International Association for Coastal Reservoirs

Coastal Reservoirs in
Earthquake-Prone Regions
- Towards Disaster Resilience Society
by

Prof. T. G. Sitharam, FASCE; D.Ge; FICE(UK)

Director, IIT Guwahati, Assam and President, IACRR
Senior Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, India
e-mail: tgs@iitg.ac.in or proftgs@gmail.com
UN: By 2025, more than 2/3 of the world
total population could be living in water
stressed conditions.
The World Average Annual
Precipitation
Distribution of population and water
resources
More people, more water & dams

5
 Water Storage
• Water storage is essential
– for irrigation, water supply and
hydropower and
– to provide a buffer for flood
management.
• A lot more is yet to be accomplished in
securing enough storage to combat
droughts and also manage floods in
many basins in developing countries.
11/16/2020 Prof. T G Sitharam ©
Urbanization = Most of people will live in cities
Megacities appear in coastal areas

Coastal areas will have the most severe water

shortage problem 9
Mismatched dams and cities

People are migrating to coastlines, but reservoirs are immobile

All reservoirs trap sediment from their catchment by 50%-100%
10
 Dams & Earthquakes
• Dams are often built in active earthquake areas
• Reservoirs can trigger earthquakes
• Some water supply structures are susceptible to
earthquake motion.
• Embankments and outlet towers respond to earthquake
vibrations. Shaking an unstable slope that has been
weakened after saturation by rises in ground water levels
may produce a landslide into the reservoir.
• The consequence of a dam or water supply failure is high.
• The effects of a dam failure on people and structures
downstream are dramatic and obvious. A more likely
example of earthquake damage would be loss of control of
the water supply.
Our planet is restless. We can never control its activities inside
and cannot control its vibrations…
 Why are Dams Often Built in Active
Earthquake Areas?
• Dams are usually built in valleys
• Valleys exist because active erosion is
taking place
• Active erosion implies there has been
recent uplift
• Under compressional tectonic force,
reverse or thrust faults produce uplift
• Reverse or thrust faults dip under the
upthrown block
• Therefore, many dams have an active
fault dipping under them
• Near field earthquakes – Large
velocity profile (directivity and Fling)
 Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes
• Large new reservoirs can trigger earthquakes. This is due to either:
• change in stress because of the weight of water, or more commonly
by
• increased groundwater pore pressure decreasing the effective
strength of the rock under the reservoir.
• For triggered earthquakes to occur, both mechanisms require that
the area is already under considerable tectonic stress.
• Reservoir triggered earthquakes are often referred to as reservoir
induced seismicity (RIS), but use of the term “induced” is now
becoming unfashionable. To many people it implies that the
reservoir caused the earthquake.
• The energy released in a reservoir triggered earthquake is normal
tectonic strain energy that has been prematurely released because
of the reservoir.
Causes of Failure of Dams
• Even though the failure of dams
caused by earthquakes is < 1%,
they still remain a serious threat
as they are capable to completely
break the dam with the energy
released from the event.
• Concerns about the seismic
safety of concrete dams have
been growing during recent
years, partly, because the
population at risk in locations
downstream of major dams
continues to expand and also
because it is increasingly evident
that the seismic design concepts
in use at the time most existing
dams were built were
inadequate.
 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030
 Sendai Framework was
the first major agreement
of the post-2015
development agenda and
provides Member States
with concrete actions to
protect development
gains from the risk of
disaster.
 The substantial reduction
of disaster risk and losses in
lives, livelihoods and health
and in the economic,
physical, social, cultural and
environmental assets of
persons, businesses,
communities and countries.
 Are Large Dams - Forever?
• Everything has its finite lifespan. Many dams’ structures
have an expected life of 50-100 years;
• Average yearly sedimentation rate = 1%;
• Nearly 800 dams have been removed in the US in the last
100 years.

17
 When all dams dead?
If the dam’s lifespan = 100 years, how many dams will we have?

Storage in km3

No dam left in the world in 2150!!! Where to drink? 18

 PM Nehru: Dams are
Temples of Modern India
in the 20th Century
What is our new temple in 21st Century?
 Large Dams in India
State – wise distribution of large dams (completed) in India [NRLD – 2017]

In 1947 < 300 large dams. > 50% - built between 1971 and 1989.

In 2019 - 5264 completed large dams and 437 large dams are under construction

Today, With more than 5700 large dams India ranks third
in the world in dam building, after USA and China.
Storing less than 10% of Average annual rainfall received in the country
 SOLUTIONS FOR AUGMENTING WATER RESOURCES

Inter-basin transfers
Inland Dams
/ River linking
NO MORE LARGE DAMS
• PRONE TO PROBLEMS AND CONTROVERSIES,
• LEGAL SYSTEM AND POLICY MAKING PROCEDURE
• COST

Ground Water

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION
Desalination
Wastewater
Plants
Recycling • HIGHLY CONCENTRATED SALT BRINE
COMMUNITY ACCEPTANCE AND • EMISSIONS
• COST / WATER INTO A COMMODITY
TRUST IN AUTHORITIES. 22
Coastal Reservoir: developing flood water lost to the sea

1st generation CR

Unit: 103km3

SEA 2nd generation CR

39,000km3
20 times more than demand
23
 Coastal Reservoir Vs Large dams
item Inland Reservoir Coastal Reservoir

Dam-site Limited (gorge) Unlimited (in the sea)

Dam design High pressure Low pressure but with

wave surge
Seepage By pressure By density difference
difference
Pollutant Land based Land-based + seawater

emigrant cost High No

Water supply By gravity By pump

24
 Coastal Reservoirs - Existing
Country Name Purpose
Netherlands Afsluitdijk in the Flood control
Ijsselmeer, 1932
India Thanneermukkom bund, Agriculture
1974
South Korea 1. Sihwa, 1994 Tidal energy
2. Saemanguem, 2010 Land reclamation and fresh
water
Hong Kong 1. Shek pik, 1968 Fresh water
2. Plover cove
3. High land
China 1. Qingcaosha, 2011 Fresh water
2. Chenhang, 1992
3. Baogang, 1985
Singapore Marina barrage, 2008 Fresh water
United Kingdom Cardiff Bay Barrage , 1987 Fresh water lake
Planning Stage: 1. Pluit Reservoir Revitalization Project, Jakarta, Indonesia
2. Kalpasar project, Gulf of Kambhat, Indian Water Project, Gujarat
3. New York , USA
11/16/2020 Prof. T G Sitharam ©
 Coastal Reservoirs - 2nd Generation

✓Convex water body with

curved and long barriers
✓By pass polluted water and
store clean water only; 1st generation

✓Minimum environ/social CR
Wet Lands
impacts
✓Wetland pretreatment nd
2 Gen
SEA

(optional) CR
Bypass polluted water
 Feasibility of 2nd generation CR
Quantity: ratio of water demand/availability = 2~5%

Water quality improvement:

1. Temporal separation;
2. Spatial Separation
3. Wetland pre-treatment

Cost effectiveness:
• without desalination;
• Without relocation cost

Sustainability and environmental impacts:

• No negative impact found from existing coastal reservoirs;
• Renewable if silted.
27
 Coastal Reservoir Technology 1: Soft Dam

Significantly reduce construction

cost for barrier and gates

28
 Coastal Reservoir Technology 2: SPP
Selection of best catchment and best water quality.
Protection of environment.
Pollution prevention.

Consequently water quality is

comparable with inland dams,
no first flush;
Environmental impacts are
minimum, no river flow
reduction, no cost to relocate
people.
29
 Shanghai’s experience
• In 2008, Qingcaosha coastal reservoir started its construction.
• From 2010, coastal reservoir starts to pump freshwater from the sea
without desalination.

30
 Coastal Reservoirs in the world

Pyongyang, North Korea (1986)

Seoul, South Korea (1994) Marina Barrage, Singapore (2008)

 Advantages of Coastal Reservoirs
• No harm to the river
basins or alteration to the
river course
• No disturbance to forest
cover or submergence of
land
• No physical displacement
of people, villages / towns
• Impounding on land –
reservoir triggered
seismicity – No such worry
• Agriculture activity can be
augmented
• Coastal erosion can be
minimized
• Ground water recharge due to
fresh water in estuarine areas
• Intrusion of saline water into
wells will reduce
• Freshwater dredging will
provide sand for construction
• Dams – seismic resistant

Prof. T G Sitharam ©
 Advantages of Coastal reservoir

• Solar energy
• Tidal energy at the wall
• Roadways over the sea wall
• Fresh water Fishing, Navigation and Tourism
• Real estate opportunities
• Sea wall - serves as deterrent to tidal corrosion
• Serves as deep water fishing harbor
• Increase in industrial activity

11/16/2020 Prof. T G Sitharam ©

 Cost comparison
Inland dams Desalination Wastewater Coastal
plant reuse Reservoir

Project discussed Traveston Sydney desal. West Qingcaosha in

Crossing dam Plant in 2010 Corridor Shanghai in
in QLD in Project in 2010
2007 QLD in 2008
Design life span 100 20 20 100
(year)
Total capital cost 1.6 1.83 2.7 3.7
(A$ billion)
Water supply 70 90 130 2600
(GL/year)
Capital cost (A$/kL) 0.23 1.0 1.0 0.01
Running cost 0.4 7.1 6.5 0.4
(A$/kL)
 Conclusions
• Singapore’s water experience shows that
freshwater and brackish water should be
developed, rather sewerage or seawater.
• China’s experience shows that inter-basin
water diversion should consider coastal
reservoirs. For very large river basin, wetland
pre-treatment may be needed.
• Korean experience shows that the 1st
generation CR may incur public opposition
and become a wastewater body.
• India’s experience shows CR are viable
• 2nd generation CR is cost effective,
environmental friendly, social acceptable,
and has high quality water.
Some of my Books and Journal
- Towards Disaster Resilience Society

by
Prof. T. G. Sitharam, FASCE, FICE(UK), D.GE., PEng. CEng
Director, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati and
President, Indian Society for Earthquake Technology (ISET)
Email: tgs@iitg.ac.in
37
 7th International Conference
on
RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING AND SOIL DYNAMICS (ICRAGEE)
July 12-15, 2021

CBRI, Roorkee

➢Chair: Prof. T G Sitharam INVITE YOU ALL TO INDIA

in July 2021 at Bangalore, INDIA
Bidding for 18th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering by India
• 17WCEE is postponed approximately
one year, in Sendai, Japan.
• ISET Is bidding for 18th WCEE to be held in
2024 at New Delhi
• ISET has already shown Interest
• Canada, France, India, Italy, New Zealand
• Received a letter from Cabinet mintser of
Science and Technology DR.
Harshavardhan Ji
• We have requested for funding from
MOES for 34 lakhs for bidding cost and
hold a booth during 17th WCEE
• By November 2020, venue for 18th WCEE
by the IAEEE committee
 Thanks to IIT ACB
and all of you
Nanjing, China

Questions ?
Prof. T G Sitharam ©
“STORE WATER AND SAVE FUTURE”

Thank you all…

Questions ?
Prof. T G Sitharam ©