1 High-alloy Steels

These are steels which contain alloying elements

that are equal to or exceed 8%, including carbon.
Total Xi  8%
The main types of steels that belong to this
category are:
1. Stainless steels
2. Maraging steels
3. Manganese steels
4. Tool steels
2 1. STAINLESS STEELS
• A large family of corrosion resistant alloys
containing at least 12% chromium, and may
contain other alloying elements. Stainless
steels can be divided into five categories:
• martensitic,
• ferritic,
• austenitic,
• duplex (austenitic-ferritic), and
• precipitation hardening (PH).
3

i. Martensitic Stainless Steels: Fe-Cr-C-(Ni-Mo)

Cr content = 11.50  18.00%.
High carbon content = 0.15  1.20%

These grades can be hardened through heat

treatment to offer strength and hardness.
They are magnetic. The common uses are
knife blades, surgical instruments, shafts.
 4
ii. Ferritic Stainless Steel: Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys
C-content  0.08 %
Cr- content = 10.5  30.0 %
These cannot be hardened through heat treat-ment.
Ferritic grades are magnetic and chosen when
toughness is not a primary need, but corrosion
resistance, particularly to chloride stress corrosion
cracking (SCC), is important. Common uses are
automotive exhaust systems (11.00%Cr),
automotive trim (17.00%Cr-1.50%Mo), hot water
tanks (18.00%Cr-2.00%Mo-Ti).
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iii. Austenitic Stainless Steels: Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo) alloys
C-content < 0.08%)
Cr- content = 16.00  28.00%
Ni-content = 3.5  32.0%

This chemical composition allows them to maintain an

austenitic structure from cryogenic temperatures up to the
melting point of the alloy. These alloys cannot be hardened
through heat treatment. The key properties of these types of
stainless steel are excellent corrosion resistance, ductility
and toughness. Common uses are: Food processing
equipment, equipment for the chemical industry, domestic
appliances, and architectural applications, surgical tools.
6
iv. Duplex Austenitic-Ferritic Stainless Steels:
Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo)-N alloys
C-content < 0.03%
Cr-content = 16  28.0%
Ni-content = 3.5  8.0%
Mo-content = up to 4.5%
Ferrite (50%), austenite (50%)
Offer higher tensile and yield strengths than
austenitic stainless steels. Common uses are in
marine applications, petrochemical plant,
desalination plant, heat exchangers and
papermaking industry.
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v. Precipitation Hardening (PH): Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo-

Al-Cu-Nb)-N alloys

These grades develop very high strength after a

low temperature (500-800°C) heat treatment.
Since lower temperature can be used, concerns
with part distortion are minimized, allowing
them to be used for high precision parts.
Common uses are in the aerospace and some
other high-technology industries.
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The Role of Cr in Stainless Steels

The resistance of SS to the chemical effects of

corrosive agents is determined by their ability to
form an adherent, insoluble film of reaction
products that shields the metal substrate from
uniform and localized attack. The protective film
called passive layer or passive film. It is a very thin
layer on the surface, of the order of 1.0 to 2.0 nm,
which reduces the corrosion rate to negligible
levels and has a structure similar to chromite.
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For passivation to occur, the chromium must

be in solution, and hence, have uniform
distribution on the surface. Chromium carbide
may be precipitated in the HAZ region during
welding, thus the surrounding regions become
unprotected (no passive film), and corrode.
10 The Role of Nickel in Stainless Steels

No direct influence on the passive layer but exerts a

beneficial effect, particularly in sulphuric acid
environments. Nickel promotes the resistance to
corrosion of the nickel-based alloys as compared
with the iron-based alloys under conditions where
the passive layers may be absent, or may be
destroyed locally or uniformly. For example, pitting
corrosion tends to progress less rapidly in high-nickel
alloys.
11 The Role of Molybdenum in SSteel

Molybdenum is used in stainless steels in amounts up to 8%

and most commonly in the range from 2 to 4%. Even such
relatively small percentages of molybdenum have
powerful effects in improving the resistance to pitting in
chloride environments and to crevice in both Fe-Cr alloys
and Fe-Cr-Ni alloys. Molybdenum reduces the intensity of
the oxidizing effect required to insure passivity and
decrease the tendency of previously formed passive films
to break down.
Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE). For ferritic steels, the
formula employed is:  
PRE = % Cr + 3.3 (% Mo)
12 2. Maraging steels
Maraging steels (derived from “martensite" and
"aging") are steels that are known for possess-
ing superior strength and toughness without
losingmalleability. Aging refers to the extend-
ed heat-treatment process. The principal
alloying element is 15 to 25 %Ni. Secondary
alloying elements are added to produce
intermetallic precipitates, which include Co,
Mo and Ti.
13

The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt.

% nickel, 8–12 wt.% cobalt, 3–5 wt.% Mo, and 0.2–
1.6 wt.% Ti. Addition of Cr produces stainless
grades resistant to corrosion. Alternative variants of
Ni-reduced maraging steels are based on alloys of
Fe and Mn plus minor additions of Al, Ni, and Ti
where compositions between Fe-9wt.% Mn to Fe-
15wt.% Mn have been used. The Mn has a similar
effect as Ni, i.e. it stabilizes the austenite phase.
14
Summary of Alloy Content of Ni-Co-Mo Family

Type Yield
Strength
Alloy Content (%)
(0.2% proof) Ni Co Mo Ti Al
MPa

18Ni1400 1400 18 8.5 3 0.2 0.1

18Ni1700 1700 18 8 5 0.4 0.1
18Ni1900 1900 18 9 5 0.6 0.1
18Ni2400 2400 17.5 12.5 3.75 1.8 0.15
17Ni1600 1600 17 10 4.6 0.3 0.05
(cast)
 15
3. Manganese steel

Mn-Steel is a high Manganese, fully austenitic,

quench annealed, non magnetic, work-harden-
ing steel with an exceptionally high level of wear
resistance when subjected to work-hardening by
shock or high impact pressure in service.
The main characteristics is a superior wear
resistance: Severe wear on the surface has a
work-hardening effect on the austenitic structure
of this steel.
 Chemical Analysis Typical values (% weight)

16
Work Hardening
Increase in hardness from 200BHN up to an in-
service hardness of at least 600BHN. This work-
hardening capability renews itself throughout
in-service life. The underlayers not work-hard-
ened maintain an excellent resistance to shock
and a very high ductility.
Chem analysis:
C Si Mn S P
1.13 0.40 13 0.00 ≤ 0.20
3
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APPLICATIONS

Mangalloy has been used in the mining

industry,cement mixers,rock crushers, railway
switches and crossings, crawler treads for
tractors and other high impact and abrasive
environments. It is also used in high impact
environments like inside a shot peening
machine. These alloys are finding new uses as
cryogenic steels, due to their high strength at
very low temperatures.
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4. Tool Steels

Their suitability comes from their distinctive

hardness, resistance to abrasion and deforma-
tion and their ability to hold a cutting edge at
elevated temperatures. With a carbon content
between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are
manufactured under carefully controlled
conditions to produce the required quality.
Proper heat treatment of these steels is
important for adequate performance.
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Grades of Tool Steels

There are six groups of tool steels:

1) Water-hardening group (W)
2) Cold-work group (A, D)
3) Hot-work group (H)
4) Shock-resisting group (S)
5) High speed group (T, M)
6) Special purpose group (L, F)