THEME I The indigenous peoples and the Amerindians

1. Describe the migratory and settlement patterns of the indigenous peoples in the Caribbean up to the arrival
of the Spanish in 1492.

Theme 1: The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans

Historians believe that the earliest peoples to settle the Western Hemisphere did so between
15,000 to 20,000 years ago. They were a set of people that were nomadic: always on the go in
search of food and warmer climate. This is the reason, it is believed, they came across the Bering
Strait during the winter when it formed a land bridge connecting Asia to Alaska.

Among these groups of early settlers were the -

1. Incas of Peru

2. Aztecs of Mexico

3. Mayans of Yucatan Peninsula (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Northern Honduras and a part
of Southern Mexico)

4. Kalinagos and the Tainos who occupied the Venezuela and the Guianas.

The CXC syllabus requires us to study the last three groups: the Mayans, Kalinagos and the
Tainos. Because there was so much interaction between the Tainos and the Kalinagos, we will
examine them first.

We begin by tracing the path that they took to the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Continuous
rivalry between the two groups for land, women and food forced the docile Tainos to leave the
regions of South America and move upwards into the neighboring island of Trinidad. The
Kalinagos still followed them so some of the Tainos left Trinidad and continued into the Lesser
Antilles. Some remained so Trinidad was occupied by both Tainos and Kalinagos.

In time, the Kalinagos came to control the islands of the Lesser Antilles, for example Dominica
and St. Vincent while the Tainos who had fled further upwards came to control the Greater
Antilles, Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola and the Bahamas. Both groups shared the island of Puerto
Rico.

Now that we know what islands they settled on let us look at the areas on these islands that they
concentrated on.

The Tainos settled near the coasts or streams and rivers, for example Priestman's river in
Jamaica. Why?

(a) Fishing was an important source of food: protein

(b) They could easily get water for domestic purposes such as washing their utensils or bathing

(c) They could get water for their crops

(d) They could go swimming

(e) It provided an excellent look out point. From this vantage point they could see the Kalinagos
approaching and get ready to fight or run.

The Kalinagos settled near the coasts too. This is mainly because they were what we can call sea
rovers. The sea was like a highway to them. They used it to get to and from the various islands of
the Greater and Lesser Antilles where they conducted their raids. They were also excellent
fishermen.

We will now look at the political , economic and social organization of these two groups before
we move on to the Mayans.

2. Describe the social, political and economic practices of the indigenous peoples in the Americas up to 1492.

We know that the Mayans lived on the Central American mainland and that they chiefly
occupied the Yucatan Peninsula. Unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos they built most of their
settlement inland. Why?

1. They could get vast expanse of land to build their large and magnificent temples.

2. They had easy access to limestone for building.

3. There was an extensive trade network in the interior.

4. There was much fertile land for agriculture.

5. Rivers were located inland so they were also near water supply.

Political Organization

Of the three groups the Mayans were the most advanced. They built vast empires and
independent city states. As such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid system of government.
Each independent city state was ruled by a Halach Uinic. This was a hereditary position. It was
passed down from father to son only. His powers were wide. He was almost an absolute ruler. He
had the final say in all matters. He had various civil, military and religious duties to perform.

He designed all domestic policies and foreign affairs. Remember that we are dealing with a very
large area when compared to the Caribbean region occupied by the Tainos and Kalinagos. Belize
alone is twice the size of Jamaica.
The states were divided into villages which were ruled by batabs. There were all chosen from
the noble class so this post was also hereditary. They were to see to it that the laws and policies
were enforced.

Because the Mayans were constantly engaged in defending themselves from neighboring
invaders, the war chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the government. They were
however elected for three years. During their term of office they were not allowed to drink any
strong drink! They were responsible for providing and training soldiers.

Social Organization

Not surprisingly therefore the society was also organized along rigid class lines. These ranged
from the royal family, the nobles: those who held top ranking government positions as well as
the scribes, the priests, the merchant class, the farmers and craftsmen and the slaves. The Mayan
society was a complex one. They were very intelligent and therefore the society accommodated
these privileged people in the noble class. Usually though the astronomers and astrologers and
mathematicians were from the priesthood.

A list of the various occupations that existed will help us to understand the various groups of
people that made up the Mayan society.

1. Engineers

2. Architects

3. Priests

4. Teachers

5. Mathematicians

6. Astronomers

7. Scribes

8. Merchants

9. Traders

10. Farmers

11. Miners

12. Those who worked in the Forest industry

13. Craftsmen or artisans

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The Mayans were polytheistic. They believed in as many as 166 gods! They had too had a
number of myths to explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man.

They believed in:

 The forces of good and evil

 Life after death

 Heaven and hell

 The underworld

 There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an evil life

 There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life.

 Confessing to the priest on one's death bed.

 Offering human sacrifices to the gods, especially virgin girls!

 Using incense in the process of communicating with the gods

 Having birthday festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods

 Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)

Gender Relations

In Mayan society, the women played a subservient role. Mayan women were not allowed to
drink at functions. They were supposed to take their drunken husbands home!

They could not hold public office. Their main functions were child bearers and home makers. In
fact, a Mayan man could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any children.

They were also given specific roles. They worked to pay the tribute tax. Weaving and pottery
were done exclusively by the women.

There were more recreational activities that the men were allowed to participate in. for example
there was only one dance in which the men and women were allowed to dance together. All other
dances were done by the men together. The men also participated in bow and arrow contests.
What were the MAIN activities that they did to produce their basic needs?

1. Trade

They traded within the mainland. They traded by land and sea. There was a day set aside for
market day and there established market centers. The highlands had goods that the lowlands did
not have. They used the rivers and the long coastline as sea routes to get from one city state to
another. This way too, they could carry a large volume of goods in the large canoes that they
built instead of a limited amount on their heads over long distances.

They also traded obsidian and flint. The flint was in great demand for fire purposes but was only
plenty in a certain area. Other precious metals and stones were traded to be used for ornamental
or religious purposes. For that same reason they traded feathers.

We already know that they traded with the people of the Greater Antilles.

The merchants and traders were known as ppolms. They were often used as and suspected of
being spies who carried information from one city to another.

2. Farming

They practiced slash and burn, terracing and raised field farming techniques. They grew a wider
variety of crops to include starch and vegetables. Maize (corn) was also their favourite starch.
Among the list of foods, we find squash, pumpkin and of course cacao. They too had cotton,
cassava, papaya and sweet potatoes.

3. Hunting

The Tainos and Kalinagos only knew two animals. The wild forests of the Central American
mainland were the natural habitat of many animals such as a number of birds, deer, and the
jaguar. They too hunted the agouti.

4. Animal Husbandry

They reared a wide variety of animals in order to provide meat for their families and for sale in
the market. Examples of these are rabbits and the tapir.

5. Mining

This was very important to Mayan society and politics. There were large deposits of limestone to
be found along the Central American mainland. Using their slave labor they extracted huge
blocks of limestone for the construction of their cities, temples and pyramids.
How did they manage to earn the title of the most advanced civilization?

Technology

1. We will do engineering and architecture as a separate item since this was a very important
part of Mayan religion and society. Using their limestone and mortar the Mayans constructed the
following to create their magnificent empires:

-Corbelled arch

-Roads and bridges

-Causeways

-Massive temples with staircases for worship

-Entire cities with huge pyramids were constructed of stones, like Chichen Itza and Tikal.

-Large public buildings made of limestone and mortar

-Stone stelae with their history depicted on them

2. They were skilled in Mathematics

3. They practiced a form of writing known as hieroglyphics.

4. They had books made from the bark of trees.

5. They created a Calendar very similar to ours with 365 days in a year and leap as well!

6. They practiced astrology. They observed the stars and planets and used these to determine the
‘right' time to plant, reap and even marry!

7. They had three farming techniques to include the slash and burn method

-They had a form of currency. Cocoa beans was used for money

-They used irrigation methods

-They used dams and wells to ensure water supply

-They knew and used the art of dyeing

The Taino

Political

The Tainos had a simple system of government. The cacique was the leader. He belonged to a
special family. His post was hereditary. This means that it was passed down from father to son
throughout generations. In a Taino society a female could inherit the position if her father, the
cacique did not have a son. We know that there was a woman cacique ruling a province in
Hispaniola when Columbus and his men arrived on their first voyage to the Caribbean.

Each island was subdivided into provinces or what we would call communities. The cacique was
in charge of a province. He or she had several duties.

 Supreme judge

 Lawmaker - he made the laws and enforced them

 Chief priest

 Distribution of land

 Led ceremonies
  Fixed the day of worship and celebrations

There were very few laws. Firstly, the Tainos were a peaceful set of people who believed in and
practiced clan-cooperation and respect for elders. They worked and played together in harmony.
There were very few crimes.

The cacique was aided by a group of nobles known as nitayanos. They were to see to it that the
orders of the chief were carried out. Each village had a village leader. This person was to see to
the orderly day to day operations of the village. A number of elders were elected to the council
of elders. Their wisdom was sought when difficult decisions were to be made.

A cacique had many privileges:

1. He was allowed to have more than one wife. This would increase his chances of having a male
heir.

2. His house (bohio) was rectangular while all the others were round. His house was also the
largest.

3. He was given the best of the crop.

4. A specially carved seat (duho) was given to him. This was his symbol of authority. On it he
sat and dispensed justice or gave out the orders for the day.

5. He was not allowed to walk. He was carried about from place to place on a litter.

Social Organization

The Tainos were organized along family lines. A number of families make up a clan and the
clans made up the village and the villages formed the community.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The Tainos were polytheistic- they believed in many gods. They had a number of myths to
explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man. Their gods were represented
by zemis which they made form wood, bone, stone or cotton. Each household kept a zemi to
protect the family.

They believed in:

 The forces of good and evil

 Life after death

 Heaven (coyaba) and hell

  There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an evil life

 There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life.

 The priest was the only one who could communicate with the gods (zemis)

 Offering food and meat offerings to the gods

 Using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating with the gods

 Having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods

 Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)

 Offering prayers to the gods for healing, good harvest, protection and so on.

Customs

Every society has its own sets of customs and norms. This is what defines us and sets us apart
from other people and countries. The indigenous peoples were no different.

1. They flattened the children's forehead as a mark of beauty.

2. They were a pleasure loving people. They played ball game called batos, swam and did
wrestling.

3. Only men were allowed to smoke and drink

4. They got married early

5. Married men and women wore loincloth and cotton skirts respectively. The single people went
naked.

6. The most heinous crimes were theft and adultery for which the punishment was a slow and
painful death.

7. There was no private property, possession or wealth. Everything was owned collectively by
the members of the community. (Communally)
Gender relations

Women were a very important part of the Tainos society. Gender relation is most clearly seen in
the division and organization of labor. The women were responsible for the planting of the crops.
It was believed that the fertility of the woman would transfer to the crop and vice versa. If she
was barren, mother earth would transfer some of its fertility to her.

The women did the weaving so that the men and children could have loincloths and cotton arm
bands to wear. They were to care for the children and the rest of the family while the men were
away on hunting or fishing trips or out gathering food such as fruits.

The women were only invited to watch at wrestling matches and ball games. They were not
allowed to participate. They formed the cheering committee.

Production

These are the main activities that the Tainos did in their quest to provide food, ‘clothing' and
shelter for their people. They can be considered a step above the early hunters and gatherers.

Hunting

They hunted conies (utia/hutia) and birds with nets and noose that they made from fibres and
vines. They also hunted iguanas, agouti and snakes. They also went in search of and gathered
wild plants and the bark of certain trees as directed by their priests to be used for medicinal
purposes. In the hills of Trinidad and Jamaica for example a lot of wild fruits grew in abundance.
These were gleefully collected and added to the main menu.
Farming

The Tainos practiced subsistence farming. That is they did not produce and store a surplus. They
produced enough for the needs of the community. They practiced slash and burn agriculture. The
men did the hard work of clearing the land. They used wooden axes to chop the branches from
the trees and then set them on fire.

The women's duty was to do the actual planting. They planted roots, seeds and vegetables on
their small plots of land or conoucos. They used pointed wooden sticks to dig holes and drop the
corn grains in. corn or maize was their favorite starch. Then they covered them over with dirt.
The ashes from the burnt tree provided fertilizer. Aided by the children they watered the crops as
necessary. It was the children's duty to scare away birds from the newly planted seeds.

They grew a wide variety of crops such as:

1. Fruits: pineapples, guava, naseberry, cashew, soursop, papaya and grapefruit (the only citrus
known to them before the coming of the Europeans)

2. Cassava

3. Sweet potatoes

Fishing

They would go fishing in the dug out canoes that they made. They used nets made of vegetable
fibres, bone and turtle shell hooks and bone tipped harpoons. They had an ingenious method of
attaching the remora or sucking fish to the canoe by a thin line. The fish would then dart after the
remora hoping to eat it but would only succeed in getting itself sucked onto the powerful remora.
The fisherman would then pull up the remora, take off the fish and deposit the remora once more
in the water to wait for another victim.

Waterfowls were also caught by trickery. The Tainos would allow a number of calabashes to
float on the river. The waterfowls became used to these harmless objects and paid them no mind.
As soon as he was convinced that the fowls were relaxed, the Taino would place a calabash over
his head and quietly slip into the water unnoticed. After a few minutes he would grab a nearby
fowl by the legs, pull it under until it drowned and then put it in the bag that he carried with him.
They caught a wide variety of water animals such as: flying fish, shell fish, crabs and manatee.

Weaving

Hammocks were a favourite item. They were used as beds or just to ‘hang out' and catch the cool
breeze. They also did baskets from straw. These were used as containers for the fishermen's
catch.
Mining

The indigenous peoples did not place much value on gold. They used it mainly as ornaments.
The method of collecting gold was therefore very simple. They would dig a hole at the side of
the river bank and let the water flow through it. They would examine the silt that was left behind.
Any gold found was collected and given to those in charge of making decorative headdress for
the caciques, masks for religious ceremonies or nose rings and bracelets.

1. Pottery

2. Trading

Trading

Let us agree that trading would be limited. Why? First of all, they produced basically the same
things. Secondly, the Tainos' villages were constantly raided by the Kalinagos. Thirdly, they did
not engage in surplus production. They provided just enough for their own use. It was not safe to
venture too far out at sea where the Kalinagos ruled the ‘highway'.

Whatever trading took place was among the Tainos themselves. Different villages would contact
each other when there was a need. It is interesting to note that the Tainos of Jamaica did engage
in some amount of trading with the Mayans of Belize. If you follow on your map you will see
that a straight line connects Jamaica to Belize. This is the route that the logwood people followed
in the 17th century.

Technology

The Indigenous people lived in the Stone Age. They did not know iron. Their tools were
therefore very simple. Most people consider their techniques and methods backwards when
judged by modern methods.

1. The remora or sucking fish used in to catch fish

2. Bows and arrows used in hunting

3. Slash and burn agriculture

4. Fertilizer: ashes, animal and vegetable manure

5. Crude irrigation ditches

6. Crop rotation.
7. Fishing hooks made from bones

8. Fire used as a tool in canoe building

9. Dyeing

The Kalinago

Political Structure

This was not as rigid or as well defined as the Tainos. The position of chief or Ouboutou
(Ubutu) was not hereditary. It was NOT passed down from father to son. Instead, the chief was
elected on the basis of his prowess that is his bravery. As a result there was constant rivalry for
leadership. The leaders also changed frequently.

The chief's main duty was to organize the people in his community for hunting, fishing and war.
He had the most duties during war time. He was responsible for planning the raids. He chose the
captains of each canoe (piraga). A canoe could hold up to 50 persons! He shared out the prizes
or rewards to those who were successful in the hunting expeditions or the raids.

At the end of an expedition he could lose his position if someone proved to be braver than he
was. On their return home, that person would automatically replace him.

In peace time, the villages were ruled by the Tiubutuli Hauthe. He did not dispense justice that
was considered to be a personal affair. If someone did you wrong, you were expected to avenge
yourself. There were very few laws. The men were away too often on raids or hunting and
fishing expeditions. When they were in the village, they spent most of their time undergoing
warrior training.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The Kalinagos were polytheistic. They also believed in many gods. They believed in evil spirits
known as maboya. The priest had the power to pray to the gods to turn back evil.

They believed

 In the forces of evil.

 In life after death.

 In the existence of Heaven and hell.

 That there is punishment and reward in the afterlife.

  That those who were brave warriors went to a place where they were waited on by Tainos
slaves.

 That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where they became slaves to Tainos
masters.

 The priest or boyez was the only one who could communicate with the gods.

 In offering sacrifices to the gods especially when they went to sea.

 In using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating with the gods.

 In having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods.

 In keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods).

 In offering prayers to the gods for bravery.

Both the Tainos and the Kalinagos believed in nature and ancestor worship.

Gender relations

Women were also a very important part of the Kalinagos society. Gender relation is also most
clearly seen in the division and organization of labor. The women were needed for the planting
of the crops. It was believed that the fertility of the woman would transfer to the crop and vice
versa. If she was barren, mother earth would transfer some of its fertility to her.

They were to care for the children and the rest of the family while the men were away on their
raids, long hunting or fishing trips.

The women were only invited to watch at wrestling matches. They were not allowed to
participate. They formed the cheering committee. Men and women lived separate. The men
believed that they would become weak and be like ‘sissy' if they lived with the women. So the
men lived together in the carbet while the women and children lived by themselves. The boys
were then separated from their mothers. At age ten they joined the men in the carbet and began
to prepare for their manhood initiation ceremony.

Customs

1. Men and women lived separately.

2. Painting of the body to look fierce especially when going on raids.

3. They did not eat turtle. They thought it would make them slow and stupid.

4. They ate a lot of pepper. It was believed that this would make them fierce.
5. They flattened their foreheads from an early age. This was to make the arrow bounce off
should they get hit in the forehead during battle.

6. They often hung the skull and or bones of their victims in their houses like trophy.

7. All boys were required to undergo initiation test when they reached puberty.

8. They were scratched with an agouti claw and pepper rubbed in the wound. If they bore it
without flinching they were chosen to be a warrior. If they flinched, they would be numbered
among the priests.

Technology

1. Poisonous bow and arrow

2. Weaving straw baskets

3. Explain the relationship between the main art forms and the beliefs and technology of the indigenous
peoples.

Interaction

We know that much of the interaction between the Tainos and the Kalinagos was hostile and
involved violence, bloodshed and death. Through this constant warfare the Kalinagos obtained
Tainos as prisoners and they were used as slaves.

They also captured some of the women and used them as their wives or took away their parts of
their land occupied it as we see in Trinidad and Puerto Rico. In instances such as these the
people in these territories spoke a mixture of Arawak and Carib language. There was also a
mixing of cultures in the diet since the women were the ones who prepared the food. It is also
said that the Tainos on these two islands were not as docile as the others and that in fact they
were quite hostile.

Children born out of this force union also helped in the interaction. Some Kalinagos came to
have Tainos name and so on. The cultivation of food crops also increased as more and more
Taino women were captured and brought to live with the Kalinagos.

4. Explain the factors that led to Columbus’ voyages

. (God, Gold, Glory).

The Motives for the Voyages from Europe

While the Mayans, Kalinagos and Tainos were busy with their own lives the people in Europe
were just emerging out of the Dark Ages. They had just gone through a period known as the
Renaissance. That is a French word which means the rebirth of learning. Essentially then they
were on a quest for knowledge which would lead to development and progress.

How did this quest for knowledge lead them to the New World?

The quest for knowledge involved the exploration of their world. During the Dark Ages, it was
believed and taught that the earth was flat and that if you went too far in the ocean, you would
actually fall off! When the light of the Renaissance dawned on them, more and more people
began to believe that the earth was round and not flat. They had to produce tangible proof. That
could only be done by sailing to ‘the other side'. But there were other factors as well.

We will remember these by calling them the FOUR Gs

1. God

2. Goods

3. Gold

4. Glory

1. God

In the fifteenth century, all of Europe was Christian except for small parts in the south east and
south west which were held by people of the Muslim faith. The Muslims controlled a large
portion of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere, from Africa in the west all the way around
to western Asia.

There was much rivalry between these two religions to see who could gain the most converts. So
far, the Muslims were leading. This angered the Christians. As a result they held crusades
against each other.

The Christians in Europe were eager to discover new lands where they hoped to find heathens
that they could convert to Christianity and increase the membership of their religion as the
Muslims had done in the East.

2. Goods

Many merchants in Europe had more than a religious reason for hating the Muslims. The Arab
lands formed a barrier between Europe and the East for example, India. How? These Arabs were
Muslims. They charged the Europeans high taxes to pass through their territory to get to the East
Indies. It is even said that the route was dangerous because zealous Muslims often attacked,
raided and killed traders as they passed through the area. The Europeans needed the spice to
preserve their meat to last them through the long winters when the animals go into hibernation
and a fresh catch is not possible. What they needed was a direct route by sea (transoceanic)
that they control.
(a) This would be less dangerous

(b) The goods would be cheaper since they would not have to pay any taxes to use the sea

(c) They would make more profits

(d) They could carry far more in a ship than they could on camels' back through the Middle East

3. Gold

The Europeans also hoped to find gold and other precious minerals on the other side of the
world. This would make them more powerful.

4. Glory

Who would be the first to discover this new trade route by sea? This required exploration by
brave sailors willing to risk their lives and their reputation, but whoever did it would certainly be
famous! They would be richly rewarded by the King and Queen of their country. They would go
down in history forever! They would have helped to shape the course of history for the entire
Europe. What a glory that would be.

The Portuguese started the race. With the help of Prince Henry the Navigator, prince of
Portugal who had built a library and an observatory at Sagres, they began intensive research and
exploration voyages.

Later on, an unknown Italian sailor, Christopher Columbus, would approach the Spanish King
and Queen and put forward a most unusual idea. If the earth was round and not flat then you
could go around it. If that is so, Columbus argued, he could reach east by sailing west! He could
even beat the Portuguese in finding the route.

Why did the King and Queen of Spain agree to sponsor an unknown Italian?

Even though the Portuguese had begun their exploration voyages from as early as 1420, they had
only reached the coast of West Africa. When Columbus approached King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella in 1492, the Portuguese had not yet found or reached India. The race was still wide open
and so far Spain would be the second competitor. That meant that they had a good chance of
beating the Portuguese. Besides, if Columbus ‘found' land in the west, Spain would become the
sole owner because the Portuguese were exploring from the East. She would have a new
overseas empire. She could trade exclusively with them and make huge profits. She would
become a super power in Europe. She was a staunch catholic nation. She could make literally
thousands of new coverts to her religion with very little effort. This proved to be so true.

They signed an agreement with the Italian sailor. It stipulated Columbus would get one tenth of
all the wealth and trade. He would get the title of Viceroy of all lands discovered while all the
lands would be colonized and controlled by Spain.
The regents gave Columbus their blessings as well as the equipment, crew and financing that he
needed to set out on what would be the first of four voyages to the New World.

What new developments made these voyages possible?

1. Improved compass

2. Improvement in shipbuilding. New types of ships were built in the 14th and 15th centuries. The
steering was improved. Instead of two steering oars there was a rudder at the stern. An extra mast
was added to make the ship go faster. The main sails were no longer triangular but square.

3. Improvement in cartography- map making. Maps were now more accurate as they included
territories in the east.

4. The development of gun powder meant that more people would be willing to go on long sea
voyages since they could better defend themselves.

5. Assess the impact of the Europeans on the indigenous peoples up to 1600.

Effects on the New world

In order to assess the effects on the New World we will critically examine the interaction of the
two groups: the Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans.

The Arrival of the Spanish and with it a new way of doing things

The Spaniards believed that their culture and way of life was superior to that of the Indigenous
Peoples that they conquered. Therefore they set about to establish their way of life. They seemed
to think that the Indigenous Peoples should feel honored to adopt this way of life. As a result
they did not exercise much tolerance or patience when dealing with the natives. In fact, they felt
that their superior way of life and weapons justified their use of force as well as their obnoxious
and prejudiced behavior to these people.

Let us examine some of the changes or effects under these headings:

1. Trade

At first the Spaniards pretended to be friendly ‘visitors'. The island Tainos in particular began to
trade with them. Columbus was able to take back items to Spain as evidence that he had reached
new lands because of this trade.

2. New crops and animals introduced

The Spaniards introduced all citrus except the grapefruit which the Indigenous peoples already
had. They also introduced banana, grapes, sugar cane and so on. They also raised fowls
(chickens) pigs, cow, goats and even sheep. Thus the natives were introduced to a wider variety
of meat though we do not know for sure to what extent they actually ate these new foods.

3. New methods

The indigenous peoples were forcibly introduced to new ways of doing a number of things:

(a) The Spaniards used horses for transportation.

(b) The Spanish practiced surplus production. For example, they established haciendas or
ranches on which they reared cattle for its meat and hides to sell to passing ships.

(c) They erected large stone buildings such as government offices and churches. They also built
different types of houses using different materials and of Spanish or European architecture. The
entire landscape changed. Villages were rapidly converted into towns.

(d) They were forced to accept the new Spanish system of government. Their own political
system with the Chief and nobles ruling was totally ignored. In fact there were instances where
even the chief was put to work in the mines. The Spaniards showed no regard nor respect for
these people.

4. New Culture

A new language: Spanish replaced the many languages of the Indigenous Peoples. At first there
was a terrible language barrier. With time a new kind of patois developed. Later English, Dutch
and French would also be introduced as different illegal traders came to the Caribbean hoping to
‘get a piece of the pie'.

You will recall that majority of the indigenous people who were single went naked. They were
now introduced to new clothes much of which was not suitable for the tropical climate of the
Caribbean.

5. Genocide of the Indigenous Peoples

In a short time the natives became extinct. For example, in 1493, there were approximately
300,000 Tainos in Hispaniola. By the end of 1496, only three years later two thirds of them were
dead!

They were exterminated due to several reasons. The idle intruders played all sorts of deadly
games with the scared and defenseless natives. For example, they placed bets to see who could
chop off a Taino's head with one blow of the machete.

They were also killed by the thousands in battle with the Europeans. The Amerindians simple
weapons were no match for the Europeans' guns and cannons. To make matters worst, the
Indigenous Peoples were on foot while the Europeans were on horse back. The latter had a
distinct advantage with their long range weapons.

The newcomers realized that the natives were terrified of dogs. They used some vicious
bloodhounds to literally tear the indigenous peoples to pieces.

Some were killed in raids by the newcomers for food, land and women. One example of this was
in Hispaniola at La Navidad in 1493. They were overworked in the mines and on the ranches.
The natives were not used to this kind of strenuous work. Many of them died from exhaustion
and respiratory related illnesses.

6. Introduction of deadly diseases

The Spaniards did not only bring animals and plants with them across the Atlantic. They
introduced deadly diseases that the Indigenous Peoples had no immunity to nor cure for, such as
smallpox and measles. A small pox epidemic swept through different islands and the mainland
alike claiming many victims.

7. Enslavement

In 1502, the Governor of Hispaniola, Don Nicholas de Ovando instituted the Encomienda
System. It was intended to be a labor system but in practice it was a slave system. A number of
Indigenous Peoples were shared out to a Spanish land owner. He was supposed to provide food
and shelter for them and see to it that they were converted to Christianity. In return they were to
provide him with labor for his land.

That did not happen. The encomendero (master) overworked the natives either in the mines or on
his farm. They were underfed, ill-treated and not given adequate medical attention. They had to
produce enough to feed the encomendero and themselves. They also labored on roads, bridges
and massive buildings such as Churches.

Nicolás de Ovando

8. Rape and Sexual Relations

The intruders raped the Indigenous women. This was particularly rampant in the earlier period of
colonization when there were only a few women in the New World. They had not yet migrated in
large numbers. Sexual contact between the Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans led to the
creation of a new group of people known as ‘mestizos'.

9. Tax System

The natives were forced to pay taxes to the Europeans! All males 14 years and older were
required to pay a hawk's bell full of gold every three months. All others were required to pay 25
pounds of spun cotton or be subjected to several weeks of unpaid labor.
10. Destruction of Property

(a) The animals that the Spanish introduced roamed the area freely trampling the crops and food
supply of the natives. The lazy settlers were unwilling to provide the necessary fencing that
would keep the out of the plots and provision grounds.

(b) The intruders deliberately destroyed the gods and houses of the Indigenous People. This was
some sort of joke and game to them.

How did the Indigenous Peoples React to Spanish Colonization and Enslavement?

1. Maroonage
Some of the natives fled to the safety of the mountains, dens and caves. In forested and hilly
areas such as Jamaica, St. Vincent, Dominica and St. Lucia this was virtually easy. The
newcomers were not familiar with the terrain. They dare not risk their lives nor waste time and
money to seek for these runaways who might never be found.

2. Migration
This was more common in the Lesser Antilles where the islands are a little nearer to each other.
The Kalinagos in particular used their intimate knowledge of the area and their skill and
experience to travel to neighboring territories to seek refuge. A number of them left St. Vincent
and went to Belize where they formed several villages.(Garifunas.)

3. Attacks
The aggressive Kalinagos did not give up without a fight. They staged various surprise attacks
against the intruders so much so that the Spaniards were unable to effectively colonize the Lesser
Antilles. Later on when the English tried they met the same reception. The English and the
French were forced to share the island of St. Christopher (St. Kitts) as a defense strategy against
the Kalinagos. Even the usually peaceful Tainos became aggressive. In 1511 when the conquest
of Cuba began chief Hatuey resisted the process.

4. Amerindian co-operation
The natives realized that their only chance against the Europeans was to co-operate with each
other. On one such occasion they planned and executed the drowning of a Spanish nobleman,
Salzedo, who they had been ordered to carry across a river on their shoulders.

5. Suicide
The natives drank poisonous cassava juice. Others threw themselves headlong over cliffs to their
death rather than subject themselves to the cruelty of Spanish slavery. It is reported that mothers
also committed infanticide.

6. Destruction of Property
The natives learnt quickly from the Europeans. They too destroyed the property of their new
masters. They poisoned the water supply and uprooted crops that were not yet matured. They
also burnt the barns where the Europeans stored their food.
7. They refused to work
They were punished for this but if they succeeded in keeping the master hungry for a day or so
they felt justified.

6. Assess the impact of the indigenous peoples on the Europeans up to 1600.

Assessing the Results of Columbus' Voyages

New World Encounters: Clash of Cultures

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from the port of Palos in Spain with three ships: the
Pinta, the Nina and the flagship, the Santa Maria. On October 12th, after approximately six
weeks at sea, though he did not know it, he set foot for the first time on Caribbean soil. He
came ashore one of the many islands of the Bahamas, known to the indigenous peoples as
Guanahani. Columbus not only claimed it for Spain but audaciously renamed it San Salvador, in
honor of the Lord.

Columbus had not reached the Indies but his landing and subsequent claim of the Western
Hemisphere by Spain would set in motion a chain of events that would change not just the
Western Hemisphere but Africa and Europe forever.

Effects for Spain

1. She came to own a vast new empire. In fact by the Treaty of Tordesillas, Pope Alexander IV
divided the world into two in 1494. Spain was now the ‘legal' owner of the Western Hemisphere
EXCEPT Brazil while Portugal was acclaimed owner of the East and Brazil.

2. Needless to say she became a wealthy nation. By the sixteenth century, the Caribbean was
used as a base from which to explore the American mainland. Here, they discovered large
deposits of gold and other minerals that were extracted and sent to Spain in secured convoys.

3. Trade flourished between Spain and her colonies. She was able to get spices and other tropical
goods that could survive the journey to Spain. In return she sent and sold a variety of goods and
crops that was unknown to the indigenous peoples but could be grown in the Caribbean.

4. A large number of persons migrated from Spain to the New World. Many who were mere
commoners and unemployed in their hometown of Spain came to the New World and became
landowners, traders and so on. Others came by royal appointment to be officials of the new
Spanish system of government in the New World, for example: governors, viceroys and mayors.

5. She became the envy of Europe and would later be forced to engage in various wars in a futile
attempt to protect her empire.
6. The entire New World was forced to become Catholic. Spain sent out officials from the
Church and almost immediately the work of forced conversion began.

Effects for Europe

1. They gained new and important geographical information.

2. The old superstition was destroyed. This allowed for the migration of various people from all
over Europe to the New World and Africa.

3. Since quite a number of Europeans had migrated to the New World there was an increase in
the demand for European goods.

4. Three of the other European nations in particular did NOT accept the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Francis I King of France said" I should like to see the clause in Adam's will that excludes me
from a share of the world." The King of England and Holland not only agreed with him but they
joined in attacking Spain's monopoly of trade and colonies in the New World.