ACCIDENT PREVENTION SYSTEM ON TURNING

A MINI PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

R NITHYA PRIYA (14102046)

P.K.SUVETHA (14102081)
I.THAHASIN (14102083)
T.VIJIYALAKSHMI (14102090)

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

VIVEKANANDHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

(AUTONOMOUS)

ELAYAMPALAYAM, TIRUCHENGODE – 637205

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600 025

APRIL-2017
 VIVEKANANDHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

(AUTONOMOUS)
ELAYAMPALAYAM, TIRUCHENGODE – 637205
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600 025
CERTIFICATE

The project work embodied in the present report entitled “ACCIDENT PREVENTION

SYSTEM ON TURNING” has carried out in the Department of “ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING”. The work reported herein does not form part of any

otherproject report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an

earlieroccasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.R.MOHANA PRIYA, M.Tech., Ph.D., K.JAYANTHI AP/EEE,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Professor Assistant Professor

Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Vivekanandha College of Engineering Vivekanandha College of Engineering

for Women, Tiruchengode for Women, Tiruchengode.

Place:
Date:
Submitted to the Viva voce Examination held on ………………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.
We are very grateful to our chairman VIDYA RATHNA, RASTRIYA
RATHAN,HINDRATHAN,KONGUNAATUSAATHANAIYALAR,PROF.
Dr.M.KARUNANITHI, B.Pharm..,M.S.,Ph.D.,D.Lit. for aiding us in our
endeavour to the project.
We also thanks to our administrative officer
Mr.M.CHOKKALINGAM,M.SC., B.ED., for his inspiring force throughout
the course and particularly to this project.
We are very grateful to our respected principal Dr.SURESH KUMAR
,M.Tech., M.S.,Ph.D., ofVivekanandha college of Engineering for Women for
their encouragement and inspiration.
We render our sincere thanks to Dr.R.MOHANAPRIYA,M.Tech.,Ph.D.,
professor&Head of the EEE,for this constant encouragement.We express our
earnest gratitude to our internal guide ,Mr.K.JAYANTHI,M.E., Assistant
professor,our project guide ,for his constant support ,encouragement and
guidance.We are greaterful for his cooperation and his valuable suggestion.We
take immense pleasure to thank our project coordinator
Mrs.K.JAYANTHI,M.E.,Assistant professor ,for the guidance to complete this
project successfully.we take sincere effort to acknowledge the guidance and
advice of all our favulty and non teaching staffs who have helped us in
completing this project.
iii.
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO

1 BATTERY 2
2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 4
3 CONNECTOR 8
4 PIC 16F877A 10
MICROCONTROLLER
5 PIN DIAGRAM 11
6 IR SENSOR 12
7 LED 15
8 RELAY 16
9 CRYSTALL OSCILLATOR 18

iv

ABSTRACT:
This simple ACCIDENT PREVENTION system ON TURNINGS project is very useful in
mountains hairpin bends and U turnings.From this project we can alert the driver through
LED signals to know that the vehicle is arriving the turn or blind spot.it reduces the accidents
occurring this project saves the life of humans for a safe and happy journey.

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES 1
1.2 COMPONENTS 1
1.3 COMPONENT DISCRIPTION 2
1.3.1 BATTERY 2
1.3.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 5
1.3.3 PIC MICROCONTROLLER 10
1.3.4 IR SENSOR 12
1.3.5 LED 14
1.3.6 RELAY 1
1.3.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR 21
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 23
2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 24
2.3 WORKING 25
2.4 APPLICATION 27
CONCLUSION 28
3 3.1 PHOTO COPY 29
3.2 REFERENCE 30

Vi
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCION
Our society facing lot of problems ,the major problem is accident.. Accidents are quite
common on Indian Roads. According to figures by the Road Safety Cell of the Union
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, there were 3.9 lakh accidents in 2000; 78,911
were killed and 3, 99,265 injured. Moreover with the rapid urbanization, India has seen an
un-precedent growth of motor vehicles. Currently motor vehicle accidents rank ninth in order
of disease burden and are projected to be ranked third in the year 2020. Worldwide, the
number of people killed in road traffic crashes each year is estimated at almost 1.2 million,
while the number injured could be as high as 50 million. In India, over 80,000 persons die in
the traffic crashes annually, over 1.2 million are injured seriously and about 300000 disabled
permanently.

Safety studies have found that a majority of accidents occur either due to the driver's error or
due to the negligence of the safety norms. The statistics show that more number of road
accidents take place at blind road corners where we are not able to visualize the incoming
vehicle. Vehicles taking a turn assuming no other vehicle is at the opposite end cause major road
accidents and results in maximum deaths.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this project is to reduce the accidents in hairpin bends and U
turnings .vehicle drivers generally not able to see the otherside view this cause accidents.
Through this project we can able reduce these types of problems. In this project two led’s
connected with two infrared sensors.which will be placed in the above mentioned placed.

1.2COMPONENTS
• BATTERY
• VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805
• PIC 16F877A MICROCONTROLLER
• IR SENSOR
• LED(LIGHT EMMIRATING DIODE)
 • RELAY
• CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

1.3 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

1.3.1 BATTERY

In this project we are using 9V battery transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape
with rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in
walkie talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline
chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium,
nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common,
have not been manufactured in many years due to their mercury content.

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5V LR61 cells enclosed
in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 and can be used in their place
for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with six
flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary
lithium types are made with 3 cells in series.

In 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the US. In
Switzerland in 2008, 9-volt batteries totalled 2% of primary battery sales and 2% of
secondary battery sales.
Other nine-volt batteries of different sizes exist, such as the British "Ever Ready" PP series
and certain lantern batteries.

Connectors

9-volt battery snap

The battery has both terminal a snap connector on one end. The smaller circular (male)
terminal is positive, and the larger hexagonal or octagonal (female) terminal is the negative
contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the connector itself; the smaller one
connects to the larger one and vice versa. The same snap-style connector is used on other
battery types in the Power Pack (PP) series.
Battery polarization is normally obvious since mechanical connection is usually only
possible in one configuration. A problem with this style of connector is that it is very easy to
connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both batteries,
generating heat and possibly a fire.
Because of this hazard, 9-volt batteries should be kept in the original packaging until they
are going to be used. An advantage is that several nine-volt batteries can be connected to each
other in series to provide higher

1.3.2.VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to fluctuations in the circuit. For
getting constant and steady output, the voltage regulators are implemented. The integrated
circuits which are used for the regulation of voltage are termed as voltage regulator ics. Here,
we can discuss about IC 7805.
The voltage regulator IC 7805 is actually a member of 78xx series of voltage regulator ics. It
is a fixed linear voltage regulator. The xx present in 78xx represents the value of the fixed
output voltage that the particular ic provides.

For 7805 ic, it is +5v dc regulated power supply. This regulator ic also adds a provision for
heat sink. The input voltage to this voltage regulator can be up to 35v and this ic can give a
constant 5v for any value of input less than or equal to 35v which is the threshold limit.

the function of this pin is to give the input voltage. It should be in the range of 7v to 35v. The
unregulated voltage is given to this pin for regulation. For 7.2v input, maximum efficiency
canbeachieved.
In ic 7805 voltage regulator, lots of energy is exhausted in the form of heat. The difference in
the value of input voltage and output voltage comes as heat. So if the difference is higher,
there will be more heat generation. Without a heat sink, this too much heat will cause
malfunction.
The bare minimum tolerable difference between the input and output voltage to keep the
output voltage in the accurate level is termed as dropout voltage. It is better to keep the input
voltage 2 to 3v greater than output voltage or a suitable heat sink should be placed to
dissipate excess heat. The heat sink size should have to be properly calculated. The following
formula will give an idea for this calculation.
Heatgenerated=(inputvoltage-5)*outputcurrent
now, we can analyse the relation of generated heat and the input voltage value in this
regulator with the following two examples. Assume a system with input voltage .

block diagram and working of 7805 voltage regulator

The internal block diagram of ic 7805 is represented in figure below: 
the block diagram comprises of an error amplifier, series pass element, current generator,
reference voltage, current generator, starting circuit, soa protection and thermal protection.

transistor is the series pass element here. It is used for dissipating additional energy in the
form of heat. It controls the output voltage by controlling the current among the input and
output. Soa is the safe operating area. It is in fact the conditions of voltage and current in
which the equipment is expected to work without any self-damage.
Here for the soa protection, bipolar transistor is implemented with a series resistor and an
auxiliary transistor. Heat sink is implemented for thermal protection when there is high
supply voltage.

Regulated power supply circuit

The voltage regulator 7805 and the other components are arranged in the circuit as shown in
figure.

the purposes of coupling the components to the ic7805 are explained below.
C1- it is the bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to the earth.
C2 and c3- they are the filter capacitors. C2 is used to make the slow changes in the input
voltage given to the circuit to the steady form.
C3 is used to make the slow changes in the output voltage from the regulator in the circuit to
the steady form. When the value of these capacitors increases, stabilization is enlarged. But
these capacitors single-handedly are unable to filter the very minute changes in the input and
outputvoltages.
C4- like c1, it is also a bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to the ground
or earth. This is done without influencing other components.
APPLICATIONS OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805 IC
 Current regulator
 Regulated dual supply
 Building circuits for phone charger, ups power supply circuits, portable cd player etc
 Fixed output regulator
 Adjustable output regulator etc.

1.3.3PIC 16F877A MICROCONTROLLER

The PIC microcontroller PIC16f877a is one of the most renowned microcontrollers in the
industry. This controller is very convenient to use, the coding or programming of this
controller is also easier. One of the main advantages is that it can be write-erase as many
times as possible because it use FLASH memory technology.
It has a total number of 40 pins and there are 33 pins for input and output. PIC16F877A is
used in many pic microcontroller  projects. PIC16F877A also have many application in
digital electronics circuits
PIC16f877a finds its applications in a huge number of devices. It is used in remote sensors,
security and safety devices, home automation and in many industrial instruments.
An EEPROM is also featured in it which makes it possible to store some of the information
permanently like transmitter codes and receiver frequencies and some other related data. The
cost of this controller is low and its handling is also easy. Its flexible and can be used in areas
where microcontrollers have never been used before as in coprocessor applications and timer
functions etc.
PIN CONFIGURATION AND DESCRIPTION Of PIC16F877A
As it has been mentioned before, there are 40 pins of this microcontroller IC. It consists of
two 8 bit and one 16 bit timer. Capture and compare modules, serial ports, parallel ports and
five input/output ports are also present in it.

PIN 1: MCLR
The first pin is the master clear pin of this IC. It resets the microcontroller and is active low,
meaning that it should constantly be given a voltage of 5V and if 0 V are given then the
controller is reset. Resetting the controller will bring it back to the first line of the program
that has been burned into the IC.
A push button and a resistor is connected to the pin. The pin is already being supplied by
constant 5V. When we want to reset the IC we just have to push the button which will bring
the MCLR pin to 0 potential thereby resetting the controller.

PIN 2: RA0/AN0
PORTA consists of 6 pins, from pin 2 to pin 7, all of these are bidirectional input/output pins.
Pin 2 is the first pin of this port. This pin can also be used as an analog pin AN0. It is built
in analog to digital converter.
PIN 3: RA1/AN1
This can be the analog input 1.

PIN 4: RA2/AN2/Vref-
It can also act as the analog input2. Or negative analog reference voltage can be given to it.

PIN 5: RA3/AN3/Vref+
It can act as the analog input 3. Or can act as the analog positive reference voltage.

PIN 6: RA0/T0CKI
To timer0 this pin can act as the clock input pin, the type of output is open drain.

PIN 7: RA5/SS/AN4
This can be the analog input 4. There is synchronous serial port in the controller also and this
pin can be used as the slave select for that port.

PIN 8: RE0/RD/AN5
PORTE starts from pin 8 to pin 10 and this is also a bidirectional input output port. It can be
the analog input 5 or for parallel slave port it can act as a ‘read control’ pin which will be
active low.

PIN 9: RE1/WR/AN6
It can be the analog input 6. And for the parallel slave port it can act as the ‘write control’
which will be active low.

PIN 10: RE2/CS/A7

It can be the analog input 7, or for the parallel slave port it can act as the ‘control select’
which will also be active low just like read and write control pins.

PIN 11 and 32: VDD

These two pins are the positive supply for the input/output and logic pins. Both of them
should be connected to 5V.

PIN 12 and 31: VSS

These pins are the ground reference for input/output and logic pins. They should be
connected to 0 potential.

PIN 13: OSC1/CLKIN

This is the oscillator input or the external clock input pin.

PIN 14: OSC2/CLKOUT

This is the oscillator output pin. A crystal resonator is connected between pin 13 and 14 to
provide external clock to the microcontroller. ¼ of the frequency of OSC1 is outputted by
OSC2 in case of RC mode. This indicates the instruction cycle rate.
PIN 15: RC0/T1OCO/T1CKI
PORTC consists of 8 pins. It is also a bidirectional input output port. Of them, pin 15 is the
first. It can be the clock input of timer 1 or the oscillator output of timer 2.

PIN 16: RC1/T1OSI/CCP2

It can be the oscillator input of timer 1 or the capture 2 input/compare 2 output/ PWM 2
output.

PIN 17: RC2/CCP1

It can be the capture 1 input/ compare 1 output/ PWM 1 output.

PIN 18: RC3/SCK/SCL

It can be the output for SPI or I2C modes and can be the input/output for synchronous serial
clock.

PIN 23: RC4/SDI/SDA

It can be the SPI data in pin. Or in I2C mode it can be data input/output pin.

PIN 24: RC5/SDO

It can be the data out of SPI in the SPI mode.

PIN 25: RC6/TX/CK

It can be the synchronous clock or USART Asynchronous transmit pin.

PIN 26: RC7/RX/DT

It can be the synchronous data pin or the USART receive pin.

PIN 19,20,21,22,27,28,29,30:
All of these pins belong to PORTD which is again a bidirectional input and output port.
When the microprocessor bus is to be interfaced, it can act as the parallel slave port.

PIN 33-40: PORT B

All these pins belong to PORTB. Out of which RB0 can be used as the external interrupt pin
and RB6 and RB7 can be used as in-circuit debugger pins.
PROGRAM THE INPUT AND OUTPUT PORTS of PIC16F877A
As we have studied 5 input and output ports namely PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTD
and PORTE which can be digital as well as analog. We will configure them according to our
requirements. But in case of analog mode, the pins or the ports can only act as inputs. There
is a built in A to D converter which is used in such cases. Multiplexer circuits are also used.

But in digital mode, there is no restriction. We can configure the ports as output or as input.
This is done through programming. For PIC the preferable compiler is mikro C pro which can
be downloaded from their website.

There is a register named as ‘TRIS’ which controls the direction of ports. For different ports
there are different registers such as TRISA, TRISB etc.

 If we set a bit of the TRIS register to 0, the corresponding port bit will act as the
digital output.
 If we set a bit of the TRIS register to 1, the corresponding port bit will act as the
digital input.
For example to set the whole portb to output we can write the program statement as:

TRISB=0;

Now the port will act as the output port and we can send any value on the output such as

PORTB=0XFF;

FF represents all 1’s in binary i.e. FF=11111111, now all the pins of port b are high. If we
connect LEDs at all the pins then they will all start glowing in this condition.

If we want to negate the values of the port b we can use the statement:

PORTB=~PORTB;

Now all the pins of the port b will be low.

CODE TO LIGHT UP A SINGLE LED/ FLASHING LED

void main()
 {

      TRISB.F0 = 0  // the direction of RB0 is set as output

                 //or TRISB = 0xFE (0xFE = 11111110)

      do // setting the infinite loop

      {

        PORTB.F0 = 1; // setting the RB0 pin to high

        Delay_ms(500); // delay of 500 milli seconds

        PORTB.F0 = 0; // setting the RB0 pin to low

        Delay_ms(500); // again a delay of 500 milli seconds

     }while(1);

 }

1.3.4 IR SENSOR

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion.These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is
called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiations.
These types of radiations are  invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an infrared
sensor.The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an
IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR
LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and these output voltages,
change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.
Infrared Radiation Theory

Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. In the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared
radiation can be found between the visible and microwave regions. The infrared waves
typically have wavelengths between 0.75 and 1000µm.

The wavelength region which ranges from 0.75 to 3µm is known as the near infrared regions.
The region between 3 and 6µm is known as the mid-infrared and infrared radiation which has
a wavelength greater higher than 6µm is known as far infrared.

Infrared technology finds applications in many everyday products. Televisions use an

infrared detector to interpret the signals sent from a remote control. The key benefits of
infrared sensors include their low power requirements, their simple circuitry and their
portable features.

The Foundations of Infrared Science

Infrared radiation was first discovered by the astronomer William Herschel. He conducted an
experiment in which he used a prism to refract light from the sun. Herschel was able to detect
the presence of infrared radiation beyond the red part of the visible spectrum using a
thermometer to measure an increase in temperature. In 1800 Herschel published his findings
to the Royal Society of London.  

The Types of Infrared Sensors

Infrared sensors are broadly classified into two main types:

  Thermal infrared sensors – use infrared energy as heat. Their photo sensitivity is
independent of the wavelength being detected. Thermal detectors do not require
cooling but do have slow response times and low detection capabilities.

 Quantum infrared sensors – provide higher detection performance and faster

response speed. Their photo sensitivity is dependent on wavelength. Quantum
detectors have to be cooled in order to obtain accurate measurements.

The Working Principle of Infrared Sensors

All objects which have a temperature greater than absolute zero (0 Kelvin) posses thermal
energy and are sources of infrared radiation as a result.

Sources of infrared radiation include blackbody radiators, tungsten lamps and silicon carbide.
Infrared sensors typically use infrared lasers and LEDs with specific infrared wavelengths as
sources.

A transmission medium is required for infrared transmission, which can be comprised of

either a vacuum, the atmosphere or an optical fiber.

Optical components, such as optical lenses made from quartz, CaF 2, Ge and Si, polyethylene
Fresnel lenses and Al or Au mirrors, are used to converge or focus the infrared radiation. In
order to limit spectral response, band-pass filters can be used.

Next, infrared detectors are used in order to detect the radiation which has been focused. The
output from the detector is usually very small and hence pre-amplifiers coupled with circuitry
are required to further process the received signals.

The Key Applications of Infrared Technology

Night Vision Devices

Infrared technology is implemented in night vision equipment if there is not enough visible
light available to see unaided. Night vision devices convert ambient photons of light into
electrons and then amplify them using a chemical and electrical process, before finally
converting them back into visible light.

Infrared Astronomy

Infrared astronomy is a field of astronomy which studies astronomical objects which are
visible in infrared radiation. Using telescopes and solid state detectors, astronomers are able
to observe objects in the universe which are impossible to detect using light in the visible
range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Infrared observatories have been set up in space such as the Spitzer Space Telescope and the
Herschel Space Observatory, which are not affected by the absorption of infrared light by
water vapour in the Earth's atmosphere.

Infrared Tracking

Infrared tracking, or infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which operates using the
infrared electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target in order to track it. These missile
systems are often known as 'heat-seekers' as infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies such
as people, vehicles and aircraft.

Art History and Restoration

Art Restoration Technology

Infrared Imaging of Artwork for Analysis and Restoration

Infrared reflectography is used by art historians in order to reveal hidden layers in paintings.
This technique is useful in order to decide whether a painting is an original version or a copy,
and whether it has been altered by restoration work.

Hyperspectral Imaging
Hyperspectral imaging accumulates and processes information from across the
electromagnetic spectrum and can be used to track nanoparticles inside large living
organisms.

Other Key Application Areas

 Climatology
 Meteorology
 Night vision
 Photobiomodulation
 Gas detectors
 Water analysis
 Anesthesiology testing

Petroleum exploration

1.3.5 LED(Light Emitting Diode)

Fig.no.6

These diodes convert the electrical energy in to light energy. First production started in 1968.
It undergoes electroluminescence process in which holes and electrons are recombined to
produce energy in the form of light in forward bias condition. Earlier they used in inductor
lamps but now in recent applications they are using in environmental and task handling.
Mostly used in applications like aviation lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is ap–n
junction diode, which emits light when activated. [4] When a suitablevoltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy
in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]Appearing as practical electronic
components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light.

Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits,
such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-
light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.Early LEDs were
often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent bulbs. They
were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were
commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting,traffic signals, camera flashes
and etc..

LED STRUCTURE:
The LED structure plays a crucial role in emitting light from the LED surface. The
LEDs are structured to ensure most of the recombinations takes place on the surface by the
following two ways. By increasing the doping concentration of the substrate, so that
additional free minority charge carriers electrons move to the top, recombine and emit light at
the surface. By increasing the diffusion length L = √ Dτ, where D is the diffusion coefficient
and τ is the carrier life time. But when increased beyond a critical length there is a chance of
re-absorption of the photons into the device. The LED has to be structured so that the photons
generated from the device are emitted without being reabsorbed. One solution is to make the
p layer on the top thin, enough to create a depletion layer. Following picture shows the
layered structure. There are different ways to structure the dome for efficient emitting LEDs
are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

LED EFFICIENCY
A very important metric of an LED is the external quantum efficiency ηext. It quantifies the
efficeincy of the conversion of electrical energy into emitted optical energy. It is defined as
the light output divided by the electrical input power. It is also defined as the product of
Internal radiative efficiency and Extraction efficiency.

APPLICATIONS
LED have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.
• Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys
• Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)
• Lighting
• Indicators and signs
• Optoisolators and optocouplers

ADVANTAGES OF USING LEDs

• LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in battery
powered or energy-saving devices.
• LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that traditional
lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
• The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner.
• When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change their color tint
as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike incandescent lamps, which turn
yellow. • LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or High
Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps that require a long time before restarting.
• LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock.
Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the ground.
• LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. A Philips LUXEON k2 LED has a life time of
about 50,000 hours, whereas Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and
incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.
• LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent
bulbs.
• LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in
microseconds; Philips Lumileds technical datasheet DS23 for the Luxeon Star states "less
than 100ns." LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.
• LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
• LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.

DISADVANTAGES
• LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than
more conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the
relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However,
when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs),
LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten the future existence
of compact fluorescent lamps.
• LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating
of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required
to maintain long life (See Appendix8 9).
• LEDs must be supplied with the correct current. This can involve series resistors or current-
regulated power supplies.
• LEDs do not approximate a "point source" of light, so they cannot be used in applications
needing a highly collimated beam. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a
few degrees. This is contrasted with commercial ruby lasers with divergences of 0.2 degrees
or less. However this can be corrected by using lenses and other optical devices.
• There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and white LEDs are now capable of exceeding
safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in the eye safety specifications for
example Recommended Practice for Photo biological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.
LEDs in the future: LEDs have come a long way and currently they are widely used in many
 applications. In future, I believe research will continue for high intenisty LEDs, eventhough
heat dissipation is an issue.

CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

BATTERY PIC IR SENSOR2

16F877A
MICRO
CONTROLLER

7805 VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

LED2
 IR
SENSOR1

LED1

2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2.3 WORKING OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION SYSTREM
2.4 APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER3

CONCLUSION

.
3.1 PHOTO COPY
3.2REFERENCE
1) Robert C. Eichler, TECHNICAL SERVICES, Vancouver, WA” The Causes of Injury in
Rollover Accidents”
2) Hirofumi Yotsutsuji,Hideyuki Kita,Kazuki Kitamura”Accident-preventive Measure
Selection Method based on the Speed Cognition of Lead-vehicle Driver”
3) Pranay D. Saraf, Nekita A. Chavan” Pre-crash Sensing and Warning on Curves:”
4) Mehran Safdar” A Mobile Vehicle Weight Sensor and its Application in Transportation”
5) Samantha Chen, Andry Rakotonirainy” a crash risk assessment model for road curves”
6) Rico steyer”Design criteria for curves on two lane rural highways”
7) Dr. NSSR Murthy, R. Srinivasa Rao” Development of model for road accidents based on
intersection parameters using regression model