J. Biomechanws, 1976. Vol. 9. pp. 27-M. Pcrgamon Press.

Printed in GreatBr~ra~n

FATIGUE LIFE OF COMPACT BONE-I

EFFECTS OF STRESS AMPLITUDE,
TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY”?
D. R. CARTER and W. C. HAYES
Department of Applied Mechanics, Stanford University, Stanford,
California 94305, U.S.A.

Ah&act-Fatigue tests to failure of compact adult bovine bone specimens were conducted at five
stress amplitudes (65-108 MN/m’) and four temperature levels (21-45”C) which span the physiologic
range of bone temperature in the human foot. After testing, determinations were made of specimen
density and microstructure and fracture surfaces were examined by scanning electron microscopy. The
test results demonstrated highly significant (P < 001) negative correlations between fatigue life and
stress amplitude and between fatigue life and temperature. A highly significant positive correlation
between fatigue life and bone density was also shown. The microstructure studies indicated that primary
compact bone has a longer fatigue life than secondary Haversian bone. A multiple regression analysis
was used to derive an equation for fatigue life as a function of stress amplitude, temperature and
bone density. This statistically derived equation correlates well with previous fatigue studies of human
compact bone.

INTRODUCTION specimens to amplitude

The system is the structural framework of
the body. It must not only protect vital organs from (fatigue life). The resulting
accidental injury but also support the body tissues amplitude versus cycles to failure (or reversals
and facilitate movement. In fulfilling these tasks, bone
is subjected repeated or cyclic stresses.
stresses are generally required to cause material (Forrest,
fracture. Repeated everyday activi- Kennedy, 1963; Sandor, 1972).
ties or prolonged exercise, however, Evans and Lebow (1957) were the first to determine
roscopic damage 1970; Nash, 1966). The Rectangu-
normal remodeling response lar cross section specimens
maintain the structural integrity of subjected to fatigue
the bone (Nash, 1966; Todd et al., 1972; Simon et tests with a stress amplitude
al., 1972). if damage accumulates
repaired fatigue of bone may result
(Nash, 1966). Such fractures observed clini-
cally in the metatarsals, calcaneous, tibia, fibula,
femoral shaft and femoral neck (Morris and
staff, 1967; Griffiths fractures
often occur during prolonged exercise amplitude vs
distance running and are especially com- fatigue life (!&N curve) for specimens extracted from
mon in the metatarsals military human remora. A fatigue test was
(Krause and Thompson, Blicken- employed.
staff, 1967). In many cases, the patient may be un- examined the fatigue proper-
aware of the initiation of a fatigue crack until it is ties of human femoral compact bone specimens
well developed complete frac- rotating cantilever experiment. specimen sur-
ture. faces were kept wet by a wick from a
Fatigue is the progressive material un- reservoir. An S-N curve was generated
der cyclic or fluctuating loading,
materials Griffiths et
required to cause static Fatigue tests are al. (1971) studied the fatigue properties of the proxi-
usually conducted identical mal third of thirty-seven
simulate physiologic loadings. Based
* 17 1974.
t This was supported National Science on the test results it was concluded
Foundation through the Center for Materials Research fractures in the elderly may be fatigue fractures
Stanford University. walking.
27
28 D. R. CARTERand W. C. HAYES
Evans and Riolo (1970) examined the relation
between fatigue life and histology in adult human
compact bone. Specimens were extracted from unem-
balmed tibia and consisted principally of secondary
osteons, osteon remnants and interstitial lamellae.
After flexural fatigue tests at a stress amplitude of
345 MN/m’, frozen cross sections of the specimens
were taken near the fracture site and their areas deter-
mined. Using enlarged photomicrographs the area of
the section representing Haversian canals. resorption
areas. and blood vessels was determined and sub-
tracted from the total area to yield a “corrected break
area”. Significant positive correlations (P < @Ol) were
found between fatigue life and percent of osteonal
area plus fragments in the corrected break area. Sig-
nificant negative correlations were also found between
fatigue life and interstitial lamellar area in the cor-
rected break area. The authors stated that these
results suggest that osteons tend to increase bone
fatigue life while interstitial lamellae decrease it.
Previous investigations of bone fatigue ignored the
possible effect of temperature. However, thermal gra-
dients exist along the length of the limbs and temper-
atures in the hands and feet may vary over a large
range (Bazett, 1949). In cool environments, foot sur-
face temperature of 15°C for prolonged periods do
not result in permanent tissue damage (Speahnan,
1949). Foot skin temperatures of up to 43°C have
also been recorded in subjects walking briskly in a
warm environment (Robinson, 1949). The tempera-
ture gradients from the surface to the bone and deep
tissues of the hands and feet, however, are small
(Bazett, 1949). When needle thermocouples were used
to measure thermal gradients in hands with skin sur-
face temperatures near 18”C, Bazett et al. (1948) found
maximum deep tissue temperatures to be within 2°C
of the surface temperature. Similar deep tissue tem-
perature gradients are assumed to exist in the foot
(Bazett, 1949; Reader and Whyte, 1951). Thus, it may
be assumed that bone temperatures in the foot may
vary from about room temperature to a few degrees
above body core temperature.
The objective of this investigation was to examine
the effects of temperature. bone density, and micro-
structure on the fatigue life of compact bone when
tested throughout a range of stress amplitudes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Identical procedures were followed in the machin-
ing and storage of 140 bone specimens prior to test-
ing. The mid-diaphysis of fresh beef femora were cut
out with a band saw, each femur providing an
annulus of cortical bone approx. 5.7 cm long. Longi-
tudinal saw cuts through the annulus produced up
to ten pieces of bone which were roughly @95 x
095 x 5.7cm. These pieces were turned on a lathe
to 0.635 cm dia. cylinders and the length reduced to
4.45cm. A central waisted section was then made by
rotating each dowel1 shaped bone in the lathe and
using a cutting tool mounted on a rotating pivot of
the lathe toolpost (rotation radius = 1.27 cm). The tip
radius of the tool was approx. 05 mm and the feed
of the final finish was about 0*05mm per rev. The
specimens were kept cool and wet by dripping water
over them during all lathe work.
The final test specimens were therefore 4.45 cm long
with a 0635cm dia. and contained a central waisted
section of 0,475 cm dia. (Fig. 1). The specimen central
axis was parallel to the longitudinal axis of the femur.
Immediately after machining the specimens were
equilibrated in Ringer’s solution overnight. They were
then removed from solution and stored at -20°C
(Sedlin and Hirsch, 1966; Wall et al., 1970). After all
of the specimens had been stored, 120 specimens were
randomly assigned to the test groups under conside-
ration and kept at -20°C until testing. Five stress
amplitudes (65, 76, 86,97, 108 MN/m*) and four tem-
perature levels (21, 29. 37, 45°C) were examined with
six specimens allocated to each of the twenty test
groups. Prior to testing, each specimen was removed
from storage and equilibrated in water at the appro-
priate temperature.
The specimens were tested as rotating cantilevers
with a Budd RBF-200 rotating beam fatigue testing
machine (Fig. 2). Approximately 1.1 cm of the speci-
men on both ends was held by the machine collets.
Stress amplitudes in the waisted section were estab
lished by adjusting the bending moment applied to
the specimen by the machine. The bone samples were
rotated about their long axis at 125 cps and thereby
subjected to a fully reversed, constant amplitude cyc-
lic loading with zero mean stress. Testing proceeded
until complete failure occurred. A cycle counter on
the fatigue machine stopped when the specimens
broke, thus automatically recording the number of
cycles to failure. During testing, the temperature of
the bone was established and wetness assured using
a water recirculating pump (Braum Melsungen Type
851853) with a built-in temperature controller. A
small plastic chamber was used to enclose the speci-
men and a nozzle which sprayed the bone with water
was built into the top of the chamber. The flow rate
of water over the specimen was about 1 1. per mm.
The chamber served to collect the circulating water
and keep the local air temperature close to that of
the water. To estimate the bone surface temperature,
encapsulated temperature crystals were attached to
one bone specimen which was not in the test group.
This specimen was tested throughout the experimen-
tal temperature range and surface temperatures were
4.45 cm
.475cm 0
-4- ‘,
,655 cm
- b .2
7
2
9
F
Fig. 1. Dimensions of test specimens.
 Fatigue life of compact bone-1 29

found to be equal to that of the circulating fluid (+

1°C). In rotating cantilever tests. the stresses imposed Mean dry density I963 gm/cc
are maximum at the surface and decrease linearly to
zero at the specimen neutral axis. Failure generally
occurs at the specimen surface. Adequate control of
the specimen surface temperature, therefore. is more
critical than internal temperature levels.
After testing, cylindrical sections approximately one
centimeter long were cut with a diamond saw from
one end of each specimen away from the fracture site.
These sections were thoroughly dried in a desiccator
with phosphorous pentoxide for nineteen days. Six
of the samples were weighed on an analytical balance
TEMPERATURE (“c)
after 11, 15 and 19 days. The weight loss from the Fig. 3. Reversals to failure plotted against bone tempera-
11th to 15th day was about two per cent and from ture. Each datum point represents the mean fatigue life
the 15th to 19th day from zero to 05%. It was there- (+ S.E.) of thirty specimens (6 specimens at each of 5
fore assumed that the samples were completely dry stress amplitudes). The average stress amplitude was 86
after nineteen days. All of the samples were then MN/m2.
weighed and their diameters and lengths determined
The results of the experiment and this initial analy-
with a micrometer. The dry density of each specimen
sis indicated that the fatigue life of bone is signifi-
tested was estimated on the basis of these measure-
cantly dependent upon temperature as well as stress
ments.
amplitude. Figure 3 shows values of log 2N (2N = re-
Microstructure studies of several specimens were
versals to failure) plotted against bone temperature.
done by cutting away small cross sections of bone
Each datum point represents the mean of thirty test
near the fracture site. These samples were ultrasoni-
specimens (six specimens at each of five stress levels).
cally degreased in trichloroethylene, embedded in
These data suggest that a linear relationship exists
methylmethacrylate, and viewed with a reflected light
between log 2N and temperature in the physiologic
microscope. After ultrasonically degreasing with tri-
range of interest. In Fig. 4, values of log 2N are plot-
chloroethylene and gold coating the bone surface, frac-
ted against log B (a = stress amplitude). These data
ture surfaces were studied by scanning electron micro-
points represent the mean of twenty-four test speci-
=oPY. mens (six specimens at each of four temperatures). This
graph suggests that in bone, log 2N and log a are
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS linearly related. This relationship between stress and
fatigue life has also been shown to exist in many
The major results of the study are tabulated in engineering materials (Sandor, 1972).
Table 1. The mean fatigue lives (*SE.) are shown An analysis of covariance established there was no
for each of the twenty test groups. The initial phase statistically significant interaction between the tem-
of data analysis was restricted to the effects of stress perature effect and the stress effect. Therefore. the
amplitude and temperature on specimen fatigue life. data are consistent with the hypothesis that the slope
Since a random allocation scheme was used, vari-
ations in density or microstructure would manifest
themselves only as data scatter within the twenty test
groups examined. This scatter would not significantly
alter the relationships seen between the mean values
of each group.

Table 1. Summary of test results

‘” 60 70 60 so 100 II(

STRESS AMPLITUDE (MN/i+) (log scale)

Fig. 4. Reversals to failure plotted against stress amplitude.

Each datum point represents the mean fatigue life (+ SE.)
of 24 specimens (6 specimens at each of 4 temperatures).
The average temperature was 33°C.
30 D. R. CARTERand W. C. HAYES
1
I I
104 Id Id
REVERSALS To FAILURE (ba Sal*)
Fig. 5. Stress amplitude plotted against reversals to failure
for specimens at 45°C ( a~) and 21°C ( UU). Mean test
values (+ SE.) are shown as well as the statistically de-
rived S-N curves.
of the curve shown in Fig. 3 is independent of the
stress amplitude. Similarly, the slope of the curve in
Fig. 4 is temperature independent. These findings in-
dicate that the relationship between fatigue life, stress
amplitude, and temperature can be expressed as
log(2N) = ‘4 log f7 + BT+ c,
where 4. h and C are constants, 2N = reversals to
failure, rr = stress amplitude and T = temperature. A
multiple regression technique was used to fit the data
of this investigation in accordance with equation (1).
With stress given in MN/m2 and temperature in
degrees Centigrade, A, B and C were found to be:
A = - 7.415 (S.E. = 0.478). E = -00202 (S.E. =
0004), and C = 20042. Using these values with
equation (1) to estimate log 2N for any of the tested
specimens, the standard error of the estimate is 0412.
The regression coefficients A and B are significantly
different from zero (P < @Ol).
The S-N curves for specimens tested at 21 and at
45°C are shown in Fig. 5. Specimens tested at 29°C
and at 37°C resulted in S-N curves between these
two limits and thus the curves of Fig. 5 provide a
band of fatigue life values for compact bovine bone
in the temperature range examined. These fatigue
properties reflect cumulative structural damage in the
inert bone specimens. The test data, however, do not
account for in vivo bone remodeling which may act
to repair damage and prolong fatigue life. The curves
of Fig. 5 therefore represent lower bounds of in viva
bone fatigue resistance.
The statistically derived equation (1) which is illus-
trated for 45°C and 21°C in Fig. 5 does not account
for all parameters which might affect devitalized bone
fatigue life. Therefore, the actual fatigue life values
for each specimen deviate somewhat from the values
predicted by the equation. This variation from the
predicted value can be quantitatively defined by the
specimen residual.
SPECIMEN RESIDUAL = actual (log 2N)
- predicted (log 2N). (2)
Specimens failing at a lower number of cycles than
predicted by equation (1) would have a negative resi-
dual while specimens with strong fatigue resistance
would have positive residuals. Using this residual
value as a common indicator of fatigue resistance at
a particular temperature and stress amplitude, the
effects of density and microstructure were examined.
Figure 6 shows residual values plotted against bone
density for each of the specimens tested. A Pearson
moment correlation established that residual values
were significantly dependent on density (r = @483,
J P = O=OOl)with lower density specimens having less
resistance to fatigue (negative residuals).
Microscopic examination of transverse specimen
sections revealed two general histological types: pri-
mary compact bone and secondary Haversian bone.
The primary bone was characterized by a laminar
structure containing irregular primary osteons (Cur-
rey, 1959; Heit et al., 1965) (Fig. 7a). The Haversian
bone consisted of secondary osteons. osteon frag-
ments, and interstitial bone (Fig. 8a). In most mam-
mals, bone growth is achieved through a deposition
of primary bone tissue. This bone is subsequently
remodeled and replaced by secondary Haversian
(1)
bone (Heit et al., 1965; Enlow. 1962). The rate at which
this substitution occurs varies between species and
location in the skeletal system (Smith, 1960).
Microscopic examinations were made of five speci-
mens with the highest residuals (positive), five with
the lowest residuals (negative), and five with residual
values nearest to zero. The five specimens with the
lowest residuals (short fatigue life) were shown to
have a secondary Haversian microstructure. Of the
five specimens with the highest residuals. four had
a primary structure and one was mostly primary bone
with a small Haversian section. The five specimens
closest to their predicted fatigue life (zero residuals)
tended to have sections of both primary and second-
ary bone. Typical cross section photomicrographs for
these specimens with large positive and large negative
residuals are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.
The corresponding fracture surfaces as seen with elec-
tron microscopy are also shown.
The results shown in Fig. 6 suggest that log (2N)
varies linearly with respect to bone density. No inter-
action between this density effect and bone tempera-
ture or stress amplitude was apparent. Therefore,
Fig. 6. Fatigue resistance plotted against dry bone density.
Data points show deviations from the fatigue life predicted
by equation (1).
 Fig. 2. Test specimen in fatigue machine collets.

Fig. 7. (a) Cross section photomicrograph (10x ) of specimen with a long fatigue life compared
with prediction of equation (1) (specimen residual = + 0.816, density = 1 .999 g/cm). Specimen
shows primary bone structure. (b) SEM photomicrograph (20 x ) of corresponding fatigue fracture
surface.

Fig. 8. (a) Cross section photomicrograph (10 x) of specimen with a short fatigue life compared with
prediction of equation (1) (specimen residual = -0.855, density = 1 ,897 g/cm). Specimen shows
secondary Haversian bone structure. (b) SEM photomicrograph (20 ,: ) of corresponding fatigue
fracture surface.

(Fucityp. 30)
 Fatigue life of compact bone-1
equation (1) can be expanded to the form
log(2N) = H log u + JT + Kp + M, (3)
where H, J, K, M are constants, 2N = reversals to
failure, u = stress amplitude, T= temperature and
p = dry bone density. Again using multiple regression
analysis with stress in MN/m’. temperature in c”,
and density in g/cm3, H, J, K and M were found
to be: H = -7.837 (SE. = 0.425), J = -0.0213
(S.E. = 0@04), K = 4463 (SE. = 0.740) M = 12043.
Using these values with equation (3) the standard
error of the estimate for log 2N is 0360. Equation
(3) therefore provides a better estimate of specimen
fatigue life than does equation (1). The regression
coefficients H, J and K are significantly different from
zero (P < @Oi).
Using equation (3) an estimate of fatigue life for
each specimen was made as a function of stress ampli-
tude, temperature, and specimen density. New resi-
duals were then calculated as deviations from this pre-
diction. Thus the previous residuals were, in effect,
corrected to compensate for density variations. These
corrected residuals were used to assess whether the
increased fatigue resistance shown by primary bone
is simply due to increased density or whether the
structure of the bone itself provides increased fatigue
resistance. The microstructure of specimens with the
five highest and five lowest new residuals were exam-
ined. The five specimens with the greatest negative
corrected residuals proved to have secondary Haver-
sian structures while the five specimens with highest
positive corrected residuals (high fatigue resistance)
had primary structures. These results suggest that a
specimen with a primary structure will have a
longer fatigue life than one with a secondary Haver-
sian structure with the same density.
DISCUSSION
Testing conditions
In fatigue testing of metals, specimen geometry,
methods of preparation, and surface finish may in-
fluence the test results (Forrest, 1962). The machining
process can create small defects which tend to concen-
trate stresses and decrease fatigue life. This effect may
be less critical in fatigue testing of bone. Devitalized
bone is a composite material consisting of hydroxy-
apatite reinforced collagen. Fatigue tests with compo-
site engineering materials show that they are often
more damage tolerant than metals. Ultimate failure
depends more on general cumulative damage such as
fiber breaking, debonding and microcracking rather
than specific sites of damage initiation (Salkind. 1971).
In addition, bone contains many natural defects (vas-
cular channels, resorption cavities, and lacunae)
which may act to blunt the growth of cracks created
during machining (Currey, 1962; Swanson et al.,
1971). The chances of introducing a critical flaw
which would seriously affect fatigue life are therefore
reduced. Indeed, Swanson et al. (1971) found that a
wide range of surface finishes produced no significant
31
differences in the fatigue life of human compact bone
specimens.
Drying of compact bone specimens is known to
alter its static mechanical properties. Anticipating
that fatigue properties are also affected by drying the
test specimens were equilibrated in water before test-
ing and bathed in a water spray during testing. To
evaluate the necessity of circulating fluid over the
bone, twelve specimens of the original random pool
were tested at an ambient temperature of 21°C after
equilibration in water but without circulating water.
Six of these specimens were tested at a stress ampli-
tude of 108 MN/m’ and six with a stress amplitude
of 97 MN/m’. The mean fatigue lives (reversals to
failure) of these two groups was found to be approxi-
mately fifty per cent lower than specimens tested at
the same temperature under fully wet test conditions.
It has generally been assumed that the fatigue life
of devitalized compact bone is independent of the fre-
quency of loading (Evans, 1973). This assumption has
been shown to be true in most metals except at ex-
tremely high frequencies (Kennedy, 1963). However,
fatigue in polymer composites is considerably more
frequency dependent (SaIkind 1971). There may be
some effect of loading frequency in bone due to its
complex, composite structure. Definitive studies in
this area have not been made.
Temperature
In this investigation, the log of compact bone fati-
gue life was shown to vary linearly by approximately
a factor of three over the temperature range examined
(21--45”C), with higher temperatures resulting in de-
creased fatigue life (Fig. 3, Fig 5). An analogous rela-
tionship between fatigue life and temperature is seen
with most metals and composite materials (Kennedy,
1962; Salkind, 1971). Since no previous studies of the
effect of temperature on bone fatigue life have been
made, direct comparisons with other investigations
are not possible. However, these results seem consis-
tent with studies of temperature effects on other
mechanical properties of bone. Smith and Walmsley
(1959) showed that a linear relation exists between
bone bending modulus and temperature. In quasi-sta-
tic tests of compact bone specimens at temperatures
between 4.4 and 43.3°C higher temperatures resulted
in lower bending moduli. Bonfield and Li (1966)
examined the effect of temperature on the energy
absorbed to failure of compact bovine bone specimens
subjected to tensile impact. It was found that a maxi-
mum amount of energy was absorbed in the range
of zero to 25°C. As temperature was increased to 25,
100, 200 and 300°C. the energy absorbed to failure
was successively reduced. Bone is therefore weaker
in tensile impact at these higher temperatures. Bon-
field and Li (1968) also examined the effects of tem-
perature in quasi-static tensile tests of compact
bovine bone. It was found that increasing the tempera-
ture throughout a range of -58-9o”C caused a sig-
nificant reduction in the bone modulus of elasticity.
32 D. R. CARTERand W. C. Hans
The effect of temperature on bone fatigue life
shown in this investigation may have important prac-
tical implications. If a similar effect exists in humans,
maintaining reduced local temperatures in bone cycli-
cally stressed during prolonged exercise (e.g. the meta-
tarsals during hiking) may be helpful in preventing
fatigue fractures. Environmental conditions, footwear
and clothing design, and type of exercise are known
to affect deep tissue and bone temperature in the
limbs (Newburgh, 1949). A consideration of these fac-
tors may be appropriate in future clinical and epide-
miologic studies of fatigue fractures.
Density
Fatigue life of the test specimens was also found
to be significantly dependent on bone density. The
density correlation illustrated in Fig. 6 shows that
a six per cent increase in bone density (from 1.86
to 1.98 g/cm’) results in a threefold increase in fati-
gue life. Although no previous correlations between
density and fatigue life have been shown, this effect
is not surprising. Swanson et al. (1971) suggested that
a negative correlation exists between fatigue life and
age (hence, a positive density correlation according
to Atkinson and Weatherell, 1967) but were unable
to show statistical significance. Amtmann (1971)
showed that compact bone with a high density tends
to be stronger than lower density bone in quasi-static
compression tests. Wall et al. (1972) demonstrated
similar results for compact bone in tension.
The density correlation with fatigue life shown in
this investigation may be an important factor in un-
derstanding fatigue fracture in the femoral neck of
the elderly. Amtmann (1971) reported significant
reductions in bone density in the femora of elderly
individuals. The percentage of density lost was espe-
cially high in the proximal end of the femur, some-
times being as much as 37%. Considering the correla-
tion shown in Fig. 6, a marked reduction in bone
fatigue life in these individuals would be expected.
Microstructure
The preliminary microstructure studies suggest that
primary bone is more fatigue resistant than secondary
Haversian bone structure (Figs. 7.8). This finding is
consistent with other investigations which compared
the mechanical properties of these two histological
types. Wahnsley and Smith (1957) first suggested that
primary bone tissue is stronger than secondary
Haversian bone. Currey (1959) confirmed these. initial
observations with quasi-static tension tests of sixty-
four specimens extracted from oxen femora. Heft et
al. (1965) showed that fully mineralized primary
bovine bone is as strong or stronger than Haversian
bone in quasi-static compression tests. Saha (1973)
found the same result when bovine bone was tested
in tensile impact.
The results of this investigation do not necessarily
contradict the test results of Evans and Riolo (1970)
who found positive correlations between fatigue life
and per cent osteonal area. Evans and Riolo’s findings
were from a specimen population consisting entirely
of secondary Haversian bone. Test specimens in the
present investigation, however, included primary bone
tissue. secondary Haversian bone, and samples having
both primary and secondary areas. The microstruc-
ture findings of thjs investigation do not compare
osteonal bone to interstitial bone. but rather primary
bone structure to secondary Haversian structure.
Comparisons with human hone fatigue tests
Previous investigations of compact bone fatigue life
over a range of stress amplitudes were conducted by
King and Evans (1967) and Swanson et al. (1971) used
specimens extracted from fresh human femora and
stored at - 20°C while King and Evans used specimens
from embalmed human femora. Both tests were
conducted at room temperature.
The fatigue lives of the bovine specimens in the
present investigation were generally higher than those
found in either of the two previous studies. This is
probably due to the fact that the density of the bovine
femora used in this investigation was significantly
greater than that of the human femur. McElhaney,
Alem and Roberts (1970) determined the dry bone
density of 160 specimens extracted from human
femora. Although density varied significantly both
between bones and within different regions of the
same bone, the average dry density was found to be
1.85g/cm’. The bovine specimens tested in this in-
vestigation, however, had an average dry density of
1.983g/cm3. In view of the dependence of fatigue
life on density shown in the present investigation, it
is not surprising that the bovine femur specimens
were found to be more fatigue resistant than human
femur specimens.
In order to compare the results of this investigation
to those of Swanson et al. and King and Evans,. dif-
ferences in bone densities and test temperatures must
be considered (ignoring, in the first approximation,
other species differences). Assuming that the two pre-
vious studies were conducted at a temperature of
21°C using bone specimens with an average dry den-
sity of 1.85 g/cm3 (McElhaney et al., 1970), equation
(3)predicts an S-N curve which correlates well with the
data of King and Evans (1967) and Swanson et al.
(1971). The test data of these other two studies as
well as the prediction of their results based on equa-
tion (3) of this investigation are shown in Fig. 9.
SUMMARY
Fatigue tests to failure of compact adult bovine
bone specimens were conducted at five stress ampli-
tudes (65-108 MN/m2) and four temperature levels
(21-4SQ A multiple regression technique was used
to derive an equation for fatigue life as a function
of stress amplitude, temperature, and bone density.
This statistically derived equation correlates well with
fatigue studies of human compact bone.

REVERSALS TO FAIWRE (log SCdr)
Fig. 9. Comparison of the multiple regression results of
this investigation (equation 3) with data from previous
studies of human compact bone fatigue life.
A temperature decrease of 24°C was shown to in-
crease bone fatigue life by approximately a factor of
three. This result may be important in understanding
fatigue fractures in the extremities where local bone
temperatures may vary.
A six per cent increase in bone density was also
shown to produce approximately a threefold increase
in fatigue life. This result has obvious clinical implica-
tions especially in elderly or osteoporotic individuals.
Preliminary microstructure studies suggest that pri-
mary bone has greater fatigue resistance than second-
ary Haversian bone. Further studies in this area are
in progress.
Acknowledgements-The authors thank Arthur Leach.
Rosemarie Koch and Loren Anderson for their assistance
in specimen preparation and analysis. Professor Brad Efron
provided consultation on the statistical analysis. David J.
Schurman, M.D. and Drew Nelson also provided valuable
suggestions and comments.
REFERENCES
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Bazett, H. C., Love, L.. Newton. M.. Eisenberg, L.. Day,
R. and Forster, R., 11. (1948) Temperature changes in
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Bazett, H. C._ (1949) In Physiolology of Heat Regulation
and The Science of Clothing (Edited by Newburgh,
L. H.), p. 109. Saunders, Philadelphia. PA.
Bonfield, W. and Li. C. H. (1966) Deformation and fracture
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NOMENCLATURE
A, B. C regression constants of equation (1)
H, J. K, M regression constants of equation (3)
N loading cycles to fatigue failure
2N loading reversals to fatigue failure
T bone temperature (“C)
P dry bone density (g/cm3)
u stress amplitude (MN/m’).