CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Purpose of This Book
This book presents the principles and techniques for analysis and
design of formwork for concrete structures. Because each structure is
unique, the formwork must be designed and fabricated based on the
specific requirements of each job. The level of effort required to pro-
duce a good formwork system is as important as the level of effort
required to produce the right combination of steel and concrete for
the structural system of the structure. Formwork for concrete struc-
tures has a significant impact on the cost, time, and quality of the
completed project.
Formwork is important because it is a major cost of the concrete
structure. Too often the designers of concrete structures devote con-
siderable time in selecting the minimum amount of concrete and steel
for a structure without devoting adequate attention to the impact of
the formwork that must be constructed to form the concrete. For most
structures, more time and cost are required to make, erect, and remove
formwork than the time and cost to place the concrete or reinforcing
steel. For some structures, the cost of formwork exceeds the cost of
the concrete and steel combined.
This book presents the methods of analyses of various compo-
nents of formwork, to assist the designer in developing a formwork
system for his or her project. The purpose of formwork is to safely
support the reinforced concrete until it has reached adequate strength.
Thus, formwork is a temporary support for the permanent steel and
concrete. The designer is responsible for producing a forming system
that is safe, economical, and easily constructible at the jobsite. The
overall quality of the completed project is highly dependent on the
formwork.
Many articles and papers have been written related to the design,
fabrication, erection, and failure of formwork. At the end of each
chapter of this book, references of other publications are provided to
assist the reader in better understanding the work that others have
produced related to formwork.

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 2 Chapter One

Safety of Formwork
The failure of formwork is a major concern of all parties involved
in a construction project; including the owner, the designer, and
the contractor. Although the principles, concepts, and methods
that are contained in this book provide the basics for the analysis
and design of formwork, it is the responsibility of each designer of
formwork to ensure that the forms are designed adequately. This
requires a careful analysis of the job conditions that exist at each
jobsite, a determination of the loads that will be applied to the
formwork, and the selection and arrangement of suitable forming
materials that have adequate strength to sustain the loads.
It is the responsibility of the workers at the jobsite to fabricate
and erect the formwork in accordance with the design. A careful
check of the design and inspection of the work during construc-
tion are necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of the form-
work. Safety is everyone’s responsibility, and all parties must
work together as a team with safety as a major consideration.

Economy of Formwork
Economy should be considered when planning the formwork for a con-
crete structure. Economy involves many factors, including the cost of
materials; the cost of labor in making, erecting, and removing the forms,
and the cost of equipment required to handle the forms. Economy also
includes the number of reuses of the form materials, the possible salvage
value of the forms for use elsewhere, and the cost of finishing concrete
surfaces after the forms are removed. A high initial cost for materials,
such as steel forms, may be good economy because of the greater number
of uses that can be obtained with steel.
An analysis of the proposed formwork for a given project usually
will enable the job planner to determine, in advance of construction,
what materials and methods will be the most economical.

Allowable Unit Stresses in Formwork Material

In order to attain the maximum possible economy in formwork, it is
desirable to use the highest practical unit stresses in designing forms.
It is necessary to know the behavior of the pressures and loads that
act on forms in determining the allowable unit stresses.
When concrete is first placed, it exerts its maximum pressure or
weight on the restraining or supporting forms. However, within a
short time, sometimes less than 2 hours, the pressure on wall and
column forms will reach a maximum value, and then it will decrease
to zero. Thus, the forms are subjected to maximum stresses for rela-
tively short periods of time.

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 Introduction 3

Within a few hours after concrete is placed for girders, beams,

and slabs, it begins to set and to bond with the reinforcing steel, thereby
developing strength to support itself. Although the forms are usually
left in place for several days, magnitudes of the unit stresses in the
forms will gradually decrease as the concrete gains strength. Thus,
the maximum unit stresses in the formwork are temporary and of
shorter duration than the time the forms are left in place.
The allowable unit stresses specified for lumber are generally
based on a full design load that is applied for a normal load duration
of approximately 10 years. If the duration of the load is only a few
hours or days, such as with formwork, the allowable unit stress may
be adjusted to a higher value. For loads that are applied for a short
duration, less than 7 days, the allowable unit stresses may be increased
by 25%. The examples and tables contained in this book are based on
using increased allowable unit stresses, assuming loads are applied
for a short duration.

Care of Forms
Forms are made of materials that are subject to considerable damage
through misuse and mishandling. Wood forms should be removed
carefully, then cleaned, oiled, and stored under conditions that will
prevent distortion and damage. At periodic intervals, all forms should
be checked to determine whether renailing, strengthening, or replac-
ing parts is necessary.

Patented Products
There are numerous patented products for concrete structures that
have been produced by companies in the construction industry. Many
of these products are contained in this book. However, it is not practi-
cal to include all of the products that are currently available. Inclu-
sion of the products of some manufacturers and the exclusion of
similar products of others should not be interpreted as implying that
the products included in this book are superior to those not men-
tioned. The products described in this book are intended to illustrate
only the types of products available for use in concrete formwork.
For most of the products that are included in this book, the manu-
facturers’ specifications, properties, dimensions, and other useful
information are given in tables.

Arrangement of This Book

There are 17 chapters in this book. The following paragraphs briefly
describe each one.

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 4 Chapter One

Chapter 1, Introduction, provides an introduction to this book,

including its purpose, the importance of safety, and general informa-
tion related to allowable stresses for form materials and patented
products that are available for forming concrete structures.
Chapter 2, Economy of Formwork, provides information related
to the importance of economy in formwork. Because formwork is a
major cost of concrete structures, planning and designing the form-
work system is an integral part of the process of designing and con-
structing concrete structures. There are decisions that must be made
during the design process that will have major impacts on the con-
struction process and the cost of the structure.
Chapter 3, Pressure of Concrete on Formwork, presents informa-
tion related to the pressure that concrete exerts on the formwork.
When concrete is placed in the forms, it applies vertical loads due to
its weight as well as horizontal loads because it is in a liquid state and
has not gained sufficient strength to support itself. In addition to the
loads on the formwork from concrete and reinforcing steel, the
designer must consider the live loads that are applied to the forms
due to workers and equipment that are used to place the concrete.
Chapter 4, Properties of Form Material, provides information related
to the properties of form materials. The principal materials used for forms
include wood, steel, plywood, fiberglass, plastics, aluminum, and other
materials. The designer must know the physical properties and the
behavior of the materials that are used in building forming systems for
concrete structures. Accessories used to attach the components of form
materials are also an important part of formwork. The accessories used to
fasten the form materials include nails, screws, bolts, form ties, column
clamps, and other parts too numerous to mention.
Chapter 5, Design of Wood Members for Formwork, presents the
fundamental concepts and equations that are used to design form-
work and temporary structures during construction. The design of
formwork involves determining the pressures and loads from the
concrete placement during construction, analysis of the loads to
determine the distribution of the loads through the formwork sys-
tem, and selecting the sizes of members to sustain the loads ade-
quately. The formwork must be designed with sufficient strength to
resist loads that are applied and to restrict the deflection of the forms
within an allowable tolerance. Safety, economy, and quality must be
major considerations in designing formwork.
Chapter 6, Shores and Scaffolding, provides information related
to shores and scaffolding for formwork. Patented shores are often
used to support formwork. If patented shores are used, it is impor-
tant that placement and spacing of the shores be in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendations. In some situations, shores are
fabricated by workers at the jobsite. If job-built shores are used, it is
important that a qualified person be involved in ensuring the safety
of the shoring system because failure of shores is a common cause of

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 Introduction 5

formwork failure. Similarly, scaffolding is important for the safety of

workers and their efficiency.
Chapter 7, Failures of Formwork, addresses the important issue
of the safety of formwork systems. Formwork failure is costly, in
terms of both the physical losses at the jobsite and injuries to workers.
Physical losses include the loss of materials that are destroyed in the
failure and the time and expenses that must be incurred to clean up
and reinstall the forms. Injuries and loss of life of workers create suf-
fering of people and can lead to costly legal actions.
Chapter 8, Forms for Footings, provides information related to the
design and construction of forms for footings and the fundamental
equations that can be used in the design process. Information is also
included for placing anchor bolts in concrete foundations.
Chapter 9, Forms for Walls, addresses the design of forms for con-
crete walls. Equations and tables are presented to facilitate the design
of continuous walls and for walls with corbels. Due to the height of
walls, the pressure at the bottom of the forms is significant. Therefore,
the designer must carefully evaluate the loads that are applied to wall
forms to ensure that the forms have sufficient strength to resist the
applied load. Accessories for walls including snap ties, coil ties, and
form clamps are also presented.
Chapter 10, Forms for Columns, addresses the design of forms for
concrete columns. Included in this chapter are square, rectangular,
round, and L-shaped columns. Column forms may be made of wood,
steel, or fiberglass. Because columns are generally long in height, the
pressure of the concrete at the bottom of the forms is an important
consideration in the design of forms for concrete columns.
Chapter 11, Forms for Beams and Floor Slabs, presents relevant
information on that subject. The size, length, and spacing of joists are
addressed considering the strength and deflection criteria. Spacing of
shores under beam bottoms and details for framing beams into gird-
ers are also presented.
Chapter 12, Patented Forms for Concrete Floor Systems, is devoted
to such patented forms. Patented forms are commonly used for floor
systems because considerable savings in labor cost can be derived by
simply erecting and removing standard forms, rather than fabricat-
ing forms at the jobsite.
Chapter 13, Forms for Thin-Shell Roof Slabs, addresses thin-shell
roof slabs. Roofing systems that consist of thin-shell reinforced con-
crete provide large clear spans below the roof with efficient use of
concrete. These types of roofs also produce aesthetically pleasing
appearances for the exterior of the structures.
Chapter 14, Forms for Architectural Concrete, considers architec-
tural concrete. There are numerous techniques that can be applied to
forms to produce a variety of finishes to the concrete surface after the
forms are removed. For concrete buildings, the appearance of the
completed structure is often a major consideration in the design of

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 6 Chapter One

the structure. Forms for architectural concrete can apply to both the
interior and the exterior of the building.
Chapter 15, Slipforms, addresses the slipform techniques that
have been used successfully to form a variety of concrete structures.
Slipforms can be applied to horizontal construction, such as highway
pavements and curb-and-gutter construction, as well as to vertical
construction of walls, columns, elevator shafts, and so on.
Chapter 16, Forms for Concrete Bridge Decks, discusses the decking
of bridges, which are continuously exposed to adverse weather condi-
tions and direct contact with wheel loads from traffic. The deck portion of
bridges generally deteriorates and requires repair or replacement before
the substructure or foundation portions of the bridges. Thus, there is sig-
nificant time and cost devoted to formwork for bridge decking.
Chapter 17, Flying Deck Forms, describes the use of flying forms
for concrete structures. Flying forms is the descriptive name of a
forming system that is removed and reused repetitively to construct
multiple levels of a concrete structure. This system of formwork has
been applied successfully to many structures.
Appendix A indicates dimensional tolerances for concrete struc-
tures that can be used by the workers at the jobsite to fabricate and
erect forms that are acceptable.
Appendix B provides recommended guidelines for shoring concrete
formwork from the Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute.
Appendix C presents information related to safety regulations
that have been established by the United States Occupational Safety
and Health Act (OSHA) of 2009.
Appendix D provides a table of multipliers for converting from
the U.S. customary system to metric units of measure.
Appendix E contains a directory of organizations and companies
related to formwork. This directory contains addresses, phone numbers,
fax numbers, and websites to assist the reader in seeking formwork-
related information.

References
1. APA—The Engineered Wood Association, Concrete Forming, Tacoma, WA,
2004.
2. ACI Committee 347, American Concrete Institute, Guide to Formwork for Concrete,
Detroit, MI, 2004.
3. ANSI/AF&PA NDS-2005, American Forest & Paper Association, National Design
Specification for Wood Construction, Washington, DC, 2005.
4. Design Values for Wood Construction, Supplement to the National Design
Specification, National Forest Products Association, Washington, DC, 2005.
5. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Standards for the
Construction Industry, Part 1926, Subpart Q: Concrete and Masonry Construction,
Washington, DC, 2010.
6. American Institute of Timber Construction, Timber Construction Manual, 5th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2005.

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