Advanced Materials

ENIE 611003

Wahyuaji NP
Dept. of Metallurgy & Materials Engineering. FTUI.

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Topic to Discuss
• Semiconductor
• Photovoltaic
• Energy storage
• Biomaterials
Semiconductors
Semiconductors
• Semiconductor, any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in electrical
conductivity between a conductor and an insulator.
• Semiconductors are employed in the manufacture of various kinds of electronic
devices, including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits
Band Structures of Solids
 Valence band - The energy levels filled by electrons in their lowest energy states.
 Conduction band - The unfilled energy levels into which electrons can be excited to provide
conductivity.
 Holes - Unfilled energy levels in the valence band. Because electrons move to fill these
holes, the holes move and produce a current.
 Hybridization - When valence and conduction bands are separated by an energy gap,
leading to the semiconductive behavior of silicon and germanium.
 Energy gap (Bandgap) - The energy between the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band that a charge carrier must obtain before it can transfer a charge.
Figure . Schematic of band structures for (a) metals, (b)
semiconductors, and (c) dielectrics or insulators. (Temperature
is 0 K.)
Conductivity of Metals and Alloys
 Mean free path - The average distance that electrons can move without being scattered by
other atoms.
 Temperature Effect - When the temperature of a metal increases, thermal energy causes
the atoms to vibrate
 Effect of Atomic Level Defects - Imperfections in crystal structures scatter electrons,
reducing the mobility and conductivity of the metal
 Matthiessen’s rule - The resistivity of a metallic material is given by the addition of a base
resistivity that accounts for the effect of temperature (ρT), and a temperature independent
term that reflects the effect of atomic level defects, including impurities forming solid
solutions (ρd).
 Effect of Processing and Strengthening
Figure . Movement of an electron through (a) a perfect
crystal, (b) a crystal heated to a high temperature, and (c) a
crystal containing atomic level defects. Scattering of the
electrons reduces the mobility and conductivity.
Figure . The effect of temperature on the electrical resistivity
of a metal with a perfect crystal structure. The slope of the
curve is the temperature resistivity coefficient.
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure . The electrical

resistivity of a metal is
composed of a constant
defect contribution ρd
and a variable
temperature
contribution ρT.
Figure . (a) the effect of solid-solution strengthening and cold
working on the electrical conductivity of copper, and (b) the
effect of addition of selected elements on the electrical
conductivity of copper.
Semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductor - A semiconductor in which properties are controlled by the
element or compound that makes the semiconductor and not by dopants or impurities.
 Extrinsic semiconductor - A semiconductor prepared by adding dopants, which determine
the number and type of charge carriers.
 Doping - Deliberate addition of controlled amounts of other elements to increase the
number of charge carriers in a semiconductor.
 Thermistor - A semiconductor device that is particularly sensitive to changes in
temperature, permitting it to serve as an accurate measure of temperature.
 Radiative recombination - Recombination of holes and electrons that leads to emission of
light; this occurs in direct bandgap materials.
Figure. When a voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the
electrons move through the conduction band, which the
electron holes move through the valence band in the
opposite direction.
Figure. When a dopant atom with a valence greater than four
is added to silicon, an extra electron is introduced and a donor
energy state is created. Now electrons are more easily
excited into the conduction band.
Figure. When a dopant atom with a valence of less than four is
substituted into the silicon structure, a hole is created in the
structure and an acceptor energy level is created just above
the valence band. Little energy is required to excite the holes
into motion.
Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic
• Photovoltaics is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics,
photochemistry, and electrochemistry.
• The photovoltaic effect is commercially utilized for electricity generation and as
photosensors.
• Photovoltaic cells are the main component that makes up a solar panel, while solar
panels are a vital component that makes up a solar system.
Photovoltaic
• When sunlight hit the cell, the photons in light excite some of the electrons in the
semiconductors to become electron-hole (negative-positive) pairs. Since there is an internal
electric field, these pairs are induced to separate.
• As a consequence, the electrons move to the negative electrode while the holes move to the
positive electrode. A conducting wire connects the negative electrode, the load, and the
positive electrode in series to form a circuit. As a result, an electric current is generated to
supply the external load.
Photovoltaic
• Some of materials used in photovoltaic application
• Silicon (monocrystalline, polycrystalline)
• CIGS
• CdTe
• Perovskite (metal halide perovskites)

Germany photovoltaic (PV) materials market, by material, 2014 – 2025 (USD Million)
Energy Storage
• Energy storage systems help to bridge the gap between power generation and demand and
are useful for systems with high variability or generation-demand mismatch.
• Two significant challenges result from the rapid introduction of renewable resources into the energy
mix.
• First, much of the capacity growth will be provided from solar and wind generators that have high variability.
• Second, the availability of renewable resources is also poorly matched with the power demand profile in a daily
cycle
Energy Storage
• Wind and solar power output can vary significantly by the minute, hour, and season.
• Wind speed varies due to weather patterns or diurnal effects.
• Likewise, solar power output will vary with storms, cloud passes, and ambient
temperature/wind.
Type of Energy Storage
• Thermal energy storage
• Example: Solar heat collected during the day is stored in hot molten salt tanks. Later, the hot molten
salt is used in a steam generator to drive turbines for making electricity on demand, and the cooled
molten salt is awaiting to be heated again to continue the cycle.
Type of Energy Storage
• Mechanical energy storage
• Example: Pumped storage stores electricity in the form of potential energy. The basic principle of
energy conversion is shown in Fig. 1. In pump mode (charging), electrical energy is taken from the
electrical grid to feed a motor that mechanically drives a pump. The water is pumped from the
lower basin into the upper basin. In the turbine mode (discharging), the water simply flows downhill
via gravity and drives a turbine. The turbine then drives mechanically the generator rotor and the
electrical energy returns to the electrical grid.
Type of Energy Storage
• Chemical energy storage
• Example: battery
• The major advantage of electrochemical energy storage (ECES) systems is the direct conversion of
chemical energy into electrical energy with high efficiency.
• Batteries are the most promising ECES technologies due to their wide range of energy density and
ease of transportation, unlike other power conversion devices; also, they can be easily integrated
with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind.
• Batteries are classified into two categories: (i) primary or nonrechargeable and (ii) secondary or
rechargeable.
• Currently, lead-acid, Li-ion, ni–Cd, Alkaline, and ni-metal hydride are the most promising and widely
used secondary batteries.
Lithium Battery
• Lithium–ion batteries are the most commonly used type of lithium batteries.
• Li-ion battery technology has attracted a great deal of attention due to the high energy
density, safe operation and cost-effective production of many devices.
Lithium Battery
• All lithium–ion batteries share a common Li anode, but there are several versions based on
the cathode material. Each of these different battery types is characterized by distinct
performance characteristics and is therefore used for different applications
Biomaterials
• A material intended to interface with biological systems to evaluate, treat, augment, or
replace any tissue, organ or function of the body (The Williams Dictionary of Biomaterials,
1999)

• [OR]

• A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to take a form which, alone or as part
of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components of living
systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure, in human or veterinary
medicine”(Williams, D. F. 2009. On the nature of biomaterials. Biomaterials, 30(30), p. 5897-
5909).
Biomaterials
• Polymeric biomaterials
• Bioceramics
• Metallic biomaterials
• Biocomposite
Biomaterials
Materials Advantages Disadvantages Applications
Metals
Titanium alloys High impact strength Low biocompatibility Joint replacement,
Cobalt -chromium High resistance to wear May corrode Bone plates and
alloys Ductile screws,
Stainless steel Dental root implant
Gold High conductivity Neuromuscular
Low mechanical stimulation
Platinum alloy strength, high cost

Ceramics
Alumina Good biocompatibility Brittle, Dental implant,
Zirconia Inert, corrosion Not resilient, Femoral head of hip
Carbon resistance replacement,
Strong in compression Coating of dental and
Biodegradable orthopedic implants
Drug delivery system
Calcium phosphates Degradation not
controllable
Biomaterials
Materials Advantages Disadvantages Applications
Polymers
Nylon, Low density Low mechanical Sutures,
Polyethylene, Easy to fabricate strength vascular graft,
Silicone, Deforms with time, hip socket, intraocular
Teflon, may degrade lenses
Dacron, Drug delivery system
Acrylates, (DDS)
PGA, PLA
Composites
Carbon-carbon Strong, Difficult to make, Joint implants
Ceramic-polymer less stiff than metals, Weak in tension Heart valve
Strong in
compression
General Criteria for materials selection
• Mechanical and chemicals properties
• No undersirable biological effects
carcinogenic, toxic, allergenic or immunogenic
• Possible to process, fabricate and sterilize with a good reproducibility
• Acceptable cost/benefit ratio
Deterioration of Biomaterials
• Corrossion
• Degradation
• Calcification
• Mechanical loading
• Combined
Biocompatibility
• Biocompatibility: The ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host
response in a specific application.
• Host response: the reaction of a living system to the presence of a material
Biocompatibility
• Based on the reaction of the tissue to the biomaterials, biomaterials are classified
into:
• A bioinert material is one that has minimal interaction with the surrounding tissues once it
has been implanted within the human body. Example: Stainless steel, alumina, UHMWPE.
• A bioactive material is one that interacts and forms a strong interface with the
surrounding tissues once it has been placed within the human body. Example:
hydroxyapatite, glass-ceramic.
• The term bioresorbable refers to a material that dissolves and is gradually replaced by
natural tissue once it has been implanted within the human body. Example: Tricalcium
phosphate, polylactic-polyglycolic acid copolymers.