MATERIALS

SCIENCE &
ENGINEERING

ELSEVIER Materials Science and Engineering A213 (1996) 103-114

A

An overview on the use of titanium in the aerospace industry

R.R. Boyer
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group Seattle, ~VA 98124, USA

Abstract

Titanium and titanium alloys are excellent candidates for aerospace applications owing to their high strength to weight ratio
and excellent corrosion resistance. Titanium usage is, however, strongly limited by its higher cost relative to competing materials,
primarily aluminum alloys and steels. Hence the advantages of using titanium must be balanced against this added cost. The
titanium alloys used for aerospace applications, some of the characteristics of these alloys, the rationale for utilizing them, and
some specific applications of different types of actual usage, and constraints, are discussed as an expansion of previous reviews
of fl alloy applications. [i,2]

Keywords: Aerospace applications: Airframe alloys; Aircraft engine alloys; Castings: Forgings: Supe~plastic forming

1. Titanium alloys and characteristics retained at room temperature. (Minor additions of

There are three titanium alloy types based on the
composition of the alloy and the resultant predominant
room temperature (RT) constituent phase(s), and each
of these families of alloys serves a specific role. The
alloy types (only conventional alloys are dealt with;
new systems, such as the aluminides will not be dis-
cussed) include ¢ and near-~ alloys, a/fl alloys and the
/3 alloys. Alpha is the low temperature allotrope of
titanium, and the microstructure of ~ and near-~ alloys
consists predominantly of the a-phase. The ~/fi alioys
are, for the most part, still mostly a at room tempera-
ture, but they do have more of the /?-l~hase, the high
temperature allotrope, than the former class of alloys.
The definition of/?-alloys is not fully agreed upon, but
in very general terms, they are capable of" retaining
100%/? when quenched from the/?-phase field. There is
some overlap in each of these "families" of alloys. Refs.
[3-5] contain more information on this basic titanium
metallurgy.
i.I. ~ and Near-c~ Alloys
There are two types of alloys in this category, the
commercially pure grades of titanium (with oxygen and
iron as the primary alloying elements) and those with
intentional additions of a-stabilizers, such as AI and
Sn. Some of these do contain minor additions of fl-sta-
bilizers, such as Mo and V, but there is very little fl
fl-phase stabilizers are often made to enhance the pro-
cessing characteristics and to permit greater manipula-
tion of the microstructure of the material.)
The commercially pure grades can be obtained with
minimum yield strengths from 170 to 480 MPa, with
the higher strength grades containing more oxygen and
iron. Their primary attributes are good formability,
with the formability decreasing as the strength in-
creases, and excellent corrosion resistance. Strengths
are comparable with the annealed 300 series stainless
steels, but with about a 40% decrease in density. The
commercially pure titanium alloys are not heat treat-
able, hence they exhibit good weldability.
The a and near-~ alloys (hereinafter referred to as
alloys) include alloys such as Ti-3AI-2.5V (Ti-3-2.5),
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn (Ti-5-2.5), T i - 8 A I - I M o - I V ( T i - 8 -
i - i ) and T i - 6 A I - 2 S n - 4 Z r - 2 M o (Ti-6-2-4-2S).
The "S" is added to the end of the composition for the
latter alloy to denote the Si addition. Minor Si addi-
tions, in the range of 0.1 to 0.25, and higher, enhance
the creep resistance of the high temperature alloys
[6-9]. Because of their mechanical properties retention
and creep resistance at elevated temperatures, x-alloys
are preferred for elevated temperature applications.
1.2. ~/fl Alloy
These alloys, which include Ti-6A1-4V (Ti-6-4),
Ti-6AI-6V-2Sn ( T i - 6 - 6 - 2 ) and T i - 6 A I - 2 S n - 4 Z r -
104 R R. Bo),er / Marerials Sczence a~zd Engineeri~g 4213 (I996) I03-114
6Mo ( T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 6 ) , are capable of somewhat higher
strengths than the near-:~ alloys, have good combina-
tions of properties, have a wide processing window,
which means that processing requirements are not as
stringent as for other alloy types, and, depending on the
alloy, are good for applications up to the range of
about 315 to 400 °C. They can be strengthened, usually
with a solution treatment below the t3 transus (the
minimum temperature at which the alloy consists of
100% /?-phase) to establish the hardenability, and a
subsequent age. The amount of strengthening which
can be achieved is a function of the alloy and section
thickness. Alloys with the lower fl-stabilizing contents,
such as Ti-6AI-4V, are highly weldable. As the fl-sta-
bilizer content increases, the hardenability increases but
welding becomes more difficult.
These alloys can provide a weight savings in place of
the lower strength aerospace type steels and aluminum
alloys, and have very superior corrosion resistance to
the aluminum alloys and low alloy steels.
I..?. /? Allots
This alloy class, which includes Ti-10V-2Fe-3A1
(Ti- 10-2-3), Ti- 15V-3Cr--3A1-3Sn (Ti-15-3),
Timetal 21S (Ti-15Mo-2.7Nb-3AI-0.2Si), and Ti-
3A1-SV-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (fl-C), is capable of being
heat treated to high strengths in excess of 1380 MPa.
They can be heat treated over a broad range of
strengths, permitting one to tailor the strength/fracture
toughness properties combination that is desired. They
generally have high stress corrosion resistance, with the
ratio of the stress corrosion threshold, K,~oo, to the
fracture toughness, K~¢, being in the range of 0.8 to 1.0
in 3.5% NaC1. Some of the/? alloys, such as T i - 1 0 - 2 -
3 [1.2,10-12] and fl-C [13-15] have excellent fatigue
properties, while others, such as Ti-15-3, have, in
general, poor fatigue properties relative to their
strengths. T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 is weldable, but electron beam
welding is recommended as plasma and tungsten inert
gas welding can result in poor ductility and toughness
[16]. Alloys such as Ti-15-3 and Beta-21S are readily
weldable, but precautions must be taken to assure good
joint properties.
Beta alloys offer fabrication advantages, particularly
for producing sheet, owing to their cold rolling capabil-
ities. Owing to the limitations in reductions which can
be achieved in ~//? alloys, they must be hand rolled,
which is a very labor intensive operation; the/? alloys,
on the contrary, can be strip roiled. In addition, for
hot-die or isothermal precisior~ forgings, alloys such as
Ti- 10-2-3 can be forged at lower temperatures, result-
ing in lower die costs and forging advantages for some
shapes.
Prior processing in terms of obtaining a given mi-
crostructure is not as important for the /? alloys as
solution treatment is normally done above the/? tran-
sus. This is not, however, the case with ~ and ~//? alloys
which may require careful processing to obtain the
correct microstructures for some of the more demand-
ing applications. The primary goals in working the /3
alloys are to achieve a fine recrystallized microstructure
(which can be challenging), The exception to this is
T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 , which is solution treated below the beta
transus, thus retaining some of the microstructural
effects of the prior working history [17]. Recent experi-
ence with the /?-alloys, however, indicates that the
metallurgy of these alloys is more complicated than it
first appears, and the processing steps in fabrication of
a component need to be carefully considered,
2. Primary reasons for using titanium alloys
The primary justifications for using titanium in the
aerospace industry are:
- Weight savings (primarily as a steel replacement)
- Space limitation (replace A1 alloys)
- Operating temperature (A1, Ni, steel alloys replace-
ment)
- Corrosion resistance (replace A1 and low alloy steels)
- Composite compatibility (replace A1 alloys)
Weight savings is the obvious one with titanium's
high strength-to-weight ratio. The lower density of tita-
nium compared with steel permits weight savings re-
placing steels even though they may be higher strength.
As the strength of titanium alloys is significantly higher
than A1 alloys, weight savings can be achieved in their
replacement in spite of the 60°,/0 higher density, assum-
ing that the component is not gage limited.
Titanium could also replace aluminum when the
operating temperature exceeds about 130 °C, which is
the normal maximum operating temperature for con-
ventional aluminum. These conditions exist, for exam-
ple, in the nacelle and auxiliary power unit (APU) areas
and wing anti-icing systems for airframe structures.
Steel and nickel-base alloys are obvious alternatives,
but they do have a density about 1.7 times that of
titanium.
Excellent examples of utilization of titanium because
of volume constraints are the landing gear beams on
the Boeing 747 and 757. The 747 beam is one of the
largest titanium forgings produced. The preferable ma-
terial for this application would have been an alu-
minum alloy, such as 7075, as the cost would be much
lower. However, to carry the required loads, the ma-
chined aluminum component would not fit within the
envelope of the wing. Steel could have been used, but it
would have been heavier owing to the higher density.
Corrosion resistance can be a very important issue.
The corrosion resistance of titanium is such that corro-
 R.R. Boyer / Materials Scieitce and Eizgineerh~g A217 (1996) 103-II4
sion protective coatings or paint are not required.
(Paint is applied when titanium comes into contact with
an aluminum or low alloy steel component to prevent
galvanic corrosion of the contact material.) Much of
the floor support structure under the galleys and lavato-
ries is in a very corrosive environment which dictates
the use of titanium to provide high structural durabil-
ity.
Polymer matrix composite (PMC) compatibility is
becoming a bigger issue with higher utilization of com-
posite structure on aircraft. The titanimn is galvanically
compatible with the carbon fibers in the composites,
whereas aluminum (and low alloy steels) and carbon
generate a significant galvanic potential. The selection
of titanium in these instances is related to the criticality
of the structure. There are corrosion protection systems
which are used to isolate aluminum from carbon com-
posites to preclude the corrosion problem, but the
integrity of the coating over the life of the airframe
must be taken into account. Titanium has also been
used with PMC structure due to its relatively good
match of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which
will be discussed more fully later.
As mentioned previously, cost is always an important
consideration. The raw material may cost anywhere
flom 3 to 10 times as much as steel or aluminum, and
the machining costs for titanium are generally signifi-
cantly higher than for the other materials (at least 10
times that to machine AI). Thus the benefits of using
titanium must outweigh the added cost.
3. Titanium Alloy Applications
Some of the more prominent aerospace applications
will be discussed. It is beyond the scope of this paper to
attempt to cover all the applications and emphasis will
be on US aircraft. Missile type applications are not
covered.
3.I. ~ Alloys
Commercially pure (CP) titanium, used in the an-
nealed condition, is used primarily for their formability
and corrosion resistance. The amaealed 300 series stain-
less steels have similar characteristics and are lower
cost, so the lower density of CP is the impetus for its
usage. It is used for non-structural applications requir-
ing the above mentioned traits. Common examples are
floor support structure in the galley and lavatory areas,
tubes or pipes in the lavatory system, clips and brack-
ets, and ducting for the anti-icing and environmental
control systems (ECS). The ECS ducts operate at tem-
peratures up to about 230 °C, which is too high for
aluminum alloys. Again, stainless steels could be used
but the CP offers about a 40% weight savings.
105
Ti-3AI-2.SV has one key application in the
aerospace industry, hydraulic tubing. It is used for high
pressure hydraulic lines, with operating pressures up to
about 28 MPa. It is used in sizes from 6.3 to 38 mm
O.D. It replaces 21-6-9 stainless steel tubing with
about a 40% weight savings. (Sandvik Special Metals
has recently developed some T i - 6 - 4 hydraulic tubing
which is under evaluation. The higher strength of Ti-
6-4 would permit reducing the wall thickness, enhanc-
ing the weight savings.) Since Ti-3-2.5 is strip
producible and easily rolled into foil, it is also used for
the fabrication of honeycomb core where strength
greater than that provided by CP is required. (Ti-6-4
is not strip producible, which makes T i - 6 - 4 foil very
expensive.)
Ti-5-2.5, which is also used in the annealed condi-
tion, is used for cryogenic applications as it retains
good fracture toughness and ductility down to cryo-
genic temperatures [18]. The primary use of this alloy
today is in the hydrogen side of the high pressure fuel
turbo-pump of the space shuttle.
T i - 8 - 1 - 1 is not a high usage alloy. It was once
considered for major airframe structure, but was
dropped owing to poor stress corrosion resistance. The
alloy's low density and high modulus (for a Ti alloy)
make it attractive for blades in turbine engines; it is
used for fan blades for military engines. It is also used
for tear straps on commercial airframes. (It is normally
used in the duplex annealed condition.)
Most of the US tonnage for the a-alloys (excluding
CP Ti) in the aerospace industry, is for elevated temper-
ature applications. They have good properties retention
and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. The pri-
mary alloy for these applications is T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 S , and
its chief consumer is the gas turbine engine industry. It
is used for rotating components such blades, discs and
rotors at temperatures up to about 540 °C. The RT
tensile strength is about 930 MPa. (When strength val-
ues are cited, it will refer to ultimate tensile strength
unless otherwise noted.) T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 S is used in the
high pressure compressor at temperatures too high for
Ti-6-4, above about 315°C for structural applica-
tions. In the latter compressor stages, where the temper-
ature is highest, titanium alloys are processed to obtain
the maximum creep resistance. Beyond this point,
about 540 °C, the temperatures are too high for tita-
nium, and Ni-based alloys are used owing to: (1) their
superior elevated temperature properties; (2) the con-
cern that the titanium will ignite and burn, and (3)
oxidation problems with the titanium - - the formation
of an oxygen-stabilized alpha-case or alpha-enrichment
on the surface that results in a substantial decrease in
ductility and fatigue strength. Titanium is used to
higher temperatures, up to --- 565 °C, for static compo-
nents such as compressor cases, brackets, exhaust gas
mixers, etc. As an example of this type of structure,
t06 R.R. Bo3"er ~ Materia/s Scie/zce atzd Eizgilzeedlzg A213 (1996) 103-114
Fig. 1 illustrates a cast T i - 6 - 4 intermediate case. Ti-
6 - 2 - 4 - 2 is just beginning to be used by airframe
producer~, in areas~uch as engire mounts and areas of
the exhaust system and exhaust impingement.
IMI has developed two high temperatu,'e alloys, IMI
829, Ti-5.5A1-3.5Sn-3Zr-1Nb-0.25Mo-0.3Si [19-
21]. which is used at operating tempgrature~up to
540 *C. and the newer IMI 834, Ti-5.SA1-4Sn-3.5Zr-
0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si-0.06C, which has a reported
maximum use temperature of 600 °C [21,22]. These
alloys are not being used by U.S. Engine manufactur-
ers, but they are being used by Rolls-Royce (RR),
which supplies engines to US a:rframe manufacturers.
The RB-211-535E4 engine, which powers the Boeing
757, uses IMI 829 in some of the compressor discs,
blades and spacers. IMI 829 is used in the fl-solution
treated and aged condition (minimum RT tensile
strength of 850 MPa). IMI 834 i:~ used in the RR Trent
800 for compressor discs in the last two stages of the
intermediate pressure compressor, and the first four
stages of the high pressure compressor. This alloy is
used with an :/fl solution treat and age at a minimum
RT tensile strength of 930 MPa.
Timer has developed high temperature ~.-al-
loy,Timetal-lI00, Ti-6AI-2.SSr:-4Zr-0.4Mo-0.4Si, a
modification of T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 S , which also has a
claimed use temperature of 600 °C [23].
Allison Gas Turbine Engines is actively pursuing the
alloy for higher thrust versions of their T406/
GMA3007/GMA2100 family of engines.
.3.2. ~.//3 Allo)'s
T i - 6 - 4 is the workhorse of t;'le titanium industry; it
accounts for about 60% of the total titanium produc-
Fig. 1 Casty T i - 6 A I - 4 V intermediate compressor case for the E J200
Eurofighter.
tion. It is a forgiving alloy to work with, is normally
used at a minimum tensile strength of 896 MPa, has
good fatigue and fracture properties (which can be
optimized through heat treatment) and is used in all
product forms including forgings, bar, castings, foil,
sheet, plate, extrusions, tubing and l~tsteners.
There are four common heat treatments used for
Ti-6-4. (1) Mill anneal (MA or A) - - this is the most
common heat treatment, with a strength of about
896 MPa, good fatigue properties, moderate fi'acture
toughness (a typical value of about 66 MPa\/m) and
reasonable fatigue crack growth rates FCGR). (2) Re-
crystallize anneal (RA) - - this is a more damage
tolerant heat treatment condition (usually used with
what is termed as an extra low interstitial (ELI)grade
with a reduced oxygen level to improve the fracture
properties) which has a slightly lower strength than
MA, slightly reduced fatigue properties, and improved
fracture toughness and fatigue growth rate resistance
(the minimum KI~ for RA is usually 77 MP;t\/m). It is
used for all fracture critical applications on the B-1 and
B-2 bombers. (3) Beta anneal (BA) - - this is used with
both the standard and ELI grades. For maximum
damage tolerance properties the ELI grade is used, and
again, the strength is somewhat reduced, while FCGR
resistance and fracture toughness are maximized (the
minimum Klc requirement is 88 MPa x m), but the fa-
tigue strength is significantly degraded. This heat treat-
ment is used for damage tolerant components on the
F-22 fighter and critical fittings attaching the composite
empennage to the fuselage on the Boeing 777, structure
where a flaw of a specified size must be assumed to be
present in the most critical location of the most critical
component. (4) Solution treated and aged (STA) - -
provides the maximum strength, but full hardenability
is limited to about 25 mm. Hundreds of thousands of
titanium fasteners are used on each commercial aircraft,
and they are T i - 6 - 4 used in the STA condition, with a
minimum strength of 1100 MPa (those with diameters
over 19 mm are used at a slightly reduced strength).
The STA heat treatment is not commonly used for
shaped components as the thermal stresses induced by
the required water quenching are not relieved during
the aging treatment, which can result in part warpage
during machining.
It should be noted that a slow cooling rate from
temperatures in the range of about 480 to 620 °C can
cause a significant reduction in the stress corrosion
threshold.
The properties combinations of titanium alloys can
be changed significantly through processing as well as
heat treatment variations. Kuhlman discusses in some
detail the effects of processing on properties of titanium
alloys [24].
In gas turbine engines T i - 6 - 4 is used for static and
rotating components. Castings are used to manufacture

,~. , °,% ' ,.~t, f~ ,,, ,
iI~'~[~iF" .....:~;" ~, ~ T
~ . ""~ " ~ ~ ~ ~"
.~.~.
.~' ' ,
. . " .- *. . .. '., , •t " ' I K i ~ / c o m p r e s s o r
~ ~ - . ~ : . , , t Ti-6AI-4Vfan disks-
" ~..%e . ; ~ [ . I . . c- blades oot installed
Lb.--',NL 1 %
Fig. 2. Ti-6AI=4V fan disk and low pressure compressor disks and
blades.
the more complex static components (such as illustrated
in Fig. i); forgings are typically used for the rotating
components. Fig. 2 illustrates the T i - 6 - 4 fan disc and
low pressure compressor discs and blades for the Pratt
and Whitney 4084 engine. Ti-6AI-4V is used on the
first 4-5 (cooler) compressor stages, up to temperatures
of about 315 °C.
As mentioned before, T i - 6 - 4 has been the
workhorse of the titanium industry, and probably
80%-90% of the titanium used on airframes has been
this alloy. It is used in all sections of the aircraft - -
fuselage, nacelles, landing gear, wing, and empennage.
The 757 offers an excellent example of the use of
titanium in the landing gear area, Fig. 3. The rationale
for utilizing titanium for the landing gear beam, which
is about 4.5m long and 375mm wide at its widest
point, and has a forging weight of over 815 kg, has
already been discussed. The other Ti parts shown in
Fig. 3, machined from forgings, are used because of the
alloy's excellent corrosion resistance with the added
benefit of reduced weight. For other airplane models
these components are fabricated from low alloy steel;
these alloy steels can develop corrosion pits due to the
very corrosive environment in the wheel well. These pits
may become initiation sites tbr subsequent stress corro-
sion or fatigue cracks, which means down-time for the
airlines, and part replacement. Titanium eliminates this
issue. It has a higher initial cost, but may provide lower
life cycle costs.
The windshield frames on the 757, 767 and 777 are
machined from the same BA T i - 6 - 4 forgings, and the
crown panel just above them is fabricated from formed
T i - 6 - 4 sheet (Fig. 4). These components are titanium
owing to its high strength which is needed to withstand
the damage incurred during bird strikes.
The fin deck on the 777, where the composite vertical
fin attaches to the fuselage, uses Ti-6A1-4V hot-
formed plate, about 5 mm thick, 762 mm wide and
3.3 m long (Fig. 5). The reason for this application is
R.R. Bo)'er / Materials Scie~tce aizd E~zgmeerhzg .-1213 (1996) i03-114 107
the CTE of the titanium, which more closely matches
that of the graphite in the PMC better than other
TI-6AI-4Vdisks and blades structural materials. The difference in CTE between the
"
]J[~ ~- c o m p r l s' , n' g Iow-pressu re
graphite and aluminum would result in loads too high
assembly
to efficiently use aluminun~.
Beta annealed T i - 6 - 4 machined forgings are also
used for the critical fittings attaching the composite
horizontal and vertical fins to the fuselage of the 777.
This is owing to the corrosion compatibility between
the titanium and the graphite. Use of titanium pre-
cluded reliance on a corrosion protection system to
prevent a galvanic corrosion problem with the graphite
fibers in the PMC empennage structure.
T i - 6 - 4 formed sheet metal is used in the floor
support structure in areas of the galleys and lavatories
for the same reasons. Corrosion in this portion of the
aircraft can be severe due to the fluids which are
present. The potential for corrosion was exacerbated on
the 777 because PMC floor beams are used, thus
providing the potential for galvanic corrosion as well as
general corrosion with aluminum structure.
The 777 tail cone (Fig. 5) and APU exhaust duct
(Fig. 6) use T i - 6 - 4 owing to the high temperatures
associated with the APU. The temperatures are too
high for aluminum and the weight penalty in going to
steei or nickel-base alloys was again too high. The tail
cone is made from sheet, and owing to some of the
sharp contours, much of this structure is superplasti-
cally formed (SPF). ( T i - 6 - 4 sheet has excellent SPF
characteristics without any special processing. Super-
plastic forming is used throughout the industry to
produce many complex sheet metal type components
[25].) The exhaust duct is fabricated from a casting.
Owing to the complexity of the geometry and the
difficulty of machining, a casting was the most cost
effective means of producing this component.
T i - 6 - 6 - 2 can be used at higher strengths than Ti-
6-4, up to about 1170 MPa in the STA condition. It
would be used for similar reasons to those of T i - 6 - 4 .
and would offer higher weight savings, though the
fracture toughness and stress corrosion resistance are
reduced. It was used extensively in the landing gear
support structure of the 747 owing to its superior
corrosion resistance to the low alloy steels, and it
provided a weight savings, for applications such as drag
braces, torsion links, and bell cranks. It has not been
used on later models of Boeing aircraft as T i - i 0 - 2 - 3
offers even better weight savings, particularly when the
thickness gets above about 38 to 50 ram, and the frac-
ture toughness and stress corrosion resistance are better
than that of T i - 6 - 6 - 2 . McDonnell Douglas uses the
T i - 6 - 6 - 2 alloy, primarily in the annealed condition, at
about the 1035 MPa strength level. This does not
provide the weight savings offered by the STA condi-
tion, but it is easier to machine, and has better fracture
108 R.R. Boyer ' Materials Science al~d EizgineerOlg A213 (1996) I 0 3 - I I 4
Yoke
fitting ~ -
Landing
gear beam
Upper
stabilizer
link - -
Fig. 3. Titanium forging used in 757 landing gear support structure (from the 757 mockup).
toughness and stress corrosion resistance than the STA
condition.
T i - 6 A I - 2 S n - 2 Z r - 2 M o - 2 C r ÷ Si (Ti-6-22-22)
was developed by RMI in the early i970's as a deep
hardenable alloy. It has recently been resurrected as a
moderate strength-damage tolerant alloy for the Lock-
heed/Boeing F-22 program [26]. Forgings and plate will
be used at a tensile strength of 1035 MPa with a
minimum K~ of 77 MPax/m. A triplex heat treatment
is used to optimize the damage toIerance properties. It
is first solution treated above the fl transus, followed by
a sub-transus solution treatment, with a controlled
cooling rate, and aged. T i - 6 - 2 2 - 2 2 sheet has excellent
SPF characteristics. It can be formed at lower tempera-
tures than used for Ti-6-4, and will provide higher
strength [27,28].
T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 6 was developed by Pratt and Whitney
(P&W) to provide a high strength alloy which can be
used for moderate temperatures, up to about 315 °C. It
is used primarily for military engines, such as the F-I00
and F-119, at a yield strength level of 1035 MPa. The
damage tolerance characteristics of this alloy are not as
good as those of T i - 6 - 4 or T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 so it is not
used in commercial engines owii:g to the shorter inspec-
tion intervals which would be required.
Ti-5AI-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr. Ti-17, is a deep hard-
enable ~,/fl alloy, minimum slrength of i125 MPa,
developed by GE Aircraft Engines which is used below
400 °C for fan and compressor discs [29,30]. (The tem-
perature limitation of both Ti-17 and T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 6 is
a result of their poor creep resistance above the indi-
cated maximum use temperatures.) Ti-17 is used for
commercial engines in the//-processed condition - - in
stages 2-4 of the GE90 high pressure compressor, for
example. The titanium blades in the compressor would
be T i - 6 - 4 or T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 S , depending on the temper-
ature.
Both T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 6 and Ti-17 are used in place of
T i - 6 - 4 where the higher strength can be used to
Lower
stabilizer
link
Bearing
housing
Attach
fittings
advantage. They are not used in place of T i - 6 - 2 - 4 - 2 S
as their creep performance will not match that of
Ti-6-2-4-2S.
3.3. fl Al/o),s
Ti- 13V- 11Cr-3A1 (Ti- 13-11-3) was the first com-
mercially significant fl alloy. It was used extensively oll
the SR-71 "Blackbird" reconnaissance airplane. About
95% of the structural weight was reported to be tita-
nium [2,3[], the bulk of it being Ti-13-11-3. It was
used for wing and body skins, frames, longerons, bulk-
heads, ribs, rivets and essentially the complete main and
nose landing gears. Titanium was used as weight was
critical and it had elevated temperature properties capa-
ble of meeting mission requirements. One of the key
reasons for selection of Ti-13-11-3 was its thermal
stability. Some of the skins had to be spot welded on
assembly, and the assembly could not be subsequently
aged so the weld nugget would essentially be in the
solution treated condition. Ti-13-11-3, the most sta-
ble of the commercial /)' alloys (except for P&W's
recently developed Alloy C, Ti-35V-15Cr) was the
only heat treatable alloy which could be used at the
operating temperatures, about 250-315°C, which
would not embrittle in the weld regions.
Ti-13-11-3 was very successful on the SR-71, yet
designers today would not consider the properties ac-
ceptable for aircraft structure today, considering the
strength, ductility and fracture toughness properties of
the alloy. Forgings were used at the 1240 MPa strength
IeveI with a minimum elongation of 2%. It is also very
difficult to melt (controlling the Cr segregation) and
fabricate into mill product [32,33]. About the only
application for this alloy today is for coil springs, and
it is being replaced there by D'-C.
Titanium is an excellent spring material. With a
density about 60% and a modulus about 50% that of
steel, weight savings of" up to 70% and volume savings
 R.R. Boyer / Materials Science and E~zghzeerhzg A213 (199d) 103-Ii4
Crown panel
Window
frame
forgings
Fig. 4. Window frame forgins used on the Boeing 757, 767, and 777.
of 50% can be achieved in replacement of steel springs,
at a relatively low cost per kilogram of weight saved
[33,34]. In addition there are no corrosion problems
with the titanium springs. Beta-C is used for springs in
the strength range of 1240 to 1450 MPa. Up- and
down-lock landing gear springs, feel and centering
springs for the yoke, pedal return springs for the
brakes, hydraulic return springs, and flight control
springs are common aircraft applications of titanium
springs [1,2].
If there is a volume constraint, square and rectangu-
lar wire are available to increase the load carrying
capacity, though this product form is significantly more
costly. For springs made from flat product, such as
clock-type springs, Ti-15-3 is used because strip is a
standard product for this alloy. Examples of springs
made from the various product forms can be seen in
Fig. 7.
Strip is the primary product form for Ti-15-3. The
advantages of this alloy are strip producibility, cold
formability, and the ability to heat treat to high
gs
Fig. 5. Fin deck for the Boeing 777.
[09
strengths. It is presently used at a strength of I035 ksi,
but work is underway to provide coverage for heat
treatments to provide strengths of 1170 and 1240 MPa.
Ti-15-3 has excellent cold forming characteristics for
simple forming operations, such as brake-forming, or
forming it into rectangular, round or oval shapes. For
more complex forming operations, such as bending
tubes, stretch and bulge forming, where tri-axial stresses
are developed, forming difficulties can be encountered.
The alloy e~ibits virtually no work hardening, so once
necking initiates it just continues to thin. There are two
means to minimize, but not eliminate this problem. The
first is to work at a low strain-rate. It is strain-rate
sensitive, and significant improvements in formability
can be achieved by working at low strain-rates. The
second method, which has not really been proven,
involves putting some initial cold work into the mate-
rial, or partially aging, to provide a larger spread
between the ultimate and yield strengths, so at least
some minimal amount of work hardening occurs.
There are several areas besides springs where T i - I 5 -
3 is being used in current generation aircraft. One of
the large users is the Boeing 777, and the big item is for
ECS ducting. About 49 m of 178 mm diameter ducts
with a wall thicknesses of 0.5 and 1 ram, with most of
it at 0.5 ram, is used per aircraft. Use of this alloy
permitted cutting the wail thickness in half in place of
the previously used lower strength CP titanium, result-
ing in a weight savings of about 63.5 kg per airplane. It
is also used for fire extinguisher bottles in place of
21-6-9 steel, providing a weight savings of about
23 kg per airplane [1,2]. In addition, it is used for
numerous clips and brackets in the floor support struc-
.,,. , ...7" ..,. 2 . . ~
Fig. 6. Cast Ti-6AI-4V APU exhaust duct for the 777.
110 R,R. Bo yer ~ ~lat erials Scie~Tce alzd Etzghzeeri~zy¢ A213 (1996) I03-114
Fig. 7. Titanium airc,'aft spings.
ture and other areas of the 777, primarily because of its
strength, corrosion resistance, and formability. For
these same reasons P&W uses Ti-15-3 strip to fabri-
cate formed brackets for the low temperature regions of
their newer engines. This provides a significant weight
savings in replacement of steel. Some of the formed
clips and brackets used in airframes can be imple-
mented at a relatively cost per kilogram of weight
saved. The parts in Fig. 8 are Lsed without heat treat-
ment, and no surface finish is required - - the Iow alloy
steel normally used requires Cd plating.
Ti-15-3 castings were also iraplemented on the 777.
These castings, used at the 1140 MPa strength level, are
used in the cargo handling area and for APU vibration
isolator mounts. The 17-4PH steel castings which these
parts replaced were used at the 1240 MPa strength, but
the lower density of the titanium resulted in a weight
savings of about 35%. Allied Signal-Bendix is using
Ti-15-3 castings for the brake torque tubes for the
F-18EF fighter; they will use it at a minimum tensile
strength of 1045 MPa (Fig. 9). The Ti-15-3 will re-
place a T i - 6 - 4 casting (witla a minimum tensile
strength of about 830 MPa) in this case. The higher
strength enables a reduction of the volume of the
torque tube, allowing them to use a higher volume of
carbon in the brakes, which should result in longer
brake life. The Ti-15-3 castings exhibit excellent fa-
tigue properties [35,36].
In terms of tonnage, T i - i 0 - 2 - 3 is the most highly
used of the fl_alloys with the production requirements
of the 777. It is a forging alloy which is used at three
strength levels, 965, 1105 and 1190 MPa [24]. The pro-
cessing and heat treatment are adjusted to achieve the
required property level. At the high strength Ievel there
is a fairly narrow processing window to meet the
strength, ductility, and toughness requirements. The
lower strength levels offer higher fracture toughness
and a less restrictive processing window, Boeing uses
the high strength level to achieve the maximum weight
savings. Ti-10V-2Fe-3A1 also provides excellent fa-
tigue properties: it has only moderate FCGR character-
istics, similar to those of mill annealed Ti-6-4. The
fatigue crack growth rate characteristics are, however,
very predictable - - they are process-microstructure-
strength insensitive. The FCGR are the same at
strength levels from 1035 to 1310 MPa [37], indepen-
dent of microstructure (considering practicaI produc-
tion heat treatments) [38] and the same in air and 3.5%
NaC1 [I0].
The most prominent application of this alloy is on
the landing gear of the 777. As can be seen in Fig. 10,
almost the entire main hmding gear is fabricated from
Ti-10-2-3. The only significant parts of this gear
which are not T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 are the inner and outer
cylinders and the axles. It was used in place of 4340M,
which is used at a minimum strength of 1895 MPa.
T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 applications in the main landing gear re-
sulted in a weight savings of about 270 kg per airplane
- - and eliminated the potential of stress corrosion
cracking associated with the steel. The truck beam
shown in Fig. 10 is -,- 3 m long with a 340 mm outside
dia. T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 is used throughout the airplane - - the
other major components would be the larger flap
tracks. McDonnell Douglas uses T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 at the
1105 MPa strength level in the cargo door, nacelle,
empennage, and other areas of the C-17. (It should be
pointed out that achievement of the high strength goals
is very difficult with very large parts, such as the truck
beam, in that it is difficult to get sufficient work into
the forgings.)
t
- ,, •
Fig. 8. Miscellaneous Ti-15V-3Cr-3AI-3Sn formed sheet compo.
nents.
 R.R. Boyer ~Materials Science at~d Enghzeering A213 (I996) I03-II4 Ill

The advantages in fatigue strength of T i - 1 0 - 2 - 3 are k -- Upperlink

also being recognized by the helicopter industry. Bell, Lowerlink
Westland, Sikorsky and Eurocopter are all using T i - ~--4~ Retractarm
10-2-3 in their rotor systems. Westland cited advan-
tages in the properties combinations of superior fatigue Lowersidestrut~ Locklinks
and tensile strength and lower stiffness over competing
alloys [1,2,11].
Timetal 21S (/?-21S)was developed by Timet for the LUo;C~:tt:rr:i:
rr ::ii ~ " ~ ~ ~ ' , , , ~ LUoP~eldragstrut
National Aerospace Plane to provide a strip producible, . -

oxidation resistant alloy to be used as the metal matrix T ruok eam

for metal matrix composite structure. Even though it is
a /? alloy it has reasonably good high temperature Reactionl i n k - " f ~ Brakerods
properties, with creep properties superior to those of
T i - 6 - 4 [39]. (Beta alloys are normally good only to
moderate temperatures.) Beta 21S is being used by Rg. 10. Boeing 777 main landing gear Ti-10V-2Fe-3AI forging
Boeing and P&W at temperatures up to 650 °C, for applications.
short times. The normal operating temperature will be
in the range of 480-565 °C. Two basic heat treatments
are used at Boeing, a solution treat and overage with a
severe embrittlement. Beta 21S is the only titanium
strength requirement of 860 MPa, and a STA heat
alloy which is immune to this attack [1,2,41,42]. The
treatment used at the 1035 MPa strength level. The
resistance is ascribed to the Mo and Nb contents - -
lower strength is used for higher temperature applica-
which seem to have a synergistic effect on corrosion
tions as this heat treatment provides improved thermal
resistance. This enabled the utilization of titanium in
stability [40]. The STA heat treatment is used up to
the nacelle and APU areas, which operate at !empera-
about 480 °C.
tures above 130 °C. Because of the hydraulic fluid issue,
The real advantage of this alloy is its resistance to
titanimn could not be used in these areas previously if
hot hydraulic fluid, which is one of the very few corro-
there was a reasonable possibility of exposure to hy-
sive media for titanium in the aerospace environment.
draulic fluids - - steel or nickel-based alloys were used.
The hydraulic fluid used in commercial aircraft will
Timetai 21S thus provided significant weight savings in
break down and form an organo-phosphoric acid at
the 777 nacelles.
temperatures in excess of ,-~ 130 °C which will etch the
TimetaI 21S is used on the aft cowl and plug and
titanium, reducing the gage, and, more importantly,
nozzle for all three 777 engines, the P&W 4084, GE-90,
pump in large amounts of hydrogen, which can cause
and the Trent 800 (Fig. 11), all skin and stringer type
structures. These applications save about 74 kilorams
per airplane. Pratt and Whitney is specifying fl-21S for
the plug and nozzle of their 4168 engines which will
power the Airbus A-330 which utilizes a honeycomb
sandwich design.

(a) Plug--183-mmdiameterat base

(b) Nozzle--86.5-mmin length
Fig. 9. Ti-15V-3Cr-3A1-3Sn cast torque tube for the F-18EF
fighter. Fig. 11. fl-2lS plug and nozzle assembly for the Trent 800 engine.
112 R.~'. Boyer / Materials Science and Engineerilzg ,,i213 (1996) 103-114
The final alloy to be discussed in this section is
Alloy C, developed by P&W. The advantage this alloy
offers is ignition resistance. This ignition resistance
enables P&W to use titanium in areas previously
requiring nickel-based alloys, primarily because there
was a real concern of titanium fires in "hot" areas.
The ignition temperature is dependent on a number
of factors such as metal gage, ax velocity, gas partial
pressure and temperature. Pratl, and Whitney limits
the use temperature of Alloy C to about 540 °C. It
is being used for vectored exhaust structure and
some cast compressor components on the Fl19
engine which powers the Lockheed/Boeing F-22
[43.44].
4. Future considerations
Future titanium technology development efforts
should be directed toward lower final component costs
for the aircraft manufacturer. Increased emphasis on
delivery cost will make it more difficult for titanium
to maintain its share of the structural weight of
aerospace systems unless the co'st of titanium compo-
nents can be reduced. There are two approaches to
achieving this, development of lower cost alloys and/
or processing improvements to reduce the fabrication
costs, with the latter probably offering the greatest
potential.
Timet has recently developed two low cost alloys
with the intent of opening new non-aerospace mar-
kets. Timetal 62S (Ti-6AI-I.?Fe-0.1Si) was devel-
oped as a low cost replacement for T i - 6 - 4 for the
automotive industry [45]. The Fe is a much lower cost
alloying addition than V, and the use of an expensive
master alloy was eliminated. The processing of the
alloy was also designed to improve material yield
from the ingot. The other alloy, TimetaI LCB (Ti-
6.SMo-4.5Fe-l.5AI) was developed with automotive
springs in mind. It again takes advantage of low cost
alloying additions, using a low-cost ferro-moly alloy-
ing addition - - the formulation costs are roughly
equivalent to that of CP titanium [46]. This alloy is
capable of being heat treated to strengths in excess of
1500 MPa with reasonable ductility [46]. The proper-
ties of both of these alloys indicate that they may be
appropriate for aerospace applications. Timetal LCB
is presently being studied as a high strength fastener
alloy.
The other avenue to lower costs consists of alloying
or processing changes to reduce the fabrication costs
through improved machining ,characteristics, greater
utilization of processes such as casting, SPF, super-
plastic forming/diffusion bonding, and near-net extru-
sions. The Japanese have de~eloped a Ti-3A1-2V
alloy with minor sulfur and rare-earth additions to
enhance the machinability [47]. Ti-3A1-2V connecting
rods are used on some high performance engines: their
reduced weight results in an increase in engine speed
of about 700 rpm. This approach, creation of a more
free-machining alloy, could potentially be used for
some of the less demanding aerospace applications, as
titanium machining costs are significantly higher than
that of steels and aluminum alloys.
The Russians have a significant advantage in extru-
sion technology. For circle sizes up to about 100 mm
they can produce a surface which would not require
100% machining. This is very significant in that extru-
sions produced in the US, and elsewhere, do require
100% machining.
NKK has developed an alloy specifically for super-
plastic forming, SP-700 (Ti-4.5AI-3V-2Fe-2Mo)
[48-50]. This is not a low cost alloy, but it offers
some advantages in SPF characteristics which could
provide economic benefits. It can be formed at tem-
peratures as low as 700 °C, though the optimmn form-
ing temperature is somewhat higher than this (Ti-6-4
is typically formed at about 900 °C.) The lower form-
ing temperature provides an obvious power savings,
and, the extent of surface contamination is signifi-
cantly reduced, thus requiring less chemical milling,
which is a very important consideration in light of the
ecology costs associated with the chemical milling pro-
cess.
The titanium industry is making a concerted effort
to penetrate new markets, such as atttomotive,
geothermal, oil, etc. Penetration of these markets,
even if this happens with alloys not suitable for air-
craft, could be beneficial to the aerospace industry as
the titanium industry would have a broader produc-
tion base, which could ultimately result in lower, more
stable prices.
5. Summary
Titanium alloys play an important role in the
aerospace industry. They have a high strength-to-
weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance, and com-
patibility with composite structure. However, to main-
tain a prominent position in the industry, future efforts
must be directed toward the cost reduction of titanium
structure. In the past the aerospace industry has been
performance driven, and it still will be, but, in the
future, cost will play a more prominent role. Develop-
ment efforts need to be directed toward new alloys/pro-
cesses to reduce final component costs. Expansion of
the titanium industry into industrial applications, which
seems to appear more promising, would also provide a
benefit to the aerospace community by providing a
more stable production base, which should provide
greater price stability
 R.R. Boyer / Materials Scie~ce a~zd Engineerhzg A213 (I996) I03-114
References
[1] R.R. Boyer, in D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.),
Applications of beta titanium alloys in Airframes, Beta Titalzium
Alloys m the I9907, Warrendale, PA, TIvIS, 1993, pp. 335-346.
[2] R.R. Boyer, in A. Vassel, D. Eylon and Y. Combtes (eds.),
Aerospace applications of beta titanium - - keynote presenta-
tion, Beta Titanium Alloys, Paris, France, Soci6t~ Francaise de
M~tallurgie et de Mat~riaux, i994, pp. 253-264.
[3] P.J. Bahia, in D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.). Beta
titanium alloys and their role in the titanium industry
- - keynote lecture, Beta Titalzium Alloys i~z the I9907, Warren-
dale, PA, TMS, 1993, pp. 3-14.
[4] E.W. Collings, The Physical Metalh¢rgy of Titalzium Alloys,
Materials Park, OH, ASM, 1984, pp. 2-4.
[5] T.W. Duerig and J.C. Williams, in R.R. Boyer and H.W.
Rosenberg (eds.), Overview: microstructure and properties of
beta titanium alloys, Beta Titanium Alloys in the 19803, War-
rendale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 19-67.
[6] K.E. Thiehsen et al., The effect of nickel, chromium, and pri-
mary alpha phase on the creep behavior of Ti-6242Si, Met.
Trans. A, 24A (I993) 1819-1826.
[7] S.R. Seagle G.S. Hall and H.B. Bomberger, Met. Etzg. Q.,
(1972) 48-54.
[8] H.M. Flower, Mater. Sei. Techlzol., 6 (I990) I082-I092.
[9] S.R. Seagle and H.B. Bomberger, in R.I. Jaffee and N.E.
Promisel (eds.), Creep-resistant titanium alloys, The Scie~zce,
Teclmology and Applicatio~z of Tita~tium, Pergamon, New York,
1970, pp. 1001-1008.
[10] R.R. Boyer, Design properties of a high strength titanium al-
loy, Ti-IOV-2Fe-3AI, J. Organomet. Chem., 32 (1980) 61-65.
[11] D.P. Davies, in F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan (eds.), Effect of
heat treatment on the mechanical properties of Ti-IOV-2Fe-
3A1 for dynamically critical helicopter components, Titanium
"92 Scie/zce a~d Tee/mology, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1993, pp.
i851-1858.
[12] R.S. Carey, R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg, in G. Ltitjering,
U. Zwicker and W. Bunk (eds.), Fatigue properties of Ti-
10V-2Fe-3AI, Tita~ium Scie~ce a~zd Technology, Deutsche
Gesellschaft fur Metallkunde e.V., Oberursel, Germany, I985,
pp. 1261-I267.
[13] R.R. Boyer, R. Bajoraitis, D.W. Greenwood and E.E. Mild, in
R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg (eds.), T i - 3 A I - 8 V - 6 C r -
4Mo-4Zr wire for spring applications, Beta Tita~ium Alloys b~
the i9807, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 295-305.
[14] L. Wagner and J.K. Gregory, in D. Eyton, R.R. Boyer and
D.A. Koss (eds.), hnprovement of mechanical behavior in Ti-
3A1-8V-6Cr-4Mo=4Zr, Beta Tita~ium Alloys in the 1990's,
Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1993, pp. 199-209.
[15] D. Eylon et al., in P. Lacombe, R. Tricot and G. B6ranger
(eds.), Casting of high strength beta titanium alloys, Sixth
World Co~('ere~zce on Titanium, Soci6t6 Francaise de M6taliur-
gie, Cedex, France, 1989, pp. 655-660.
[I6] R.W. Messler, Jr., Electron beam weldability of advanced tita-
nium alloys, Welding Researeh Supplement, May, 1981, pp.
79-s-84-s.
[17] C.C. Chen and R.R. Boyer, Practical considerations for manu-
facturing high strength Ti-10V-2Fe-3AI forgings, J.
Organomet. Chem., 31 (1979) 33-39.
[18] R.H. Van Stone et al., Influence of composition, annealing
temperature, and texture on the fracture toughness of Ti-5AI-"
2.5Sn plate at cryogenic temperatures, Toughness a~d Fracture
Behavior of Titanium, ASTM STP 651, Baltimore, MD, ASTM,
1978, pp. 154-179.
[19] S. Fujishiro, F.H. Froes, T. Matsumoto and D. Eyton, in G.
Lfitjering, U. Zwicker and W. Bunk (eds.), Effect of processing
I13
on the mechanical properties of IMI-829 titanium alloys, Tita-
nium Science a~2d Tec/mology, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur NIetal-
lkunde e.V., Obcrursei, Germany, 1985, pp. 593-600.
[20] . P.A. Blenkinsop, in G. Ltitjering, U. Zwicker and W. Bunk
(eds.), Critical review, developments in high temperature alloys,
Tita~ziam Science aizd Techtzology, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
Metallkunde e.V., OberurseI. Germany, 1985, pp. 2323-2338.
[21] D.F. Neal, in G. L0.tjering, U. Zwicker and W. Bunk (eds.),
Optimisation of creep and fatigue resistance in high tempera-
ture Ti alloys IMI 829 and IMI 834, Tita~Titon Science and
Tec/mo/ogy, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Metallkunde e.V.,
Oberursei, Germany, 1985, pp. 2419-2424.
[22] D.F. Neal, in P. Lacombe, R. Tricot and G. B6ranger (eds.),
Development and evaluation on high temperature titanium al-
loy IMI 834, Sixth fVorld Conj~rence on Titanium, Soci6t6
Francaise de M6tallurgie, Cedex, France, 1989, pp. 253-258.
[23] P.J. Bania, in P. Lacombe, R. Tricot and G. B~ranger (eds.),
Ti-ll00: A new high temperature titanium alloy, Sixth World
CoJ~jere~zce on Titanium, Soci6t6 Francaise de M6tallurgie,
Cedex, France, 1989, pp. 825-830.
[24] G.W. Kuhlman, in Y.-W. Kim and R.R. Boyer (eds.), A criti-
cal appraisal of thermomechanicaI processing of structural tita-
nium alloys, Mierost~ucture/Property Relatto*zshzps in Titatnum
Alumilzides a~d Alloys, Wanendale, PA, TMS, 1991. pp. 465-
491.
[25] Superplastieity, Agard Lecture Series No. I54, Loughton, UK,
AGARD, 1987.
[26] H.R. Phelps and J.R. Wood, in F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan
(eds.), Correlauon of mechamcat properties and microstructures
of Ti-6A1-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr-0.25S titanium alloy, Tita~izmz
"92 Scwizce al~d YeclmoIogy, Warrendale, PA, TMS, i993, pp.
193-199.
[27] R.R. Boyer and A.E. Caddey, in F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan
(eds.), The properties of Ti-6AI-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr sheet,
Titanium "92 Science and Teeh~ology, Warrendale, PA, TMS,
1993, pp. 1647-1652.
[28] R.C. Bliss, in F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan (eds.), Evaluation of
Ti-6A1-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr-.23Si sheet, Titalzium '92 Science
and Tech~lology, Warrendale, PA, TMS, I993, pp. 201-208.
[29] T.K. Redden, in R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg (eds.), Pro-
cessing and properties of the Ti-17 alloy for aircraft gas tur-
bine engines, Beta Tita~zium Alloys in the i9807, Warrendale,
PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 239-254.
[30] H.W. Rosenberg, in R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg (eds.),
Ti-17 properties, Beta Tita~lium Alloys in the 19807, Warren-
dale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 433-439.
[31] R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg, Beta titanium on the SR-71:
Historical note I, Beta Tita~ziam Alloys hi the I9807, Warren-
dale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 1-8.
[32] W.M. Parris and H.W. Rosenberg, in R.R. Boyer and H.W.
Rosenberg (eds.), Producing Ti-13V-I1Cr-3AI mill product
at TMCA: Historical note II, Beta Titanium Alloys i/z the
i9807, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 9-15
[33] R.R. Boyer, R. Bajoraitis, D.W. Greenwood and E.E. Mild, in
R.R. Boyer and H.W. Rosenberg (eds.), T i - 3 A I - 8 V - 6 C r -
4Mo-4Zr wire for spring applications, Beta Titanim~z Alloys in
the 19807, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1984, pp. 295-305.
[34] A.M. Sherman and S.R. Seagle, in R.R. Boyer and H.W.
Rosenberg (eds.), Torsional properties and performance of beta
titanium alloy automotive suspension springs, Beta Titanium
Alloys ilz the 19807, Warrendale, PA, TMS, I984, pp. 281-
293.
[35] W.J. Porter and D. Eylon, m D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A.
Koss (eds.), Effect of HIP and heat treatment on fatigue initia-
tion and tensile failure in Ti-15V-3Cr-3A1-3Sn Castings,
Beta Titanium Alloys i~z the I9907, Warrendale, PA, TMS,
I993, pp. 273-281.
114 R.R. B()yer : Materials Science and EnghTeering ..1213 (1996) I05-114
[36] W.J, Porter, RR. Boyer and D. Eslon, in F.H. Froes and I.L.
Caplan (eds.), Effects of microst]ucture on the mechanical
properties of Ti-I5V-3Cr-3A1-3Sn castings, Titani,mz '92
Science aJzd Technology, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1993, pp.
1511-1518.
[37] G.W. Kuhlman. in D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss
(eds.). ALCOA titanium alloy Ti-10V-2Fe-3A1 forgings, Beta
Titanizm~ A/loys #z the i990's, Warrendale, PA, Ti'vlS, 1993, pp.
485-512.
[38] T.W. Duerig, J.E. Allison and J.C. WiItiams, Microstructural
influences on fatigue crack propagation in Ti-10V-2Fe-3At,
Met. Trails. A, I6A (I985) 739-751.
[39] J.C. Fanning. in D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.).
TimetaI 21S property data, Beta Tttanium Alloys in the I990"s,
Watrendale, PA, TMS, 1993. pp.."197-410.
[40] R.R. Boyer and J.A. Hail. m F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan
(eds.), Microstructure-property relationships in titanium alloys
(critical review), Titamum '92 ScieJzce and Tecfmology, Warren-
dale, PA. T'.'vIS. 1993. pp. 77-88.
[41] J.S. Grauman, in D. Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.),
Effects of aircraft hydraulic fluid on TIMETAL 21S, Beta
Titanium Alloys in the I990's, Warrendale, PA, TMS, 1993, pp.
I27-135.
[42] R.W. Schutz. in A. Vassel, D. Eylon and Y. Combres (eds.),
An overview of beta titanium alloy environmental behavior.
Beta Titanium Alloys, Paris, France, Soci~t6 Francaise de
M6tallurgie et de Mat~riaux. 1994. pp. 215-228.
[43] D. Eylon, in A. Vassel, D. Eylon and Y. Combres (eds.), A
review of beta titanium alloys, Beta Tita~zium Alloys, Paris,
France, Soci6t6 Francaise de M~tallurgie et de Mat6riaux,
1994, pp. 75-82.
[44] G.N. Colvin, D.W, Anderson and R.J. Schmalholz, Permanent
mold castings of titanium aerospace components, Titaniton
I994 Products and Al~plications, Boulder, CO, TDA, 1994, pp.
84-90.
[45] P.J. Bahia, A.J, Hutt, R,E. Adams and W,M. Parris, F.H.
Froes and I.L. Caplan (eds.), A new low cost titanium alloy,
Titat~ium '92 ScieJ~ce and Technology, Warrendale, PA, TMS,
1993, pp. 2787-2794.
[46] P.J. Bania, in A. Vassel, D. Eylon and Y. Combres (eds.), Beta
titanium alloys and their role in the titanium industry, Beta
Titanium Alloys, Paris, F,'ance, Socidt6 Francaise de M6tallur-
gie et de Mat+riaux, 1994, pp. 7-20,
[47] Titanium Con Rods Boost Power, Advanced Materials and Pro-
cessing, June 1993, pp. 24-26.
[48] M. Ishikawa, O. Kuboyama, M. Niikura and C, Ouchi, in
F.H. Froes and I.L. Caplan (eds.), Microstructure and mechan-
ical properties relationship of/,,'-Rich :eft alloy; SP-700, Tita-
nium '92 Science and Technology, Warren&de, PA, TMS, 1993,
pp. 14L-148.
[49] T. Fujita, M. Ishikawa, S. Hashimoto, K, Minakawa and C.
Ouchi, in D. Eylon, R,R, Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.), Fatigue
and fracture toughness properties in the beta-rich a +/] alloy
SP-700, Beta Titanium Alloys in the 1990's, Warrendale, PA,
TMS, 1993, pp. 297-307.
[50] A. Ogawa, H. Fukai, K. Minakawa and C. Ouehi, in D,
Eylon, R.R. Boyer and D.A. Koss (eds.), SP-700 titanium alloy
data sheet, Beta TitaJtium Alloys in the 1990's, Warrendale, PA,
TMS, 1993, pp. 513-524.