, and the other 50 particles had the properties of
The electrical properties−of the fluid were the same as that of the previous examples, while 50
ε p2 = 2.5ε0 , σ p2 = 2 × 10 4 S/m. When f = 103 Hz, the−particles with σ = 6 × 10−3 S/m behaved
particles had the properties of ε p1 = 2.5ε 0 , σ p1 = 6 × 10 3 S/m and the p1 other 50 particles had the
as pDEP particles while the others were nDEP particles, according , to Figure 3. As we can see in
3
properties
Figure 9c, similar repelled −4
= 2.5ε 0 , σ p 2 = 2 × 10 S/m
of ε p 2 particles each .
other When
and f = 10
dissimilar Hz , the
particles particles
attracted eachσother
with and, −finally,
p1 = 6 × 10
3
S/m
many particle chains with different styles and lengths were formed,
behaved as pDEP particles while the others were nDEP particles, according to Figure 3. As we can for example line-styled,
cross-shaped
see in Figure or 9c,asimilar
combination
particlesof both.
repelledEach
each particle
otherchain consisted of
and dissimilar alternately
particles arranged
attracted each nDEP
other
and pDEP particles. The directions and shapes of the particle chains
and, finally, many particle chains with different styles and lengths were formed, for example only depended on their initial
distributionscross-shaped
line-styled, and the electric or properties.
a combination of both. Each particle chain consisted of alternately
When the particle
arranged nDEP and pDEP particles. number increased to 200, half
The directions and of the particles
shapes had the
of the particle properties
chains of ε p1 =
only depended
2.5εtheir = 6× − 3 had the properties of ε p2 = 2.5ε0 , σ p2 = 2 × 10−4 S/m.
on 0 , σ p1
initial 10 S/m and
distributions andthetheother half
electric properties.
The initial f = 10 3
Whenpositions and the
the particle final particle
number increasedchainsto when
200, half of Hz the are shown in
particles Figure
had the 9b,d. It can be
properties of
seen that the particle chain
ε p1 = 2.5ε 0 , σ p1 = 6 × 10 S/m
−3 patterns
and have
the similar
other half styles
had but
the with
propertiesmore of complexity, and more branches
−4
ε p 2 = 2.5ε 0 , σ p 2 = 2 × 10 S/m .
in the particles chains are observed than in the case of 100 particles.
The initial positions and the final particle chains when f = 103 Hz are shown in Figure 9b,d. It can
be seen that the particle chain patterns have similar styles but with more complexity, and more
branches in the particles chains are observed than in the case of 100 particles.
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 12 of 16
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 12 of 16

Figure 9.
Figure The DEP
9. The DEP interaction
interaction ofof aa large
large number
number of
of randomly
randomly distributed
distributed particles
particles under
under aa
perpendicular field with E  = 0.02 and f = 3 3 Hz. (a) The initial positions of 100 dissimilar
10
perpendicular field with E0 0 = 0.02 and f = 10 Hz . (a) The initial positions of 100 dissimilar
e
particles; (b) the initial positions of 200 dissimilar particles; (c) particle chains of 100 dissimilar
particles; (b) the initial positions of 200 dissimilar particles; (c) particle chains of 100 dissimilar
particles; (d) particle chains of 200 dissimilar particles. The blue and red colors denote pDEP and nDEP
particles; (d) particle chains of 200 dissimilar particles. The blue and red colors denote pDEP and
particles, respectively.
nDEP particles, respectively.

3.3. The
3.3. The DEP
DEP Interaction
Interaction of
of Large
Large Numbers
Numbers of
of Particles
Particles on
on aa Bounded
Bounded Circular
Circular Plate
Plate Chip
Chip
The working
The working chambers
chambersof ofmicrofluidic
microfluidicchips chipsare
areallallconfined
confined spaces,
spaces, andandthethe
chipchipwall’s
wall’seffects on
effects
DEP
on DEPparticle
particle interactions
interactions cannot
cannot bebe neglected
neglectedininthe thecases
casesofofaa larger
larger number
number of dense particles.
of dense particles.
DEP particle interactions on a bounded circular plane
DEP particle interactions on a bounded circular plane chip are studied in this section, wherechip are studied in this section,
140
where 140 particles of uniform ∗
size a = 1 were randomly distributed on a circular plane chip
∗
particles of uniform size a =1 were randomly distributed on a circular plane chip with a diameter
with
∗ a diameter d∗ = 44. A uniform AC ∗ electric field E e∗ = 0.02 was applied perpendicularly
d = 44 . A uniform AC electric field E0 =0.02 was applied 0 perpendicularly to the plane chip, as
to the plane chip, as shown in Figure 10a. Half of the particles had the electrical properties of
shown in , σ Figure 10a. −3Half
S/m,of andthe particleshadhad the electrical properties of 2 ×ε p110=−2.5ε
4 S/m.,
ε p1 = 2.5ε 0 p1 = 6 × 10 the others the properties of ε p2 = 2.5ε0 , σ p2 = 0
−3 −4
σ p1 = 6cases
Three ×10 ofS/m frequencies, f = 10
, and the others 3
had Hz, 6
= 10 Hz,ofand
thef properties ε p 2f ==2.5ε
7
100 ,Hz, = 2 ×studied
σ p 2were 10 S/min. Three the present
cases
work. When f = 103 Hz, the two groups of particles experienced negative and positive DEP forces,
of frequencies, f = 103 Hz , f = 106 Hz , and f = 107 Hz , were studied in the present work. When
respectively, according to Figure 3. Various particle chains were formed with a more complex structure
f = 103 Hzwith
compared , theFigure
two groups
9. The of particles
scattered experienced
short negative
particle chains tendedandtopositive
aggregate DEPwithforces,
a much respectively,
larger size
according to Figure 3. Various particle chains were formed
and more branches due to the restriction of the boundary, as shown in Figure 10b. When f = with a more complex structure
106 Hz,
compared with Figure 9. The −
scattered
3 short particle chains tended
the particles with σ p1 = 6 × 10 S/m suffered much weaker positive DEP forces, while the others to aggregate with a much larger
size and more
still suffered branches
strong negativedueDEP to the restriction
forces. of the forces
The attractive boundary,betweenas shown
the pDEP in and
FigurenDEP 10b. When
particles
−3
became
6
f = 10 Hz , the particles
much weaker, while the with = 6 ×10
σ p1nDEP S/m still experienced strong repulsive forces between
particles suffered much weaker positive DEP forces, while
eachothers
the other. still
As asuffered
result, the particle
strong chainsDEP
negative wereforces.
more scattered
The attractive compared
forcestobetween
those at the low pDEP
frequency,and
as we can see in Figure 10c. When f = 10 7 Hz, all particles behaved as negative DEP particles. It can
nDEP particles became much weaker, while the nDEP particles still experienced strong repulsive
be expected
forces between thateach
all particles
other. Asexperienced
a result, the strong
particlerepulsive
chains were forces andscattered
more moved away comparedfrom each
to thoseother,
at
until all the repulsive forces of each particle reached a balance, 7 resulting in an almost uniform particle
low frequency, as we can see in Figure 10c. When f = 10 Hz , all particles behaved as negative
distribution, finally, as shown in Figure 10d. It was also found that the final particle distributions were
DEP particles. It can be expected that all particles experienced strong repulsive forces and moved
quite similar for different random distributions of particles.
away from each other, until all the repulsive forces of each particle reached a balance, resulting in
an almost uniform particle distribution, finally, as shown in Figure 10d. It was also found that the
final particle distributions were quite similar for different random distributions of particles.
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 13 of 16
Micromachines 2017, 8, 26 13 of 16

Figure 10.
Figure 10. The
The DEP
DEP interactions
interactions ofof randomly
randomly distributed
distributed particles onon aa bounded
bounded circular
circular plane
plane chip
chip
undera aperpendicular
under perpendicular AC AC
fieldfield
E ∗ =with
e∗ = 0.02
E 0.02 with different
different frequencies.
frequencies. (a) The (a)
initial The initial
random random
distribution
0 0
3 Hz; (c) the 3particle chains when f = 106 Hz;
of 140 particles;
distribution (b) particles;
of 140 the particle(b)chains f = 10when
whenchains
the particle f = 10 Hz ; (c) the particle chains when
(d) the uniform
6 distribution when f = 10 7 Hz. 7
f = 10 Hz ; (d) the uniform distribution when f = 10 Hz .

Particle
Particle chain
chain behaviors
behaviors of of different
different particle
particle sizes
sizes andand conductivities
conductivities were were also
also investigated
investigated in in
this work. One hundred particles were split into two groups (50, 50)
this work. One hundred particles were split into two groups (50, 50) and the particle properties and the particle properties were
specified as a1∗ = 1,asε p1 a=* =2.5ε
were specified × 10−, 3 S/m
ε p1== 62.5ε
1 0,, σ p1 σ p1 =and6 ×10a2∗ −=
3 2, ε p2 = 2.5ε0*, σ p2 = 2 × 10−4 S/m,
S/m and a2 = 2 , ε p 2 = 2.5ε0 ,
1 0
respectively,−4as shown in Figure 11a. The frequency of the electric field was f = 103 Hz. The rest
2 = parameters
σ pthe 2 × 10 S/m remained
of , respectively, as shown
the same as in thein Figure
previous 11a. The frequency
examples. The small of the electric
particles field was
behaved as
f = 103 DEP
positive Hz . The
particles
rest and
of the theparameters
large particles behaved
remained theassame
negativeas inDEP
theparticles
previous inexamples.
the presentThe example.
small
It can be seen
particles behavedthat as
thepositive
large particles experienced
DEP particles and large
the largerepulsive forces
particles betweenaseach
behaved other DEP
negative and
small attractive
particles in the forces
presentfrom the small
example. It canparticles.
be seenThe thatlarge particles
the large were repelled
particles experienced fromlarge
the boundary,
repulsive
while the small particles were attracted by the large particles and, finally,
forces between each other and small attractive forces from the small particles. The large particles long particle chains along
the wall were formed, as shown in Figure 11c. In the case of particles with random radii, from a ∗ =1
were repelled from the boundary, while the small particles were attracted by the large particles and,
to a∗ = 2,long
finally, 50 particles
particle with
chains thealong
properties
the wall = 2.5ε
of ε p1were 0 , σ p1 =
formed, × 10−3 S/m
as6 shown behaved
in Figure 11c.asInpositive
the case DEP
of
particles, and the other particles with ∗ the properties
∗ of ε = 2.5ε , σ = 2 × 10 −4 S/m behaved as
particles with random radii, from a = 1 to a = 2 , 50 particles p2 with
0 p2the properties of ε = 2.5ε ,
p1 0
negative DEP −3
particles, as shown in Figure 11b. The particles were more likely to form clusters than
σ p1 =chains,
long 6 ×10 asS/m shownbehaved
in Figure as positive
11d. DEP particles, and the other particles with the properties of
−4
ε p 2 = 2.5ε0 , σ p 2 = 2 × 10 S/m behaved as negative DEP particles, as shown in Figure 11b. The
particles were more likely to form clusters than long chains, as shown in Figure 11d.
Micromachines 2017,8,8,26
Micromachines2017, 26 14
14of
of16
16

Figure 11. The

Figure 11. The particle
particle chains
chains with
with different
differentparticle
particlesizes
sizesand
andconductivities
conductivitieswhen 1033 Hz..
whenf f == 10 Hz
(a) The initial particle positions of two different sizes, half of the particles with radius a∗ ∗= 1 and the
(a) The initial particle positions of two ∗different sizes, half of the particles with radius a = 1 and the
other half of the particles with radius a = ∗2; (b) the initial particle positions of random particle sizes
other half of the particles with radius a = 2 ; (b) the initial particle positions of random particle
from a∗ = 1 to∗ a∗ = 2; (c) the particle chains of two different sizes; (d) the particle chains of random
sizes from a = 1 to a∗ = 2 ; (c) the particle chains of two different sizes; (d) the particle chains of
particle sizes.
random particle sizes.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The DEP interactions of a large number of dense spherical particles on a plane perpendicular
The DEP interactions of a large number of dense spherical particles on a plane perpendicular
to a uniform AC field were studied by an iterative dipole moment (IDM) model in this work.
to a uniform AC field were studied by an iterative dipole moment (IDM) model in this work.
Numerical examples indicated that the IDM model is an effective method to predict DEP interaction
Numerical examples indicated that the IDM model is an effective method to predict DEP
behaviors of a large number of dense spherical particles in an electric field. Some novel phenomena
interaction behaviors of a large number of dense spherical particles in an electric field. Some novel
were found in the results and are consistent with the previous studies. When the particles are
phenomena were found in the results and are consistent with the previous studies. When the
initially positioned on a plane perpendicular to the electric field, they cannot move out of the plane.
particles are initially positioned on a plane perpendicular to the electric field, they cannot move out
Similar DEP spherical particles on a plane perpendicular to an electric field always repel each other,
of the plane. Similar DEP spherical particles on a plane perpendicular to an electric field always
and scatter away. A large number of dense particles in the bounded region eventually form a uniformly
repel each other, and scatter away. A large number of dense particles in the bounded region
distributed
eventually particle
form a pattern
uniformly(equidistant
distributedbetween every
particle two (equidistant
pattern particles) thatbetween
is almostevery
independent of the
two particles)
initial positions. Dissimilar DEP particles in a plane perpendicular to an electric field always
that is almost independent of the initial positions. Dissimilar DEP particles in a plane perpendicular attract
each
to another, forming
electric alternately
field always arranged
attract particle
each other, chains, alternately
forming clusters, or arranged
groups. The directions
particle andclusters,
chains, shapes
of the final particle chains depend on the particle sizes, number, electrical properties,
or groups. The directions and shapes of the final particle chains depend on the particle sizes, initial particle
distributions, and electric
number, electrical field initial
properties, frequencies.
particleAbove all, similar
distributions, andparticles
electricand
fielddissimilar DEPAbove
frequencies. particles
all,
can easily be transformed into each other via frequency modulation which can
similar particles and dissimilar DEP particles can easily be transformed into each other viabe an effective method
for particle modulation
frequency manipulation in applications
which of biology,
can be an effective chemistry,
method and micro-fabrications.
for particle manipulation in applications of
biology, chemistry,
Acknowledgments: and micro-fabrications.
Supported by National Science Foundation of China, No. 11572139.
Acknowledgments:
Author Contributions:Supported by National
J.W. conceived andScience
designedFoundation of China,
the numerical No. 11572139.
model; C.X. performed the numerical
simulation, analyzed the data, and wrote the paper; B.C. contributed analysis tools.
Author Contributions: J.W. conceived and designed the numerical model; C.X. performed the numerical
Conflicts Interest: The
of analyzed
simulation, authors
the data, anddeclare
wrote no
theconflict of interest.
paper; B.C. contributed analysis tools.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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