Analysis of Structures

Analysis of Structures
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Hasan Zubydan

Analysis of Structures
B
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Hasan Zubydan

Professor of Structural Engineering
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering
PortSaid University.
Contents
Chapter 1 Statics of Structures 1
1.1 Supports and Reactions 1

1.2 Stability and Determinancy 2
1.3 Condition Equations 4
1.4 Computation of Reactions 15
Chapter 2 Trusses 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Trusses Configuration 31
2.3 Condition Equations 32
2.4 Stability and Determinancy 33
2.5 Methods of Analysis of Simple and Compound Trusses 45
2.6 Method of Joints 45
2.7 Method of Sections 58
2.8 Complex Trusses 80
2.9 Graphical Method of Joints (Maxwell Diagram) 84
Chapter 3 Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 103
3.1 Introduction 103

3.2 Axial Force, Shear Force, and Bending Moment Diagrams 104
3.3 Relationship between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment 125
Chapter 4 Influence Lines for Statically determinate Structures 187
4.1 Introduction 187

4.2 Applications of Influence Lines 246
4.3 Distributed Load 247
4.4 Concentrated Load 250
4.5 Maximum Absolute Bending Moment 256
1
Statics of Structures
1.1 SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS
Reaction forces are developed at supports of a structure to equilibrate the effect of the
applied forces. The supports through which a structure transmits its load to the supporting
foundation can be classified as follows:
Roller support:
This support provides restraint against linear movement in the direction normal to supporting
surface as shown in Fig. 1.1a. The magnitude of the resultant reaction force at node a is given
directly by Ra. The direction of Ra is perpendicular to the roller surface and the point of
application is at point a.
Hinge support:
It constrains all translations at the point of attachment, but the structure is free to rotate about
this point. The unknown independent reaction components are Ya and Xa as shown in Fig 1.1b.
Fixed support:
It constrains the point of attachment from translation and rotation. With this type of supports,
there are three unknowns. The unknowns are two reaction forces Xa and Ya in addition to a
fixing moment Ma as shown in Fig. 1.1c.
Guide support:
It constrains the structure from rotation and translation normal to the guide slot as shown in
Fig. 1.1d. Thus, while there is no reactive forces parallel to the slot, there is an unknown force
normal to the slot (Ra) and an unknown bending moment at the support (Ma).
a a
Ra Ra
(a) Roller support

2 Structural analysis I, by Prof. Dr. Ahmed Zubydan.
Xa a Xa a
Ya Ya
(b) Hinge support
Ma Ma
Xa a Xa a
Ya
(c) Fixed support (d) Guide support
Fig. 1.1 Symbols for various support types
1.2 STABILITY AND DETERMINANCY
A structure is considered geometrically stable if for any incipient movement, due to any
conceivable system of applied loads, an elastic resistance to this movement is immediately
developed. A structure is considered statically determinate if the external reactions and the
internal member forces can be determined only by considering the equations of statical
equilibrium without any references to the elastic properties of the structural members.
A rigid planar structure can be acted upon by a general system of forces that can be
combined into a single force and a single moment. For statical stability and determinancy,
the number and arrangement of reactions must be such that they keep the external forces in
equilibrium. Since there are three equations of static equilibrium (  Fx = 0,  Fy = 0,  M
= 0) for planar structures, there must be three components of reactions, which are neither
parallel nor concurrent. If the components of reactions are less than three, the structure is
unstable. If the number of reaction components is three, and if those components are neither
parallel nor concurrent, the structure is externally stable and determinate. If the number of
reaction components is greater than three, and if the components are arranged such that they
are neither parallel nor concurrent, the structure is externally stable and statically
indeterminate. The degree of external indeterminancy is defined as the number of unknown
reactions in excess of the number of the available equations of statics plus the number of
equations of construction.
The conditions are summarized in the following criteria:
r < 3; structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3; structure is statically determinate externally
r > 3; structure is statically indeterminate externally
where r is the total number of unknown reaction components.

The preceding criteria must be applied with some discretion. If r < 3, the structure is
definitely unstable; however, in cases where r  3, the structure is not necessarily stable. It is
Statics of structures 3
possible that the reaction components are not properly arranged to ensure external stability.
These structures category are geometrically unstable.
Figures 1.2 to 1.4 gives the statical classification of several structures. The simple beam
shown in Fig. 1.2a is unstable because the number of reaction components is less than three (r
= 2). Since the beam shown of Fig 1.2b has no reaction to equilibrate the horizontal component
of the applied loading, the structure will move horizontally if any horizontal load acts on the
beam. On the other hand, the structures shown in Figs. 1.2c and 1.2d have the supports
arranged so that the lines of action of all three reactions intersect at one point. So, the structures
shown in Figs. 1.2a to 1.2d are geometrically unstable. The structures shown in Figs. 1.3a to
1.3f have three reaction components that are neither parallel nor concurrent. Therefore, they
are stable and statically determinate. Finally, the structures shown in Figs 1.4a to 1.4c have
more than three reaction components. These reaction components are neither parallel nor
concurrent, so these structures are stable and statically indeterminate.
(a) (b)
o
o
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.2 Unstable structures
(a) (b)
Link
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.3 Stable and statically determinate structures
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 1.4 Stable and statically indeterminate structures
1.3 CONDITION EQUATIONS
Some structures incorporate unique internal features of construction that significantly

affect the behavior of the system and require special attention from the structural engineer.
For example, the beam shown in Fig. 1.5a has an internal hinge at b. This hinge results in no
bending moment transmission through the beam at point b. The free body diagrams for the
two beam segments ab and bc indicates that  Mb = 0 for the two individual free-body
diagrams. The one independent equation introduced by the condition of construction is
referred to as an equation of condition. For the intermediate roller of Fig. 1.5b, only the force
normal to the axes of the beams will be transmitted. This gives two equations of condition
since the force parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam and the moment are both zero at
the roller.
Thus for a structure with c condition equations, the following criteria is applied:
r < 3 + c ; structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3 + c ; structure is statically determinate externally
r > 3 + c ; structure is statically indeterminate externally
a b Hinge c Roller
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4 Condition equations
The number of condition equations given by an intermediate hinge depends

on the number of sides that is connected by this hinge. Generally, the number
of condition equations c is given as
c = n – 1 ………………………………………………(1.1)
in which n is the number of sides which is connected with the hinge. For example, the hinge
given in Fig. 1.6a gives one condition equation because this hinge connects two sides. On the
other hand, the hinges shown in Figs 1.6b and 1.6c give two and three condition equations,
respectively.
n = 2; c = 1 n = 2; c = 1 n = 2; c = 1 n = 2; c = 1
(a) One condition equation
n = 3; c = 2 n = 3; c = 2 n = 4; c = 3
(b) Two condition equations (c) Three condition equations
Fig. 1.6 Number of condition equations given by intermediate hinge.

The frames that contain closed panels require an internal classification in addition to the
external classification. Each closed panel requires three internal condition equations to be
solved. Let e be the number of internal condition equations for a closed panel. Then, the
following condition prevail for each closed panel.
e > 3; structure is statically unstable internally

e = 3; structure is statically determinate internally
e < 3; structure is statically indeterminate internally
The stability of the frames that contain closed forms can also be determined by cutting the
structure more than one part and by determining the stability of each portion, the whole stability
of the structure is evaluated.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Classify each of the following structures with respect to stability and statical determinancy
(a) (b)
r1 r2
a
a b c b
c
b'
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=3+1=4
r=3
3+c>r unstable
Structure (b)
3+c=3+2=5
r=5
3+c=r stable and statically determinate
Structures (c) and (d)

3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
For structure (c), the node b can moves a short distance perpendicular to the line ac without
any resistance of members ab or bc. Hence, the structural system (c) is geometrically unstable
since the shape of the structure can be altered without any change in length of any member.
The structure (c) is said to be the critical form. This situation does not exist in the stable
structure (d) since the two arcs r1 and r2 have no common tangent and any incipient movement
of b will generate an immediate resistant from the various parts of the structure.
EXAMPLE 1. 2
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
Structure (a) has no resistance against horizontal loads, so this structure is unstable
Structure (b)
3+c=3+2=5
r=4
3+c>r unstable
Structure (c)
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
Structure (d)
3+c=3+0=3
r=5
3+c<r stable and statically indeterminate to
the second degree
EXAMPLE 1.3
a b c
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structures (a), (b), and (c)
3+c=3+2=5
r=5
3+c=r
It is noticed that the part abc of the structure (b) has a critical form, so this structure is
unstable. On the other hand, structures (a) and (c) are stable and statically determinate.
Structure (d)
3+c=3+3=6
r=5
3+c>r unstable
EXAMPLE 1.4
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structures (a), (b), and (c)
These structures are unstable because the reaction components are concurrent.
Structure (d)
3+c=3+2=5
r=5
EXAMPLE 1.5
(a) (b)
a b
a
b
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
Structure (b)
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
Structure (c)
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
The part ab couldn’t resist any load has a vertical component, so this part is unstable.
Structure (d)
3+c=3+2=5
r=6
3+c<r
The part ab couldn’t resist any load has a horizontal component, so this part is unstable.
EXAMPLE 1.6
b c
a d
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
3+c=r externally stable and statically determinate
e=3 internally stable and statically determinate

Structure (b)
The part abcd couldn’t resist any lateral loads. So the
3 +c=4 c
structure is unstable. Another way for detecting the stability of
b r =4
the structure by dividing it into two portions as shown in figure
and assuming that the upper portion resting on the lower one. It d
is noticed that the upper portion is stable and statically a
determinate while part ab of the lower portion is unstable. So
the structure is unstable
e
d f
Structure (c) 3+c=4 f
When the structure is divided into two portions and b r=4
assuming that the upper portion is resting on the lower one as shown
3+c=4
in figure. It is noticed that, portion bdef is stable and statically b r=4
determinate. On the other portion, part ahg is a critical form, so the a h g
structure is unstable.
Structure (d)
3+c=4
When the structure is divided into two portions and assuming r=4
that the upper portion is resting on the lower one as shown in
figure. It is noticed that, each of the two portions is stable and
statically determinate. So, the structure is stbale and statically 3+c=4
r=4
determinate.
EXAMPLE 1.7
Classify each of the following structures with respect to stability and statical determinancy.
a c
b
(a) (b)
c
e=3 e=3
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structures (a) and (b)

3+c=3+3=6
r=6
3+c=r
The part abc on the structure (b) has a critical form, so this structure is unstable. On the other
hand, structure (a) is stable and statically determinate.
Structure (c)
3+c=3+1=4 external condition equation is given by hinge at c
r=4
It is also noticed that each closed form has three condition equations (e = 3 ), so the structure
is internally stable and statically determinate.
Structure (d)
When the structure is divided into two portions and 3 + c = 3; r = 3
assuming that the upper portion carrying the lower one
as shown in figure. It is noticed that, each of the two
portions is stable and statically determinate. So, the 3+c=5
structure is stable and statically determinate. r=5
EXAMPLE 1.8
e =3
e =3
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
Since each closed form has three condition equations, then the structure is internally stable
and statically determinate
3+c =4
Structure (b) r= 4
Dividing the structure into three portions and assuming that each
portion resting on the lower one as shown in figure. It is noticed that,
each portion is stable and statically determinate. So, the structure is
3+c =4
stable and statically determinate. r= 4
3+c =3 3+c =3
r= 3 r= 3
Structure (c)
3+c=3+4=7
r=7
Structure (d)
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
EXAMPLE 1.9
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=4
Dividing the structure into three portions as shown in r=4
figure. It is noticed that, each portion is stable and statically 3+c=3
determinate. So, the structure is stable and statically r=3
determinate.
3+c=4
r=4
Structure (b)
3+c=3+3=6
r=6
Structure (c) 3+c =3

r=3
Dividing the structure into two portions and assuming that the
upper portion carrying the lower one as shown in figure. It is
noticed that, each portion is stable and statically determinate. So,
the structure is stable and statically determinate. 3+c =5
r=5
Structure (d)
3+c=3+3=6
r=7
3+c<r stable and statically indeterminate to the first degree
EXAMPLE 1.10
(a) (b)
c d
b
e=3
(c)
(d)
a e
SOLUTION
Structure (a) 3+c=3

r=3
Dividing the structure into three portions as shown in
figure. It is noticed that, each portion is stable and statically
3+c=4 3+c=4
determinate. So, the structure is stable and statically r=4 r=4
determinate.
Structure (b)
Dividing the structure into two portions and assuming that 3+c=5
the upper portion is resting on the lower one as shown in figure. r=7
It is noticed that, the lower portion is stable and statically
determinate while the upper portion is stable and statically
3+c=3
indeterminate to the second degree. By summing the two r=3
portions once again, the structure is stable and statically
indeterminate to the second degree.
Structure (c)
Dividing the structure into two portions and
assuming that the upper portion resting on the lower one as 3+c=4
r=4
shown in figure. It is noticed that, the upper portion is
stable and statically determinate while lower portion is
unstable. Then, the structure is unstable. 3+c=4
r=3
Structure (d)
3+c=3+1=4 external condition equation is given by the hinge at d
r=4
3+c=r externally stable and statically determinate.
e=3 internally stable and statically determinate.
EXAMPLE 1.11
a
(c) (d)
SOLUTION
Structure (a)
3+c=3+3=6
r=5
3+c>r unstable.
Structure (b)
3+c=3+3=6
r=6
3+c=r
In this structure, the column ab couldn’t resist any lateral loading, so the structure is unstable.
Structure (c)
3+c=3+1=4 (the condition equation is given by the hinge at a)
r=3
3+c>r unstable.
It is noticed that the condition equation given by the hinge at a couldn’t be used to find the
additional reaction component. Moreover, the part abc couldn’t resist any lateral loading. So,
the structure is unstable
Structure (d) 3+c=3

Dividing the structure into two portions as shown in r=3
figure. It is noticed that, each portion is stable and statically
determinate. So, the structure is stable and statically 3+c=4
determinate. r=4
e=3
1.4 COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS
The equations of static equilibrium play a vital role in determining the reactions for any
structure. If the structure is statically determinate externally, these equations provide all whate
is needed for the solution, whereas for statically indeterminate cases, the equations of
equilibrium remain applicable, but they are not sufficient for the solution.
In determining the reactions, a free-body diagram (FBD)of the entire structure is
constructed. All given forces are shown to act in their prescribed direction, and each unknown
reaction component is assumed to act in a specified direction. The equations of static
equilibrium are applied in consistency with the assumed directions, and these equations are
solved for the unknown reactions. If the solution yields a positive reaction component, then
the assumed direction is correct, whereas a negative result indicates that the opposite direction
is correct. In the latter case, care must be exercised in subsequent calculations. If the negative
sign is retained, then the originally assumed direction must also be retained. However, the
direction can be reversed on the free-body diagram and a positive sign can then be used in
subsequent steps.
EXAMPLE 1.12
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown. 20 kN 50 kN 30 kN
a b e
c d
3m 3m 2m 4m
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram
The reaction at b has two unknown components, whereas the reaction at point e has only a
single unknown component as shown in the figure.
20 kN 50 kN 30 kN
b e
Xb
Yb Ye
Determination of Reactions
 Px = 0: (→+) Xb = 0
 Me = 0: Yb  9 – 20  12 – 50  6 – 30  4 = 0
Yb = 73.3 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Ye + Yb – 20 – 50 –30 = 0
Ye + 73.3 – 20 – 50 –30 = 0
Ye = 26.7 kN
The positive sign indicates that the reaction components act in the assumed direction on the
free-body diagram.
EXAMPLE 1.13
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown. 40 kN/m
60 kN.m
a d
b c
3m 2m 1m
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram
The distributed load is replaced by a resultant concentrated force applied at its centroidal
position. The unknown reaction components are also shown.
1m 60 kN
60 kN.m
a d Xd
Ya
Yd
 Px = 0: (→+) Xd = 0
 Md = 0: Ya  6 – 60  5 + 60 = 0
Ya = 40 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yd + Ya – 60 = 0
Yd + 40 – 60 = 0
Yd = 20 kN
EXAMPLE 1.14
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown. 40 kN 60 kN 10 kN/m
4
a 3 f
b d e
3m 1m 2m 2m 3m
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram
The inclined force is shown resolved into two components.
48 kN 50 kN
40 kN 2.5 m
Xa a 36 kN
e
Ya Ye
 Px = 0: (→+) – Xd + 36 = 0
Xd = 36 kN
 Me = 0: Ya  8 – 40  5 – 48  2 + 50  0.5 = 0
Ya = 33.9 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Ye + Ya – 40 – 48 – 50 = 0
Ye + 33.9 – 40 – 48 – 50 = 0
Ye = 104.1 kN
EXAMPLE 1.15
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown. 15 kN 10 kN 15 kN
5 kN/m
a f i
b c d e g h
6m 2 2 2 2 2 3m 2
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram
The structure is separated into three separate free bodies, and the unknown reactions and
internal forces at the hinges are shown in the figure.
15 kN
c e
Xc Xe
40 kN
4m Yc Ye 10 kN 15 kN
Xa f i
a b c Xc Xe e
Ya Yb Yf Yi
Free body ce
The free body diagram ce is treated as a simply supported beam and thus inherently use the
equilibrium conditions. The reactions (internal forces transferred at hinges) are
Xc = Xe = 0 ; Yc = Ye = 7.5 kN
Free body abc
 Px = 0: (→+) Xa = 0
 Mb = 0: Ya  6 – 40  2 + Yc  2 = 0
Ya  6 – 40  2 + 7.5  2 = 0
Ya = 10.8 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yb + Ya – Yc – 40 = 0
Yb + 10.8 – 7.5 – 40 = 0
Yb = 36.7 kN
Free body efi
 Mi = 0: Yf  7 – Ye  9 – 10  5 – 15  2 = 0
Yf  7 – 7.5  9 – 10  5 – 15  2 = 0
Yf = 21.1 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yi + Yf – Ye – 10 –15 = 0
Yi + 21.1 – 7.5 – 10 –15 = 0
Yi = 11.4 kN
EXAMPLE 1.16
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown. 40 kN 15 kN/m 40 kN
10 kN/m
a c d e 20 kN
b f
SOLUTION 4m 4m 1 5m 2m
Free-Body Diagram
The structure is broken into two separate free bodies, and the unknown reactions and internal
forces at the hinge are shown in figure.
37.5 kN
1.67m 40 kN
Xd d
40 kN e f 20 kN
2m 40 kN Yd
c Ye
a
Xc d Xd
Ya Yc
Free body def
 Px = 0: (→+) Xd – 20 = 0
Xd = 20 kN
 Me = 0: Yd  5 + 40  2 – 37.5  1.67 = 0
Yd = – 3.5 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Ye + Yd – 37.5 – 40 = 0
Ye – 3.5 – 37.5 – 40 = 0
Ye = 81 kN
Free body acd
 Px = 0: (→+) Xc – Xd = 0
Xc – 20 = 0
Xc = 20 kN
 Mc = 0: Ya  8 + Yd  1 – 40  6 – 40  4 = 0
Ya  8 –3.5  1 – 40  6 – 40  4 = 0
Ya = 50.4 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yc + Ya – Yd – 40 – 40 = 0
Yc + 50.4 + 3.5 – 40 – 40 = 0
Yc = 26.1 kN
EXAMPLE 1.17
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. d
20 kN
40 kN.m 2m
a b c f
2m
SOLUTION e
3m 2m 2m
Free-Body Diagram
The reactions of the link members are shown in their components that are function of the force
in the link member and the inclination of the link.
2/2.83 F Fd
d
d
2 2/2.83 F d
2
83
40 kN.m 20 kN
2.
a c f
Ya
2.
83
2
2 2/2.83 F e
e
2/2.83 F e Fe
 Mc = 0: Ya  5 + 20  2 – 40 = 0
Ya = 0
 Me = 0: 2/2.83 Fd  4 – 40 = 0
Fd = 14.1 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) – 2/2.83 Fe + 2/2.83 Fd = 0

Fe = Fd
Fe = 14.1 kN
EXAMPLE 1.18
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. 40 kN.m 60 kN 20 kN/m
c b d e
4m
a f
SOLUTION 2m 5m 3m 3m
120 kN 3m
40 kN.m 60 kN
d
b
7
Free body diagram

4 .4
4 4
2/4.47 F a 2 3
a f Xf
Fa Yf
4/4.47 F a
 Mf = 0: 4/4.47 Fa  10 + 40 – 60  8 = 0
Fa = 49.2 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) – Xf + 2/4.47 Fa = 0
– Xf + 2/4.47  49.2 = 0
Xf = 22 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yf + 4/4.47 Fa – 60 – 120 = 0

Yf + 4/4.47  49.2 – 60 – 120 = 0
Yf = 136 kN
EXAMPLE 1.19
Calculate the reactions for the frame shown. al
onH
m
20 kN kN/ d 30 kN 1.5 m
12
1.5 m
c b e 10 kN
4m
a f
SOLUTION 2m 6m 4m
72 kN
20 kN 30 kN
10 kN
3m
Free body diagram
Xa
a f
Yf
Ya
 Px = 0: (→+) Xa – 30 – 10 = 0
Xa = 40 kN
 Mf = 0: Ya  10 – 20  12 – 72  7 – 30  5.5 – 10  4= 0
Ya = 94.9 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yf + Ya – 20 – 72 = 0
Yf + 94.9 – 20 – 72 = 0
Yf = – 2.9 kN
EXAMPLE 1.20
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. 15 kN 50 kN
b c
a
4m
10 kN/m
d
1m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
15 kN 50 kN c
Xb b
Yb
 Mc (left) = 0
40 kN
Free-Body Diagram 2m
 Mc (bottom) = 0
Xd d
Yd
 Mc (left)= 0: Yb  6 – 15  7 – 50  3 = 0
Yb = 42.5 kN
 Mc (bottom)= 0: Xd  4 – 40  2= 0
Xd = 20 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yd + Yb – 15 – 50 = 0
Yd + 42.5 – 15 – 50 = 0
Yd = 22.5 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) Xb + Xd – 40 = 0
Xb + 20 – 40 = 0
Xb = 20 kN
EXAMPLE 1.21
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. 20 kN
15 kN/m 18 kN/m
b c d
4m
a 1m
SOLUTION
2m 4m
30 kN 60 kN
20 kN
1m c 2m
36 kN
Free body diagram

8/3
 M c (left) = 0
Xe
e
Xa Ye
a
Ya
 Mc (left)= 0: Ya  2 – Xa  5 – 30  1 = 0 ……………………….………(a)
 Me = 0: Ya  6 – Xa  1 + 20  4 – (15  6)  3 – 36  8/3 = 0 ……(b)
Solving (a) and (b),
Xa = 14 kN; Ya = 50 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Ye + Ya – (15  6) = 0
Ye = 40 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) – Xe + Xa + 20 – 36 = 0
Xe = – 2 kN
EXAMPLE 1.22
Calculate the reactions for the frame shown. 30 kN
40 kN 8k
N/ m
20 kN d 35 kN
3m
b
c e f
3m
80 kN
g 3m
a
SOLUTION 2m 3m 3m 6m 2m
30 kN 53.67 kN
40 kN d
20 kN 35 kN
3m
e
80 kN
Free body diagram  M e (bottom)
=0
Xa a  Md (right) = 0 Xg
g
Ma
Yg
Ya
 Me (bottom)= 0: Xg  6 + 80  3 = 0
Xg = – 40 kN
 Md (right)= 0: Yg  6 – Xg  9 - 80  6 – 35  8 – 53.67  3 = 0
Yg  6 + 40  9 – 80  6 – 35  8– 53.67  3 = 0
Yg = 93.5 kN
 Ma = 0: Ma – Yg  12 – 80  3 – 35  8 +35  14 + 53.67  9+ 30  6 +
40  3 – 20  2 = 0
Mg = 129 kN.m
 Py = 0: (+) Ya + Yg – 20 – 40 –30 – 53.67 – 35 = 0

Ya = 85.2 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) Xa – Xg – 80 = 0
Xa = 40 kN
EXAMPLE 1.23
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. 8 kN/m
a b c
3m
d e f 15 kN
g
30 kN 40 kN
Free-Body Diagram
40 kN
Ma 2.5 m
a b c
Xa
2/3.61F be 2/3.61Fcf 3/3.61F be 3/3.61F cf
Ya
b c
3/3.61Fbe 3/3.61Fcf 2/3.61F be 2/3.61F cf
2
3/3.61Fbe 3/3.61Fcf
3
1
3.6
2/3.61F be 2/3.61Fcf 2/3.61F be 2/3.61F cf

d f
e
e f g 15 kN
Yd 3/3.61F be
30 kN 40 kN 3/3.61F cf
4.5 m
Free Body defg
 Mo = 0: 2/3.61 Fcf  4.5 – 3/3.61 Fcf  7 + 30  3 + 40  7 – 15  4.5 = 0

Fcf = 90.9 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) – 2/3.61 Fbe + 2/3.61 Fcf – 15 = 0

– 2/3.61 Fbe + 2/3.61  90.9 – 15 = 0
Fbe = 63.9 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yd + 3/3.61 Fcf – 3/3.61 Fbe – 30 – 40 = 0

Yd + 3/3.61  90.9 – 3/3.61  64 – 30 – 40 = 0
Yd = 47.5 kN
Free Body abc
 Ma = 0: Ma – 40  2.5 + 3/3.61 Fbe  5 – 3/3.61 Fcf  9 = 0

Ma – 40  2.5 + 3/3.61  64  5 – 3/3.61  90.9  9 = 0
Ma = 515 kN.m
 Px = 0: (→+) Xa + 2/3.61 Fbe – 2/3.61 Fcf = 0

Xa + 2/3.61  64 – 2/3.61  90.9 = 0
Xa = 15 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Ya – 40 + 3/3.61  Fbe – 3/3.61  Fbe = 0

Ya + 40 + 3/3.61  64 – 3/3.61  90.9 = 0
Ya = 62.5 kN
EXAMPLE 1.24
Calculate the reactions for the structure shown. 8 kN/m
10 kN
15 kN d e f 10 kN
12 kN/m
3m
c b g j
i
4m
a h k
24 kN 48 kN
10 kN
15 kN 48 kN
e 3m 10 kN
1.5m
Free body diagram i 2m
 Me (left) = 0
Xa Xh
a h k
Ya Yh Yk
 Mi (right) = 0
 Mi (right)= 0: Yk  4 – 48  2 = 0
Ya = 24 kN
 Mh = 0: Ya  9 – 15  11 – (8  9)  4.5 – 10  7 + 10  2 + 48  4
– Yk  6 = 0
Ya  9 – 15  11 – (8  9)  4.5 – 10  7 + 10  2 + 48  4
– 24  6 = 0
Ya = 54.6 kN
 Me (left)= 0: Xa  7 – Ya  3 + 15  5 + 24  1.5 = 0
Xa  7 – 54.6  3 + 15  5 + 24  1.5 = 0
Xa = 7.5 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) – Xh + Xa – 10 = 0
– Xh + 7.5 – 10 = 0
Xh = – 2.5 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yh + Ya + Yk – 15 – (8  9) – 10 – 48 = 0
Yh + 54.6 + 24 – 15 – (8  9) – 10 – 48 = 0
Yh = 66.4 kN
Problems
Calculate the reactions for the following structures:
20 kN
10 kN/m 6 kN/m
a c a
b b c
1
7m 2 3m 5m 2m
(1) (2)
30 kN 40 kN
20 kN 15 kN/m
1 15 kN/m
b 1 a
a c e f c
d b d e
30 kN.m
2m 2m 2m 4m 2m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.0 m
(3) (4)
N/m d
20 kN
8k 2m
30 kN
8 kN/m
b d e g
a
c f b
c
6m 3m 5m 2m 3m 2m
10 kN
1m 4m
(5) (6)
20 kN
10 kN/m 40 kN.m 10 kN/m
a b e
f
c d
40 kN 40 kN
3m
3m 20 kN
a b
d e c
f
3m 3m 2m 4m
6m 2m 3m 2m
(7) (8)
60 kN
30 kN/m
e 40 kN
b f 20 kN/m
c d
b e
80 kN c d
2.5 m
6m
60 kN 2.5 m
a g a
1.5 m 5m 3m 2m 3m 3m 2m 4m 4m
(9) (10)
20 kN/m 20 kN
20 kN d
10 kN/m 30 kN g
30 kN.m e f
c f 2m
a g
10 kN/m
b d c b
4m 2m
20 kN a
e h h
2m
i
3m 4m 3m 4m 2m
1m 8m 2m
(11) (12)
20 kN
10 kN/m 20 kN/m
b d d
a c b
c
2m
4m
a 40 kN
10 kN/m
10 kN/m
e 2m
1m 2m 4m e
2m 4m
(13) (14)
60 kN 30 kN/m
f
b 15 kN
c e 60 kN 30 kN/m
4m b f
20 kN c e g
a d g
20 kN 4m
a d
3m 3m 2m 4m 2m
6m 2m 4m 2m
(15) (16)
H al
m on
20 kN kN/ d 30 kN 1.5 m 20 kN/m
20 e
f
10 kN 1.5 m 25 kN
c b e
4m
4m
a d
a f b c
3m 3m 3m 2m
2m 6m 4m
(17) (18)
90 kN 20 20 kN/m
kN h
e /m 20 kN j
20 kN 10 kN i
3m
2m
d c f g f g
3m 40 kN 2m
b h 20 kN
e
i 2m c d
a 1.5 m
2 m 1.5 1.5 4m 3m a 1.5 m

b
3m 3m
(19) (20)
2
Statically Determinate Trsses
2.1 Introduction
Trusses consist of straight members joined together at their ends by joints assumed
incapable of resisting any moment, that is, frictionless pins. However, the joints of actual
trusses used in construction do possess a certain amount of rigidity leading to a certain amount
of restraint rotation. The assumption of joints behaving as frictionless pins greatly simplifies
the analysis of a truss. Furthermore, extensive theoretical and experimental investigations
indicate that the error introduced by this assumption is insignificant when loaded at their joints.
To avoid eccentricity at joints, the centroidal axis of each member is straight and coincides
with the line connecting the joint centers at all ends of the members. Simple analysis of an
idealized truss results in purely axial forces in the members of the truss that is either tensile or
compressive.
2.2 TRUSSES CONFIGURATION
The simplest form of a stable planar truss is a triangle arrangement of three members as
shown in Fig. 2.1a. Each additional joint can be obtained by adding two bars to the joints
already formed. Such a truss is called a simple truss. These trusses are always composed of
triangular shapes as shown in Figs. 2.1a and 2.1b.
e
e f
c d d
c c
a b
a b a b
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.1 Examples of simple trusses
A compound truss consists of two or more simple trusses joined so that relative motion of
the components is constrained. Three conditions of connectivity are required to prevent
relative translation and rotation. Two simple plane trusses are combined together by three
nonparallel nonconcurrent bars to form a compound truss as shown in Fig. 2.2a. Since two
bars can be replaced by a common hinge, a compound truss can also be formed by joining
together two plane trusses with a common hinge and bar, as shown in Figs. 2.2b and 2.2c.
Trusses that cannot be classified as either simple or compound are called complex trusses as
shown in Fig.2.2d.
a d a
Hinge
e f
b c b c
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.2 Compound and complex trusses
2.3 CONDITION EQUATIONS
As discussed in Chapter 1, three independent reaction components can be determined for

a planar system through the systematic application of the equations of static equilibrium.
Additional reaction components can be determined if there are internal conditions that permit
the expression of special condition equations. In the case of truss structures, the conditions
might take a number of forms.
The structure of Fig. 2.3a is a statically determinate stable truss, and the three reaction
components can be determined from statics. If an additional part dc is added to truss ab, then
an additional condition is required to evaluate the additional reaction component at c. This
condition, which is Md = 0 for the left or right portion of the truss, is provided from the
connected hinge at d.
If an additional reaction component is added to point d, as shown in Fig. 2.3c, the
intermediate hinge at e provides an additional condition to allow the determination of the
additional reaction component.
The absence of diagonal member in a truss panel, under proper support conditions,
introduces a condition as shown in Fig. 2.3d. In this case, a section through panel bc reveals
that no vertical force component can be transferred through this panel. This condition, coupled
with the overall equations of equilibrium, enables one to determine the reaction components.
Statically determinate trusses 33
a b c
a b
(a) (b)
a
b c a c
e b e
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.3. Condition equations for trusses
2.4 STABILITY AND DETERMINANCY
Based on the forgoing discussion, criteria can be developed concerning the statical
determinancy of truss structures. First, the truss can be checked for external determinancy and
stability according to the criteria developed in Chapter 1. In which, if r is taken as the actual
number of reaction components and c is the number of condition equations, then the following
criteria can be:
r < 3 + c; truss is unstable externally

r = 3 + c; truss is statically determinate externally
r > 3 + c; truss is statically indeterminate externally
These conditions are necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification. The
condition equations should be properly added to enable the determination of the additional
reaction components.
For internal classification, in addition to the above definition for r and c, let m be the total
number of bars and j the total number of joints. Then, the following conditions prevail:
m + c + 3 < 2j; truss is unstable internally

m + c + 3 = 2j; truss is statically determinate internally
m + c + 3 > 2j; truss is statically indeterminate internally
where c + 3 is the minimum required components of reactions. Care must be exercised in using
the above conditions. If m + c + 3 < 2j, the truss is definitely unstable, but if m + c + 3  2j, it
doesn’t necessarily follow that the truss is stable. It is possible that m bars are not properly
arranged to ensure internal stability. Such trusses are said to have critical form.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Determine the conditions of stability and determinancy of the trusses shown.
e d e
d
c a c
a
b
b
Truss 1 Truss 2
d e d e
a c a b c
b
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 7 + 0 +3 = 10
2j = 10
m + c + 3 = 2j internally stable and statically determinate
Trusses 2, 3, and 4
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
m + c + 3 = 6 + 1 +3 = 10
2j = 10
m + c + 3 = 2j
Although the stability conditions are theoretically satisfied for Trusses 2, 3, and 4, Truss 2 is
geometrically unstable because it has a critical form. In this form, point b can move
perpendicular to line ac without any resistance. Also, the intermediate hinge at b couldn’t be
used to determine the additional horizontal reaction at c. On the other hand Trusses 3 and 4
are stable and statically determinate.
EXAMPLE 2.2
c e c e
a f f
a
b d b d
Truss 1 Truss 2
c e e
c
b
a f
a f b d
d
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 9 + 0 +3 = 12
2j = 12
Trusses 2, 3, and 4
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
m + c + 3 = 8 + 1 +3 =
12
2j = 12
m + c + 3 = 2j
Studying the condition equations of trusses 2, 3, and 4 leads to the following conclusion:
c c
o c
 Mo = 0
 Fy = 0  Mo = 0
b o a
a a b
b
Condition equation Condition equation Condition equation

of Truss 2 of Truss 3 of Truss 4
The additional horizontal reaction at support a can only be determined from the condition
equation of Truss 3, so, Truss 3 is stable and statically determinate while Trusses 2 and 4 are
unstable.
EXAMPLE 2.3
b d g i d g
b i
Truss 1
e Truss 2 e
a h a h
c f c f
 Me= 0
b d g i
b d g i
Truss 3 e
Truss 4
a c f h
a h
c
 Me= 0 f  Mc = 0,  Mg= 0
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+1=4
r=3
3+c>r externally unstable
Truss 2
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 13 + 0 +3 = 16
2j = 16
Truss 3
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 12 + 1 +3 = 16
2j = 16
Truss 4
3+c=3+2=5
r=5
m + c + 3 = 11 + 2 +3 = 16
2j = 16
EXAMPLE 2.4
f e
e f
d d
 Fx = 0  Fx = 0
Truss 1 Truss 2
c c
a b a b
e f e f
d d
Truss 3 Truss 4
c c
a b a b
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+1=4
r=3
3+c>r geometrically unstable
Truss 2
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 9 + 1 + 3 = 13
2j = 12
m + c + 3 > 2j internally stable and statically indeterminate to the first
degree
Trusses 3 and 4
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
3+c=r externally stable and determinate
m + c + 3 = 9 + 0 + 3 = 12
2j = 12
m + c + 3 = 2j internally stable and determinate
EXAMPLE 2.5
b d b d M =0
d
Truss 1  Mc = 0
Truss 2
a e a c e
c
b d
b d
Truss 3 Truss 4
a e  Mb = 0 e
c a
c
SOLUTION
Trusses 1 and 2
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
m + c + 3 = 7 + 1 + 3 = 11
2j = 10
m + c + 3 > 2j internally statically indeterminate to the first degree
Although m, c, r, and j are the same for the two trusses, Truss 1 is unstable because its
geometry produces a critical form. In this case, small movement of node c can occur
perpendicular to the line ae without any resistance and also the condition equation at c couldn’t
be used to determine the additional horizontal reaction at e. On the other hand, Truss 2 is stable
and internally indeterminate to the first degree.
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 7 + 0 + 3 = 10
2j = 10
Truss 4
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 6 + 1 + 3 = 10
2j = 10
EXAMPLE 2.6
Truss 1 Truss 2
Truss 4
Truss 3
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m+c+3=5+0+3=8
2j = 8
Truss 2
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 9 + 0 + 3 = 12
2j = 12
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 12 + 0 + 3 = 15
2j = 16
m + c + 3 < 2j internally unstable
Truss 4
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m+c+3=9+0+3=8
2j = 12
EXAMPLE 2.7
f
a  Mb = 0 determinate
d e
Truss 1 Truss 2
 Ma = 0 a c
b
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 14 + 1 + 3 = 18
2j = 18
Truss 2
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 8 + 1 + 3 = 12
2j = 12
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=4
3+c<r externally stable and statically indeterminate to the
first degree
m + c + 3 = 16 + 0 + 3 = 19
2j = 18
m + c + 3 > 2j internally stable and statically indeterminate to the
first degree
Truss 4
3+c=3+0=3
r=4
3+c<r externally stable and statically indeterminate to

the first degree
m + c + 3 = 10 + 0 + 3 = 13
2j = 12
m + c + 3 > 2j internally stable and statically indeterminate to
the first degree
EXAMPLE 2.8
Truss 1 Truss 2
 Ma = 0 a
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 12 + 1 + 3 = 16
2j = 16
Truss 2
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 12 + 0 + 3 = 15
2j = 16
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 26 + 0 + 3 = 29
2j = 28
first degree
Truss 4
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 17 + 0 + 3 = 20
2j = 20
EXAMPLE 2.9
a
 Fy = 0
Truss 1 Truss 2
b c
o
 Mo = 0
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 15 + 0 + 3 = 18
2j = 20
Truss 2
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
3+c=r
m + c + 3 = 14 + 1 + 3 = 18
2j = 18
m + c + 3 = 2j internally stable and determinate
It is noticed that the condition equation  Fy = 0 at the shown vertical section is useful for
determining the additional reaction component at c. On the other hand, the static equations (
Fx = 0,  Fy = 0,  M = 0) couldn’t be used to determine the vertical reaction at a or b because

the line of action of vertical reaction at b passes through support a. For this reason, the truss is
unstable.
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=4
first degree
m + c + 3 = 13 + 0 + 3 = 16
2j = 16
Truss 4
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 11 + 1 + 3 = 15
2j = 16
EXAMPLE 2.10
Truss 1 a c e
 Md = 0,  Me = 0
Truss 2
b
 Ma = 0
Truss 3 Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+2=5
r=5
m + c + 3 = 23 + 2 + 3 = 28
2j = 28
It should be noticed that the reaction components at b could be analyzed as internal forces in
members ba and bc by the method of joint. This is necessary to activate the first condition
equation ( Md (left) = 0).
Truss 2
3+c=3+0=3
r=4
first degree
m + c + 3 = 21 + 0 + 3 = 24
2j = 24
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 11 + 0 + 3 = 14
2j = 14
Truss 4
3+c=3+1=4
r=4
m + c + 3 = 10 + 1 + 3 = 14
2j = 14
EXAMPLE 2.11
Truss 1
Truss 2
Truss 3
Truss 4
SOLUTION
Truss 1
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 19 + 0 + 3 = 22
2j = 20
second degree.
Truss 2
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 9 + 0 + 3 = 12
2j = 14
m + c + 3 < 2j unstable
Truss 3
3+c=3+0=3
r=3
m + c + 3 = 19 + 0 + 3 = 22
2j = 22
m + c + 3 = 2j internally stable and statically determinate.
Truss 4
In this truss, it is noticed that the lines of action of all reactions intersect at point a. So, the
truss is geometrically unstable.
2.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE

AND COMPOUND TRUSSES
Three methods of analysis that are most common for simple and compound trusses.
These are the method of joints, method of sections, and graphical method. The method of
joints and the graphical method are useful when the forces in all or in the majority of the truss
members are required, whereas the method of sections is more convenient if the forces in few
members of the truss are required. Sometimes a combination of the method of section with
the other two methods is useful, especially in the analysis of compound trusses. In some
trusses, the use of the method of section is required for determining some member forces
before using the other two methods.
2.6 METHOD OF JOINTS
The method of joints is frequently a simple way of analyzing a statically determinate truss.
In common cases, the unknown reactions can be first determined by taking the entire truss as a
free body. Next, the joints containing only two unknown member forces are analyzed using
their free body diagrams. The two equations of static equilibrium involving summation of
forces in two orthogonal directions are applied to determine the two unknown member forces
at the joint. The procedure continues until all internal axial forces are computed. Since, the
total number of joint equations of equilibrium is more than the number of unknown member
forces, there will be surplus equations for checking purposes after member axial forces have
been obtained.
A number of frequently occurring special conditions can be used to shorten the calculation.
These conditions are summarized in the following rules:
Rule 1
With reference to Joint a, it should be noticed that members ab and ac are in Fad
the same direction. Since the joint is not loaded, it can be concluded that the
F ac Fab
force in the third member ad is zero (Fad = 0) and Fab = Fac. This fact can be
verified by constructing the free-body diagram for joint a and summing the a
forces first in the vertical direction and then in the horizontal direction.
Rule 2
With reference to the unloaded Joint e which has only two members, it can be F eg
concluded that the forces in the two members are equal to zero (Fef = 0, Feg = F ef
0 ). This fact can be verified by summing the forces in the vertical and e
horizontal directions, respectively.
Rule 3
Fkn
For Joint k, the forces in opposite members must be equal; that is, Fkl = Fkm F
km Fkl
and Fkn = Fko. This can be demonstrated by summing the forces first in the
k
vertical direction and then in the horizontal direction F ko
Example 2.12
40 kN
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using the method of e
1.5
joints.
2 2m
2 .5
c d
3
4
5
4m
SOLUTION
a b
1.5 m 1.5 m
Determination of Reactions 40 kN
e
From symetry: Ya = Yb = 40/2 = 20 kN

c d
 Fx = 0: Xa = 0
Xa =0
b
Y a=20 kN a Y b =20 kN
Joint e
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 1.5/2.5 Fde – 1.5/2.5 Fce = 0 ………….(a) 40 kN
e
 Fy = 0 (+): 2/2.5 Fde + 2/2.5 Fce + 40 = 0 ………..(b)
Solving (a) and (b), F ce F de

Fce = – 25kN , Fde = – 25 kN
Joint c
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 3/5 Fbc – 1.5/2.5  25 = 0

F ce = 25
Fbc = 25 kN
 Fy = 0 (+): Fac + 4/5 Fbc + 2/2.5  25 = 0 c

Fac + 4/5 25 + 2/2.5 25 = 0
Fac = – 40 kN F bc
F ac
From symmetry: Fad = Fbc = 25 kN
Fbd = Fac = – 40 kN
Joint a
F ac = 40
 Fx = 0 (→ +): Fab + 3/5 25 = 0 F ad = 25
Fab = – 15 kN
a F ab
 Fy (+): 40 – 4/5 25 – 20 = 0 ……………….(Check)
20 kN
40 kN
- 25
-25
Member forces
25
-40
-40
25
-15
20 kN 20 kN
Example 2.13
b
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using
the method of joints. 4.5 m
d
6 6
4.5 5 7 .5 4.5 4.5 m
7.
SOLUTION a c
e
40 kN 20 kN
6m 6m
 Mb =0: Xa  9 – 40 6 –20 12 = 0 Yb=60 kN

Xa = 53.3 kN Xb = b
53.3 kN
 Fx (→+): – Xb + Xa = 0
– Xb + 53.3 = 0 d
Xb = 53.3 kN
a e
 Fy (+): Yb – 40 – 20 = 0 c
Yb = 60 kN Xa =53.3 kN 40 kN 20 kN
Joint e
F de
 Fy = 0 (+): 4.5/7.5 Fde – 20 = 0
Fde = 33.3 kN F ce e
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fce - 6/7.5 Fde = 0 20 kN

– Fce – 6/7.5  33.3 = 0
Fce = – 26.7 kN
Joint c
 Fy = 0 (+): Fcd – 40 = 0 Fcd

Fcd = 40 kN
F ac 26.7
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fac – 26.7 = 0 c
Fac = – 26.7 kN
40 kN
Joint d
Fb d
 Fy = 0 (+): 4.5/7.5 Fbd – 4.5/7.5 Fad – 40 d
– 4.5/7.5  33.3 = 0 ……………………(a)
F ad 33.3
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – 6/7.5 Fbd – 6/7.5 Fad
40
+ 6/7.5  33.3 = 0 ………………..….…(b)

Fbd = 66.7 kN ; Fad = – 33.3 kN
Joint b
 Fy = 0 (+): – Fab – 4.5/7.5  66.7 + 60 = 0 60 kN
Fab = 20 kN b
53.3 kN
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 6/7.5  66.7 – 53.3 = 0 …………(Check) 66.7
F ab
Joint a
20
 Fy = 0 (+): 20 – 4.5/7.5  33.3 = 0 ……………(Check) 33.3
53.3 kN 26.7
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 53.3 – 26.7 - 6/7.5  33.3 = 0 ……..(Check) a
60 kN
53.3 kN 66
.7
20
Member forces
3 .3 33
-3 .3
40
53.3 kN
-26.7 -26.7
40 kN 20 kN
EXAMPLE 2.14
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using the 3 h
method of joints. 3
24
3m
4.
e
1.5 f g
5
3 3m
3 .3
c 50 kN
d
5. 4
1
3 3m
a 4.5 b
1.5 1.5 3m 3m
SOLUTION
h
 Mb =0: Ya  6 – 50 3 = 0
Ya = 25 kN g
e
f
 Fy (+): Yb – Ya – 50 = 0 50 kN
Yb – 25 – 50 = 0 c d
Yb = 75 kN
Xa =0
a b
 Fx (→+): Xa = 0 Ya =25 kN Yb = 75 kN
Joint g
 Fy = 0 (+): 3/4.24 Fgh – 50 = 0

Fhg
Fgh = 70.7 kN
Ffg g
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Ffg – 3/4.24 Fgh = 0
– Ffg – 3/4.24  70.7 = 0
Ffg = – 50 kN 50 kN
Joint h
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – 3/4.24 Feh + 3/4.24  70.7 = 0

h
Feh = 70.7 kN
 Fy = 0 (+): – Ffh – 3/4.24 Feh – 3/4.24  70.7 = 0 F eh 70.7

– Ffh – 3/4.24  70.7 – 3/4.24  70.7 = 0 F fh
Ffh = – 100 kN
Joint f
100
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fef – 50 = 0
Fef = – 50 kN f 50
F ef
 Fy = 0 (+): – Fdf – 100 = 0 F df
Fdf = – 100 kN
Joint e
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – 1.5/3.35 Fce + 3/4.24 Fde + 3/4.2470.7 70.7

– 50 = 0 ……………………………………..(a)
e 50
 Fy = 0 (+): – 3/3.35 Fce – 3/4.24 Fde
+ 3/4.24  70.7 = 0 ……………………..….(b) Fde
F ce
Solving (a), (b),

Fce = 37.3 kN ; Fde = 23.6 kN
Joint d
23.6
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fcd – 3/4.243  23.6 = 0 100
Fcd = – 16.7 kN
F cd d
 Fy = 0 (+): – Fbd – 100 + 3/4.24  23.6 = 0
F bd
Fbd = – 83.3 kN
Joint c
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 4.5/5.41 Fbc – 1.5/3.35 Fac + 1.5/3.35  37.3

– 16.7 = 0 …………………………………..(a) 37.3
16.7
 Fy = 0 (+): – 3/5.41 Fbc – 3/3.35 Fac + 3/3.35  37.3 = 0 c
……………………………..…………..……(b)
F ac F bc
Fbc = 15 kN ; Fac = 28 kN
Joint b
83.3
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fab – 4.5/5.41  15 = 0 15
Fab = –12.5 kN
F ab b
 Fy = 0 (+): 75 +3/5.41  15 – 83.3 = 0 ……….(Check) 75 kN
Joint a
28
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 1.5/3.35  28 – 12.5 = 0 ………….(Check)
a 12.5
 Fy = 0 (+): 3/3.35  28 – 25 = 0 ………………(Check) 25 kN

70
.7
-100
.7
70
50 kN
-50 -50
23
-100
3
37.
.6
Member forces
-16.7
-83.3
15
28
-12.5
25 kN 75 kN
Example 2.15
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using 10 kN 10 kN
d
the method of joints. 10 kN e
10 kN 3m
10 kN f
7 .2
c 4. 6
1
24
3 4 3m
3
a b
3m 4m 3m
SOLUTION
 Mb : Ya  4 + 10  (3 – 7 + 6 – 4)= 0 d
10 kN 10 kN
10 kN e
Ya = 5 kN
10 kN
10 kN f
 Fy (+): Yb + Ya – 10 – 10 – 10 = 0 c
Yb + 5 – 10 – 10 –10 = 0
Yb = 25 kN b
X a =20 kN a
 Fx (→+): – Xa + 10 +10 = 0 Y a=5 kN Yb =25 kN
Xa = 20 kN
Joint c
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 3/4.24 Fcd + 3/4.24 Fac + 10 = 0 ……………(a) 10 kN

Fcd
 Fy = 0 (+): 3/4.24 Fcd – 3/4.24 Fac – 10 = 0 …………….(b)

10 kN c
Fac
Fcd = 0 ; Fac = – 14.1 kN
Joint f
F ef
According to rule 2; Fef = Fbf = 0
f
F bf
Joint e
 Fx = 0 (→ +): Fde = 0 10 kN
e
 Fy = 0 (+): – Fbe – 10 = 0 F de
Fbe = – 10 kN 0
F be
Joint d
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 4/7.21 Fbd + 10 = 0

d
10 kN
Fbd = – 18 kN 10 kN 0
 Fy = 0 (+): – Fad – 6/7.21 Fbd – 10 = 0 0

F ad
F bd
Fad = 5 kN
Joint b
10
18
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – Fab + 4/7.21  18 = 0 0
Fab = – 10 kN F ab b
25 kN
 Fy = 0 (+): 25 – 10 – 6/7.21  18 = 0 ……….(Check)
Joint a
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 10 + 3/4.24  14.1 – 20 = 0 ………(Check) 14.1 5
10
 Fy = 0 (+): 5 + 5 – 3/4.24  14.1 = 0 …………(Check) 20 kN
a
5 kN
10 kN 10 kN
10 kN 0
10 kN 0 0
Member forces
-1 8
-10
5
10 kN
-1 0
4.
1
10
20 kN
5 kN 25 kN
EXAMPLE 2.16
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown 100 kN e 100 kN
truss using the method of joints. 2
10 d
5
f 2m
c 1 0.2 .4 9 h 2m
13 11 .1 8
5 5m
10
11 .1 8 b g 10
5 5m
a i
10
4 at 10 m = 40m
SOLUTION
100 kN e 100 kN
d f
From symmetry: Ya = Yi = 100 kN c h
 Me (left) = 0:
b
Xa  14 + 100  10 – Ya  20 = 0 g
a Xa =71.4 Xi=71.4 i
Xa = 71.4 kN
Ya=100 kN Yi=100 kN
 Fx = 0: Xi = Xa = 71.4 kN
Joint a
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 10/11.18 Fab + 71.4 = 0 F ac

Fab = – 79.9 kN
71.4 kN Fab
a
 Fy = 0 (+): Fac + 5/11.18 Fab + 100 = 0
Fac – 5/11.18  79.9 + 100 = 0 100 kN
Fac = – 64.3 kN
Joint c
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 10/11.18 Fbc + 10/10.2 Fcd = 0 ……….(a) c

F cd
Fbc
 Fy = 0 (+): – 5/11.18 Fbc + 2/10.2 Fcd + 64.3 = 0 .(b)
64.3
Fbc = 102.7 kN , Fcd = – 93.7 kN
Joint d
100 kN
According to Rule 3: Fbd = – 100 kN , Fde = – 93.7 kN d
F de
93.7
F bd
Joint b
 Fx = 0 (→ +): 10/13.45 Fbe + 10/11.18  79.9

– 10/11.18  102.7 = 0 100
Fbe = 27.5 kN Fbe
102.7
 Fy (+): 9/13.45 Fbe + 5/11.18  79.9 + 5/11.18  102.7 b

– 100 79.9
= 9/13.45  27.5 + 5/11.18  79.9
+ 5/11.18  102.7 – 100 = 0 ………….(Check)
100 kN 100 kN
-9 3 .7 -9 3. 7
-9 3 .7 -9 3 .7
-10 0
27
-1 0 0
Member forces .5 . .7
1 02 27 5 102
-64 .3
-64 .3
.7
. 9 -7 9
-7 9 . 9
71.4 kN 71.4 kN
100 kN 100 kN
EXAMPLE 2.17
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using the 100 kN
method of joints. f h
4 g 11
.3
4
1
8 .9
8 8 8m
8
d e
8m
a c
b
100 kN
g
f h
From Symmetry: Ya = Yc = 100/2 = 50 kN
 Fx (→+):
d e
Xa = 0
Xa=0
a c
b
Ya=50 kN Yc=50 kN
Joint f
f
According to Rule 2: Ffg = Fdf = 0 Ffg
Fdf
Joint g
 Fx = 0 (→ +): – 8/11.31 Fdg + 8/11.31 Feg = 0 …………..(a) 100 kN
0 g 0
 Fy = 0 (+): – 8/11.31 Fdg – 8/11.31 Feg – 100 = 0 …….(b)
Fdg F eg
Fdg = Feg = – 70.7 kN
Joint a
 Fy = 0 (+): 8/8.94 Fad + 50 = 0 F ad

Fad = – 55.9 kN
a F ab
 Fx = 0 (→ +): Fab – 4/8.94 Fad = 0

Fab + 4/8.94  55.9 = 0 50 kN
Fab = – 25 kN
Joint b
F bd Fbe
F bd F be
According to rule 1: Fbd = Fbe = 0
 25 25
b
b
Joint d
0 70.7
 Fx = 0 (→ +): Fde – 4/8.94  55.9 – 8/11.31  70.7 = 0
Fde = 75 kN d F de
 Fy (+): 8/8.94  55.9 – 8/11.31  70.7 = 0 …(Check) 0

55.9
100 kN
0 0
0 0
7
0.
-7
-7
0.
7
75
Member forces
0 0
-5 5
.9
- 55
.9
-25 -25
50 kN 50 kN
EXAMPLE 2.18
Calculate the forces in all members of the shown truss using d 20 kN
4
the method of joints. c 2 4 .4 7
3 2m
40 kN 4
5
40 kN
6
5. 6
4 2m
a 4 e
b f
10 kN
60 kN
5
4 4m
3
g
SOLUTION
4m 4m 3m
 Mg =0: Ya8 – Xa4 + 406 – 604 + 208

+ 403 + 104 = 0 ……………...(a)
d
 Md (left) = 0:
20 kN
Ya8 + Xa4 – 402 –604 = 0 ..(b) 40 kN c
40 kN
Xa =80 10 kN
Solving (a) and (b), a
b
e f
Ya = 0 ; Xa = 80 kN Ya =0 60 kN
 Fy =0 (+): Yg + Ya – 60 – 40 = 0 Yg =100 kN
g
Xg=10 kN
Yg = 100 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): Xg – Xa + 40 +20 + 10 = 0
Xg = 10 kN
Joint a
Fac
According to Rule 1: Fab = 80 kN , Fac = 0 a
80 kN F ab
Joint b
F bc
 Fx =0 (→+): 4/5.66 Fbd – 80 = 0 F bd
Fbd = 113.1 kN
80
b
 Fy = 0 (+): Fbc + 4/5.66 Fbd – 60 = 0

60 kN
Fbc = – 20 kN
Joint c
c F cd
40 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): 4/4.47 Fcd + 40 = 0
0
Fcd = – 44.7 kN
20
 Fy (+): 2/4.47 Fcd + 20
= – 2/4.47  44.7 + 20 = 0 ………. (Check)
Joint g
Feg
 Fx =0 (→+): 3/5 Ffg + 10 = 0 F fg
Ffg = – 16.7 kN
10 kN g
 Fy =0 (+): Feg + 4/5 Ffg + 100 = 0
Feg – 4/5  16.7 + 100 = 0 100 kN
Feg = – 86.7 kN
Joint e
F de
According to rule 3: Fde = – 86.7 kN , Fef = – 10 kN e
F ef
10 kN
86.7
Joint f
 Fx =0 (→+): – 3/5 Fdf + 10 + 3/5  16.7 = 0 F df 40 kN

Fdf = 33.3 kN
10 f
 Fy (+): – 4/5 Fdf – 40 + 4/5  16.7
= – 4/5  33.3 – 40 + 4/5  16.7 = 0 ….. 16.7
(Check)
Joint d
 Fx (→+): 20 + 3/5  33.3 + 4/4.72  44.7

d
– 4/5.66  113.1 = 0 …………… (Check) 20 kN
44.7
 Fy (+): 86.7 – 4/5  33.3 + 2/4.72  44.7 113.1 33.3
– 4/5.66  113.1 = 0 …………… (Check) 86.7
20 kN
.7
-44
33
40 kN
-86.7
1
.3
40 kN
3.
11
Member forces
-20
0
80 kN -10
80 10 kN
.7
-86.7
-16
60 kN
10 kN
100 kN
2.7 MEHOD OF SECTIONS
When the method of joints leads to a situation where no subsequent joint contains only
two unknown member forces, the next approach would be to use a group of joints (called a
section of the truss) as a free body. The method of sections may be used in lieu of the method
of joints, even when the method of joints is possible. The three equations of statics ( Fx =0,
 Fy =0, and  M =0) can be then used to calculate the unknown member forces.
Example 2.19
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown c e g
4
truss using the method of sections. 5 3
3m
a h
b d f
20 kN 20 kN 20 kN
4 at 4 m = 16m
SOLUTION
s1 e g
s2 c
From symmetry: Ya = Yh = 20  3 /2 = 30 kN Xa=0 h
a b s2 d f
s1
 Fx = 0 (→+): Xa = 0 Ya=30 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN Yh =30
Section s1-s1
F ce e
 Me = 0 Fbd  3 + 20  4 – 30  8 = 0; Fbd = 53.3 kN c
Fbe
 Mb = 0 Fce  3 + 30  4 = 0; Fce = -40 kN a

b
F bd
 Fy (+): 3/5 Fbe + 30 – 20 = 0; Fbe = – 16.7 kN 30 kN 20 kN

Section s2-s2
F ac F bc
 Mb = 0 3/5 Fac  4 + 30  4 = 0 16.7
Fac = – 50 kN a
b 53.3
 Ma = 0 Fbc  4 – 20  4 –3/5  16.7  4 = 0

30 kN 20 kN
Fbc = 30 kN
-40 -40
-16 -50
Member forces - 50 6 .7 .7
30
20
30
-1
40 53.3 53.3 40
20 kN 20 kN 20 kN
30 kN 30 kN
Example 2.20
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown truss j k
using the method of sections. 10 kN 2
1.5 m
1.5
2.5
i
10 kN g h
1.5 m
f
10 kN d e
1.5 m
SOLUTION a
b
c
2m 2m
 Mc =0: Ya  4 – 10  1.5 – 10  3 10 kN
j
k
– 10  4.5 = 0
10 kN g h i
Ya = 22.5 kN s2 s2
s1 s1
 Fy (+): Yc – Ya = 0 10 kN d f
e
Yc = 22.5 kN
Xa =30 kN
c
 Fx =0 (→+):
a b
– Xa + 10 + 10 + 10 = 0 Ya =22.5 kN Yc =22.5 kN
Xa = 30 kN
Section s1-s1
 Mf = 0 Fdg  4 + 30  1.5 – 22.5  4 = 0 F dg F fi
Fdg = 11.3 kN 10 kN F de F ef
f
d
 Md = 0 Ffi  4 + 22.5  4 – 30  1.5 = 0 30 kN

c
Ffi = – 11.3 kN a
22.5 kN
b
22.5 kN
Section s2-s2
i
11.3
 Mi = 0 1.5/2.5 Feg  2 + 2/2.5 Feg  1.5+ 11.3  4 F eg F ei
11.3
+ 30  3 – 10  1.5 – 22.5  4 = 0 10 kN
f
Feg = – 12.5 kN d e
30 kN
 Fx (→+): 2/2.5 Fei – 2/2.5 Feg + 10 – 30 = 0 a b
c
Fei = 12.5 kN 22.5 kN 22.5 kN
10 kN -5
-6 2
3.8
.2
-3 .8
6.
10 kN -5 -10
Member forces 11 .3 - 12
.5
-11 .3
.5
12
10 kN 5 -15
- 18
22.5
-22.5
.8 .8
18
30 kN 30 0
22.5 kN 22.5 kN
Example 2.21
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown 50 kN 80 kN
c e
truss using the method of sections. a
3 3
g
3 3m
4.
4.5 1
24
5. 4
b 6 .1 8 f
1.5 1.5 m
40 kN d 6
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
 Mg =0: Ya18 – 4015 – 5012 – 806 = 0

50 kN 80 kN
Ya = 93.3 kN s2 s1
Xa =0 c e g
a
 Fy (+): Yg + Ya – 40 – 50 - 80 = 0
Yg = 76.7 kN Ya =93.3 kN b f Yg=76.7
s2 s d
40 kN 1
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0
50 kN
9m a c
Fce
Section s1-s1 o
F cd
93.3 kN b
F bd d
40 kN
 Md =0: Fce  4.5 + 93.3  9 – 40  6 – 50  3 = 0

Fce = – 100 kN
 Mc =0: 6/6.18 Fbd  3 + 1.5/6.18 Fbd  3 + 40  3 – 93.3  6 = 0

Fbd = 120.9 kN
 Mo =0: 4.5/5.41 Fcd  15 + 50  15 + 40  12 – 93.3  9= 0

Fcd = – 31.2 kN
Section s2-s2
F ac
 Mb =0: Fac  3 + 93.3  3 = 0 a
Fac = – 93.3 kN F bc
93.3 kN b
 Fy (+): 3/4.24 Fbc – 1.5/6.18  120.9 + 93.3 – 40 = 0 120.9
40 kN
Fbc = – 33.9 kN
50 kN 80 kN
-93.3 -100 -76.7

.4
13
- 31
-6
.9
3.
8
2
5.
Member forces
-3
10
- 40
.2
1 2 0 .9
126. 4
93.3 kN 76.7 kN
40 kN
Example 2.22
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown d e f g
h
10 kN
truss using the method of sections. 10
14
.1
4 10
10
14
.1 4
10 m
b 10
c i j
20 kN
10 m
SOLUTION a k
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
 Mk =0: Ya  40 – 20  10 – 10  20 = 0 d g
s1 e h
Ya = 10 kN 10 kN f
s2
s1
 Fy =0 (+):
b
Yk – Ya = 0 c
s2
i j
20 kN
Yk = 10 kN
Xa =20
Xk=10 k
a
 Mf (right)=0: Xk  20 – Yk  20 = 0 Ya =10 kN Yk=10 kN
Xk = 10 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xa – Xk + 10+ 20 = 0
Xa = 20 kN
Section s1-s1
 Mc =0: Fde  10 + 10  10 + 20  10 – 10  10= 0 d F de e

Fde = – 20 kN 10 kN F ce
f
F cf
b
 Mf =0: Fce  10 – 20  10 + 20  20 – 10  20= 0 c
20 kN
Fce = 0
20 kN
a
 Fy =0 (+): 10/14.14 Fcf + Fce - 10 = 0 10 kN
Fcf = 14.1 kN
Section s2-s2
Fbd
 Mc =0: Fbd  10 + 20  10 – 10  10= 0 F cd 0
14.1
Fbd = – 10 kN b
c
20 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): – 10/14.14 Fcd +10/14.14  14.1 + 20 20 kN

a
– 20 = 0 10 kN
Fcd = 14.1 kN
10 kN d -20 e -20 f 0 g 0
h
-1
0 0
14
.1
0
4.
-10
14
.1
0
20 kN -20 0
Member forces b c i j
-1
.3
-10
4.
28
0
1
10 kN
a k
20 kN
10 kN 10 kN
Example 2.23
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown truss c
e
6 .7
g
h
3 1
3m
using the method of sections. 6
f 120 kN
.81
10
7 5 5m
8
6 6
8 d
.8 9
16
10
8m
17
8
6
a b
SOLUTION
8m 6m 6m 6m
s3 s2
c e s1 g
h
 Mb =0: Ya  8 – 120  18 = 0
f
Ya = 270 kN 120 kN
s2 s 1
s4 d
 Fy =0 (+): Yb – Ya – 120 = 0 s3
Yb = 390 kN Xa =0 s4
b
a
Ya =270 Yb=390 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0
Section s1-s1
 Mf =0: Feg  3 + 390  12 – 270  20= 0 e

9.6 m
F eg
c o
Feg = 240 kN
F ef
f
F df
 Me =0: 6/7.81 Fdf  8+ 270  14 + 390  6 = 0 d
Fdf = – 234.3 kN
 Mo =0: 3/6.71 Fef  9.6 + 270  23.6 a b
– 390  15.6 = 0 270 kN 390 kN

Fef = – 67.1 kN
Section s2-s2
9.6 m
F ce e
 Md =0: Fce  8 +390  6 – 270  14= 0 c o
F de
Fce = 180 kN
234.3
 Mo =0: Fde  9.6 + 390  15.6 – 270  23.6 = 0
d
Fde = 30 kN
a b
270 kN 390 kN
Section s3-s3
12 m
 Mc =0: 6/10 Fbd  16 + 270  8 = 0
c p
Fbd = – 225 kN 180
F cd
 Mp =0: 8/10 Fcd  12 + 270  20 – 390  12= 0
Fcd = – 75 kN
F bd
a b
270 kN 390 kN
Section s4-s4
F ac F bc
225
 Mb =0: 16/17.89  Fac  8 – 270  8 = 0
Fac = 301.9 kN
a b
 Ma =0: Fbc  8 + 390  8 – 8/10  225  8 = 0 270 kN 390 kN
Fbc = – 210 kN
180 240 240

-6 7
.1 8. 3
30
-2 6
-7
120 kN
4 .3
.9
5
- 23
301
-210
Member forces
5
-2 2
-135
270 kN 390 kN
Example 2.24
Determine the forces in the marked members of the 20 kN
20 kN
shown truss using the method of sections. i 6
2m
2.8
6 .3 2 2
5 kN 2
3
f 2g h
e
66
4 4m
5.
SOLUTION a
4
d
b c
4m 2m 2m 4m
 Md =0: Ya 12 + 54 – 2012 – 206 = 0 20 kN

20 kN s1 i
Ya = 28.3 kN
e s2 h
f g
 Fy =0 (+): Yd + Ya – 20 – 20 = 0 5 kN
s3
Yd = 11.7 kN Xa=5 kN d
a b s s c
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xa + 5 = 0 Ya =28.3 kN
s3 2 1
Yd =11.7 kN
Xa = 5 kN
Section s1- s1
 Mi =0: Fbc 6 + 52 + 206 – 28.36 – 56 = 0 20 kN i

F ei
Fbc = 11.7 kN e F fi
5 kN f
 Ma =0: 6/6.32 Fei  4 + 5  4 = 0
Fei = – 5.3 kN
5 kN F bc
b
 Fy =0 (+): 2/2.83 Ffi + 2/6.32 Fei + 28.3 – 20 = 0 28.3 kN
Ffi = – 9.4 kN
Section s2- s2
 Me =0: Fbf  4 + 11.7  4 – 5  4 = 0

Fbf = – 6.7 kN 20 kN
e 5.3
5 kN F ef
 Fx =0 (→+): Fef + 11.7 + 5 – 5 – 6/6.32  5.3 = 0 F bf
Fef = – 6.7 kN
5 kN 11.7
a b
28.3 kN
Section s3- s3
F ae 6.7
F be
 Mb =0: Fae  4 + 28.3  4 = 0
Fae = – 28.3 kN 5 kN 11.7
a b
28.3 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): – 4/5.66 Fbe + 11.7 – 5 = 0
Fbe = 9.4 kN
20 kN
20 kN
-5 . 3 0
-1
5 kN
.4
6
-9
.5
Member forces -6.7 -11.7

- 28.3
-11 .7
-6.7
-11.7
.5
9.
16
4
5 kN 5 11.7 0
28.3 kN 11.7 kN
Example 2.25
shown truss using the method of sections. c d
b 1.5 m
1.5 e
2
5
2m
2.
a f
SOLUTION
1.5 m 2 m 3.5 m 2 m 1.5 m
 Mf =0: Ya  10.5 – 40  3.5 = 0 c

40 kN
d
Ya = 13.3 kN
b e
s1
 Fy =0 (+): Yf + Ya – 40 = 0 a
s1
Yf = 26.7 kN Xa = 0 f
Ya =13.3 kN Y f=26.7 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0
Section s1-s1
1.125 m 2.625 m
c F cd
g
 Mo =0: 1.5/2.5 Fab  1.5 – 2/2.5 Fab  6.375 o
– 26.7  2.625 = 0 b Fef

Fab = – 16.7 kN f
F ab
 Mg =0: 1.5/2.5 Fef  3.5 – 2/2.5 Fef  7.875 26.7 kN
– 26.7  7.875 = 0
Fef = – 50 kN
40 kN
-40
0 -60
-2 26.
-8 . 9 8
.7
-5
Member forces
-1 6
0
1 8. 4 6.1
13.3 kN 26.7 kN
Example 2.26
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown f
40 kN
truss using the method of sections.
8m
8 .2 5
8
d 2
e
SOLUTION 49
8. 4m
6
6 c 8
8 .2 5 2 2m
a b
100 kN
6m 2 2 6m
f
40 kN
 Mb =0: Ya  16 + 40  14 – 100  8 = 0
Ya = 15 kN
d
 Fy =0 (+): Yb + Ya – 100 = 0 e
Yb = 85 kN s1
s1 c
Xa =40
b
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xa + 40 = 0 a
Y a=15 kN 100 kN Yb =85
Xa = 40 kN
Section s1-s1
 Md =0: 8/8.25 Fef  4 + 8/8.25 Fbc  4 – 2/8.25 Fbc  2 F ef
– 100  2 = 0 ……………………..……. (a) d

e
 Fy =0 (+): 8/8.25 Fef – 2/8.25 Fbc – 6/8.49 Fad – 100 = 0…(b) F ad

c F bc
 Fx =0 (→+): – 2/8.25 Fef + 8/8.25 Fbc – 6/8.49 Fad = 0 ……..(c) 100 kN
Solving (a), (b), and (c),

Fef = 66 kN , Fbc = – 16.5 kN , Fad = – 45.3 kN
f
40 kN
66
6
- 93
1 9.
d -48
.3
e
Member forces
6
35.
7 1.
3
8
5.
-1 6.5
-4
c
40 kN 62.3 b
a
100 kN
15 kN 85 kN
EXAMPLE 2.27
shown truss using a combination of method of sections b c e
and method of joints. 40 kN
9
9 .8 5 4
4m
5
4
3 f
a
d
50 kN
SOLUTION 3m 3m 3m
 Mf =0: Ya  9 + 40  4 –50  6 40 kN c
50 kN s1
– 50  3 = 0 ; Ya = 32.2 kN b e
 Fy =0 (+): Yf + Ya – 50 –50 = 0
Xf=40
Yf = 67.8 kN a d
s1 f
 Fx =0 (→+):
Ya =32.2 kN
– Xf + 40 = 0 50 kN Yf =67.8 kN
Xf = 40 kN
Section s1-s1
Fce e
 Mf =0: Fce  4 + 50  3 = 0
Fce = -37.5 kN
F bf
 Fy (+):
Fad
4/9.85 Fbf + 67.8 – 50 = 0 d 40 kN
f
Fbf = – 43.8 kN
50 kN 67.8 kN
Joint f
F ef
 Fy (+): Fef + 67.8 – 4/9.85  43.8 = 0 43.8
Fef = – 50 kN F df 40 kN
f
 Fx (→+): – Fdf – 40 + 9/9.85  43.8 = 0 67.8 kN
Fdf = 0
Joint e
 Fy =0 (+): – 4/5 Fde + 50 = 0 37.5 e

Fde = 62.5 kN
 Fx (→+): – 3/5 Fde + 37.5 F de

50
= – 3/5  62.5 + 37.5 = 0 ………(Check)
50 kN
40 kN 0 -37.5
-4 3
.5
17.8
.5
.8
62
Member forces
-6 2
- 50
37.5 40 kN
0
32.2 kN 50 kN 67.8 kN
EXAMPLE 2.28
Determine the forces in the marked members of g
the shown truss using a combination of method of i 3m
e 30 kN
sections and method of joints. 4
3
5 k 3m
c
1
7 .2
6
4 l 3m
a
b d f h j
SOLUTION 80 kN
6 at 4 m =24 m
 Ml =0: Ya  24 – 80  16 s1 g
– 30  6 = 0 ; Ya = 60.8 kN e i
30 kN
c k
 Fy =0 (+): Yl + Ya – 80 = 0 Xa =30 l
Yl = 19.2 kN a b d s f
1
h j
Ya =60.8 kN 80 kN Yl=19.2 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa – 30 = 0
Xa = 30 kN
Section s1-s1
 Mf = 0: 4/5 Feg  6 + 3/5 Feg  4 – 80  4 + 60.8  12 = 0

Feg = – 56.9 kN F eg
e
c
 Me =0: Fdf  6 + 30  6 – 60.8  8 = 0 Fef
30 kN
Fdf = 51.1 kN f
a b d F df
 Ma =0: 4/7.21 Fef  6 + 6/7.21 Fef  8 + 80  8 = 0 60.8 kN 80 kN

Fef = – 64.1 kN
Joint g
 Fx (→+): 4/5 Fgi + 4/5  56.9 = 0 g

Fgi = – 56.9 kN
F gi
56.9
 Fy (+): – Ffg + 3/5  56.9 – 3/5 Fgi = 0 F fg
Ffg = 68.3 kN
Joint e
 Fx (→+): – 4/5 Fce – 4/5  56.9 – 4/7.21  64.1 = 0 56.9

e
Fce = – 101.4 kN
F ce
 Fy (+): – Fde + 6/7.21  64.1 – 3/5 Fce – 3/5  56.9 = 64.1
Fde
0
Fde = 80 kN
-5 6
6. 9 .9
-5
6 8. 3
.4 -3 1 30 kN
01 .9
-1
-6 4
Member forces
-18
-31
80
.1
4 0 0
1. 0 .9
30 kN -1 0 0 0
51.1 51.1 51.1 25.6 25.6 25.6
60.8 kN 80 kN 19.2 kN
EXAMPLE 2.29
Determine the forces in the marked members of f h k
the shown truss using a combination of method of 3
5
3m
c
sections and method of joints. e 4 j m
3m
a n
b d g i l
40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN
6 at 4 m = 24m
SOLUTION
s1 s2 h k
f
From symmetry: Ya = Yn = 100 kN c j m
e
Xa = 0 n
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0 a b d s1 s2 g i l
Ya =100 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN Yn =100
Section s1-s1
f Ffh
 Mf = 0: Fdg  6 + 40  4 – 100  8 = 0 c Fef
Fdg = 106.7 kN a Fde
b d F dg
 Md = 0: Ffh  6 – 40  4 + 100  8 = 0
100 kN 40 kN 40 kN
Ffh = – 106.7 kN
Joint e
Fef
Feh
 Fx (→+): 4/5 Feh + 4/5 Feg = 0
Feh = – Feg ……………………………….(a) e
Feg
F de
Section s2-s2
 Fy (+): 3/5 Feh – 3/5 Feg + 100 – 40 – 40 = 0 ..(b) F fh

c Feh
Solving (a) and (b), e
F eg
Feh = – 16.7 kN a
F dg
Feg = 16.7 kN b d
100 kN 40 kN 40 kN
From symmetry: Fhj = Feh = – 16.7 kN (compression)
Joint h
h
 Fy (+): – Fhg + 3/5  16.7 + 3/5  16.7 = 0
Fhg = 20 kN 16.7 16.7
F hg
Joint f
 Fx (→+): – 4/5 Fcf – 106.7 = 0

Fcf = – 133.3 kN f
106.7
 Fy (+): – Fef – 3/5 Fcf = 0 F cf F ef
Fef = 80 kN
-106.7 -106.7
-1
3 7 33
3. 6. .3
80
13
80
- -1 -16
.7
20
-3 3 -1
7 16 66
6. .3 .7 .7 3.
3 .7
16
60
Member forces 6 -3
60
-1
40
40
133.3 133.3 106.7 106.7 133.3 133.3
40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN
100 kN 100 kN
EXAMPLE 2.30
Determine the forces in the marked members of the shown j k
truss using a combination of method of sections and 2.5
method of joints. 7.5 7.5 m
7 . 91
f g h i
9
5.5
5 5m
a 2.5 e
b c d
SOLUTION 100 kN 100 kN 100 kN
4 at 5 m = 20 m
s1
j k
From symmetry: Ya = Ye = 150 kN
s2
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0 f g h i
Xa =0
a b s2 s1 c d e
Ya =150 kN 100 kN 100 kN 100 kN Ye =150
Section s1-s1
 Mc = 0: Fjk  12.5 + 150  10 – 100  5 = 0 j F jk

Fjk = – 80 kN
 Fy (+): 5/5.59 Fch + 150 – 100 –100 = 0

f g
Fch = 55.9 kN F ch
F cd
 Fx (→+): Fcd + Fjk + 2.5/5.59 Fch = 0 a
Fcd – 80 + 2.5/5.59  55.9 = 0 b c
Fcd = 55 kN 150 kN 100 kN 100 kN
Joint j
 Fy (+): – 7.5/7.91 Ffj – 7.5/7.91 Fgj = 0 ………….(a)

j 80
 Fx (→+): – 2.5/7.91 Ffj + 2.5/7.91 Fgj – 80 = 0 …….(b)
Ffj Fgj
Ffj = – 126.5 kN ; Fgj = 126.5 kN
Section s2-s2
126.5
 Mb =0: Ffg  5 +150  5 – 2.5/7.91  126.5  5
– 7.5/7.91  126.5  2.5= 0 f
Ffg
Ffg = – 50 kN Fbg
a
 Fy (+): 5/5.59 Fbg + 150 – 100 – 7.5/7.91  126.5 = 0 b F bc
Fbg = 78.3 kN 150 kN 100 kN
-80
-1 2 6
.5
126
.5
-1 26
126
.5
.5
Member forces
-50 -50
- 16
55
7 .7
9
78 .
.3
5
5 5.
33
33 .
78
.9
7 .7
3
- 16
.5
75 55 55 75
100 kN 100 kN 100 kN

150 kN 150 kN
EXAMPLE 2.31
Determine the forces in the marked members of the 40 kN 40 kN
e f g h
shown truss using a combination of method of i
20 kN
sections and method of joints.
2. 5
2 3 . 61 2m
2
1.5 3
c d
1
6 .7
6
4m
3
a b
SOLUTION
3m 1.5 m 1.5 m 3m
 Mb =0: Ya  3 + 40  1.5 – 40  3 e
40 kN
f s1 h
40 kN
i
– 20  6 = 0 ; Ya = 60 kN 20 kN g
 Fy (+):
c d
Yb – Ya – 40 – 40 = 0
Yb = 140 kN
 Fx =0 (→+):
Xa=20 kN
– Xa + 20 = 0
a s1 b
Xa = 20 kN Ya=60 kN Yb =140 kN
Section s1-s1
F fg
 Mg =0: Fab  6 + 60  1.5 – 20  6 = 0 e f g
Fab = 5 kN 20 kN
Fcg
c
 Mo =0: Ffg  6 + 20  6 + 60  3 = 0
Ffg = – 50 kN 3m
 Fy (+): 2/2.5 Fcg – 60 = 0 20 kN F ab

Fcg = 75 kN o a
60 kN
Joint a
F ae F ac
 Fx (→+): – 3/6.71 Fae + 5 – 20 = 0
Fae = – 33.5 kN 5
20 kN a
 Fy (+): Fac + 6/6.71 Fae – 60 = 0
60 kN
Fac = 90 kN
Joint e
 Fy (+): – 2/3.61 Fce + 6/6.71  33.5 = 0 e

Fce = 54.1 kN Fef
20 kN
F ce
 Fx (→+): Fef + 20 + 3/3.61 Fce – 3/6.71  33.5 = 0
33.5
Fef = – 50 kN
40 kN
20 kN 70 40 kN
-50 -50 70
54
0 .1
75
.1 0 0 -9
-1
25
- 33
Member forces
11 .
.5
-150
90
5
20 kN
60 kN 140 kN
EXAMPLE 2.32
Determine the forces in the marked members of the i 4
shown truss using a combination of method of sections h 1
j 1m
10 kN 4 .1 2
4
and method of joints. 5 3
3m
b c d e
a 7
4. 4 2 2m
f g 4
40 kN 20 kN
 Mg =0: Yf  8 + 10  5 + 20  4 10 kN h s1 i j 20 kN
– 40  4 = 0 ; Yf = 3.7 kN
b c d
a e
 Fy (+): Yg + Yf – 40 – 20 = 0 s1
f g
Yg = 56.3 kN 40 kN Xg =10 kN
Yf =3.7 kN Yg=56.3
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xg + 10 = 0
Xg = 10 kN
Section s1-s1
 Mc =0: 4/4.12 Fhi  3 + 1/4.12 Fhi 4 + 10  3 + 3.7  4 = 0

h
Fhi = – 11.6 kN 10 kN F hi
a F bc
 Fy (+): 2/4.47 Fcf + 1/4.12 Fhi + 3.7 = 0 b
Fcf = – 2.1 kN F cf
c
f
 Fx (→+): Fbc + 4/4.47 Fcf + 4/4.12 Fhi + 10 = 0 3.7 kN
Fbc = 3.1 kN
Joint h
 Fx (→+): – 4/5 Fah – 4/4.12  11.6 + 10 = 0

10 kN h
Fah = – 1.6 kN 11.6
 Fy (+): – Fbh – 3/5 Fah – 1/4.12  11.6 = 0 Fah

Fbh
Fbh = – 1.9 kN
Joint a
 Fy (+): – 2/4.47 Faf – 3/5  1.6 = 0 1.6

Faf = – 2.1 kN
F ab
 Fx (→+): Fab + 4/4.47 Faf – 4/5  1.6 = 0 a
F af
Fab = 3.1 kN
-1 1 .6 -1 1 .6
10 kN
-1 20 kN
5.6
Member forces .6 4 .1
-1.9
5.6
-1
3.1 3.1 68.1 68.1
.6
-1.9
5.6
-2 .
1 1 -7 4 -6 3
- 2. .8
10 kN
40 kN
3.7 kN 56.3 kN
EXAMPLE 2.33
Determine the forces in the marked members of the c g k o
r
shown truss using a combination of method of 5m
b f j 11 . n
sections and method of joints. 5
18
5m
e i 10 m q
5m
a p
d h l
200 kN 200 kN 200 kN
SOLUTION
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
g s2 s1 k o
c r
From symmetry: Ya = Yp = 300 kN
b f j n
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0 i m q
e
a p
Xa =0 s 2 d s1 h l
Ya =300 Yp=300
200 kN 200 kN 200 kN
Joint f
Ffg
 Fx (→+): 10/11.18 Ffk + 10/11.18 Ffi = 0 F fk
Ffk + Ffi = 0 ………………………..….….(a) f
Ffi
Fef
Joint i
F ij
 Fx (→+): – 10/11.18 Ffi – 10/11.18 Fdi = 0 F fi

Ffi + Fdi = 0 ……………………….………(b) i
F di
F hi
Section s1-s1
g
c
F gk
F fg
b
F ef
e
F de
a
F ad d
300 kN
 Fy (+): 5/11.18 Ffk – 5/11.18 Ffi – 5/11.18 Fdi g

F gk
+ 300 – 200 = 0 c
F fk
Ffk – Ffi + Fdi + 223.6 = 0 ……………..…(c) b f
F fi
Solving (a), (b), and (c), e F di
a F dh
d
Ffk = – 74.5 kN 300 kN 200 kN
Ffi = 74.5 kN
Fdi = – 74.5 kN
Section s2-s2
 Md = 0: Fgk  15 + 30010 = 0
Fgk = – 200 kN
 Mg = 0: Fad  15 – 300  10 = 0
Fad = 200 kN
Joint d
 Fy (+): Fde – 5/11.18  74.5 – 200 = 0 F de 74.5

Fde= 233.3 kN F dh
200 d
 Fx (→+): Fdh – 10/11.18  74.5 – 200 = 0 200 kN
Fdh = 266.7 kN
0 g -200 k -266.7 o -200

c r
.6 .5 5 .6
22 3 - 74 74 . 22 3
33 .3
-33.3
10 0
0
-
-1 00
b 223 f 74. j -7 4 -2 2
5 . n 3.6
.6 5
166. 7
33.3
Member forces
10 0
-200
q
.6 e i m
3 .5 .5 .6
74
23 3.3
16 6.7
-2 2 -7 4 223
-300
1 00
a p
200 d 266.7 h 200 l 0
300 kN 300 kN
200 kN 200 kN 200 kN
EXAMPLE 2.34
Determine the forces in the marked members of d 60 kN 3 g 40 kN
the shown truss using a combination of method of 20 kN c 1
3. 1 6 i
1m
1m
sections and method of joints. f
e h
5
4
3
3m
a b
 Mb =0: Ya  6 + 603 – 403 – 204 = 0 d

60 kN
g 40 kN
s1
Ya = 3.3 kN 20 kN
c f i
e h
 Fy (+): Yb – Ya – 60 – 40 = 0
Yb = 103.3 kN Xb =20
a s1 b
Ya =3.3 kN Yb=103.3
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xb + 20 = 0
Xb = 20 kN
Group cdfe
 Fx (at d) =0: Fcd = Fdf …………………………….(a)

d
 Fx (at e) =0: Fce = Fef ……………………..….…..(b) Fcd F de
F
F Fde
c f
 Fy (at d) =0: Fde = 1/3.16 Fcd + 1/3.16 Fde ……...(c) Fce F ef
e
 Fy (at e) =0: Fde = 1/3.16 Fce + 1/3.16 Fef ……..(d)

From (a), (b), (c), and (d)
Fcd = Fdf = Fce = Fef

 Fx (at c) =0: Fcd = 0.527 F
From (c), Fcd = 0.333 F
 Fy (at c) : 1/3.16 Fcd – 1/3.16 Fce =0;

Fcd = Fce
Then, the group cdfe is carrying only a horizontal force. So, the group can be replaced by a link
member as shown in figure.
7 F 0 .5
0. 5 2 27 F
0.3 33 F
F F  F F F
0 .5 2 7F
7F 0 .5 2
Replacing member groups cdfe and fgih by link 60 kN 40 kN

members, the truss becomes as shown in figure 20 kN c f
i
20 kN
a
b
3.3 kN 103.3 kN
Section s1-s1
 Ma =0: Fcf  4 + 20  4 = 0 ; Fcf = – 20 kN

c F cf f
Then, from group cdfe, we get
20 kN
Fcd = Fef = – 0.527  20 = – 10.5 kN, and F af

Fde = 0.333  20 = 6.7 kN F ab
 Mf =0: a
3.3 kN
Fab  4 +3.3  3 = 0 , Fab = – 2.5 kN
 Fy (+):
4/5 Faf – 3.3 = 0 ; Faf = 4.2 kN
60 kN 40 kN
5 -10 .5 15. 8
20 kN -10. 1 5. 8
-10
6.7
5
-1 0. -10. 1 5.8 1 5. 8
5
0
2
-5
-7
4.
9
0
Member forces
.2
-2.5 20 kN
3.3 kN 103.3 kN
EXAMPLE 2.35
Determine the forces in all members of the shown n o p
truss using a combination of method of sections and k 3m

j l m
method of joints. 3m
a i
b c d e f g h
80 kN 60 kN
60 kN 100 kN 60 kN
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
 Mi =0: Ya  24 – 80  18 – 60  15
– 100  12 – 60  9 – 60  3 = 0 n o p
Ya = 177.5 kN k
j l m
 Fy (+):
a i
Yi + Ya – 80 – 60 – 100 – 60 Xa =0
b fc g d
h e
– 60 = 0 ; Yi = 182.5 kN 60 kN
Ya=177.5 80 kN 60 kN 100 kN 60 kN
Yi=182.5
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0
The given compound truss is subdivided into a primary truss and four secondary trusses as
follow:
j k
-4
2.
-245 -245 0 0
2.
60
-4
0
4
-2
a c e
51
15
c
8
95
0.
0 30 d 30
-2
b 0
.7
.5
13
60
110
-2
0 0 0 30 kN 60 kN 30 kN
-4
.4
51
.4
53
58
2.
2.
0
88
.
60
60
-2
-4
-4
4
1
60
l m
177.5 177.5 207.5 207.5 182.5 182.5 182.5 182.5
4
4
-4
2.
-4
2.
2.
60
60
-4
-4
2.
4
4
e g g i
80 kN 60 kN 100 kN 60 kN 60 kN 30 f 30 30 h 30
177.5 kN 182.5 kN 30 kN 60 kN 30 kN 30 kN 60 kN 30 kN
Primary truss Secondary trusses
The secondary trusses are first analyzed by the method of joints, and the forces in their
members are given in the figure. The secondary trusses are supported by the primary truss.
Loads that equal to the reactions of the secondary trusses must be applied at the corresponding
panel points of the primary truss in the opposite direction. For example,
At panel point c of the primary truss

Load acting on the compound truss at c = 80 kN ()
Reaction at c on the secondary truss cked = 30 kN ()
Therefore, load transferred from the secondary truss cked to panel point c of primary truss =
30 kN ()
Total load acting at panel point c of the primary truss = 80 + 30 = 110 kN ()
At panel point e of the primary truss

Load acting on the compound truss at e = 100 kN ()
Reaction at e on the secondary truss cked = 30 kN ()
Reaction at e on the secondary truss elgf = 30 kN ()]
Therefore, load transferred from the secondary trusses cked and elgf to panel point
e of primary truss = 30 +30 = 60 kN ()
Total load acting at panel point c of the primary truss = 80 + 60 = 110 kN ()
After all the panel-point loads are determined, the primary truss is analyzed by the method of
joints or sections.
The forces in the members of the given compound truss are obtained by algebraic
summation of the forces in the corresponding members of the primary and secondary trusses.
The final member forces are given as follows:
-245 -245
-2
51
15
8
95
0.
-2
.7
.5
13
60
110
-2
-4
.4
51
.4
Final member forces

53
58
2.
2.
0
88
.
60
60
-2
-4
-4
4
1
60
177.5 177.5 207.5 207.5 182.5 182.5 182.5 182.5
80 kN 60 kN 100 kN 60 kN 60 kN
177.5 kN 182.5 kN
2.8 COMPLEX TRUSSES
The configuration of some trusses can be categorized as neither simple nor compound. For
example, the truss in Fig. 2.4 is a simple, as can be demonstrated by starting with triangle abc
and subsequently expanding the truss by adding two members and one joint at a time to locate
joints e, d, f, and g in that order. If member eb is removed and replaced by member ag, as
shown in Fig. 2.4, a different rigid truss is created that is neither simple nor compound but
complex. Since this truss is statically determinate, the method of joints and the method of
sections can be used for the analysis. In this case, several linear equations should be solved to
get the forces in the members. The solution of this set of equations is somewhat tedious.
An alternative approach is proposed by considering the force in one member of the truss
as P. The forces in other members can now be obtained in terms of P. The value of P can be
determined when resolving the last joint in the truss at which two different expressions of one
member force are found. Once P is calculated, then the forces in all members become known.
This method is illustrated numerically in Example 2.37.
The virtual work method may also be used for solving complex trusses. This method is
proceeded by removing one member and replacing it by another one to change the structure to
a simple truss. The new simple truss can be solved by one or more of the previous method.
Let the forces in the new simple truss, due to the applied forces, be F0. The applied forces are
then removed and two opposite unit loads (X = 1) are applied in the direction of the removed
member. The truss is now resolved for the new case of loading. The system of forces is termed
F1. Let the forces in the new member be F0 and F1 from systems F0 and F1, respectively. To
eliminate the effect of the new member, the final force should be zero. Therefore,
F0 + X F1 = 0 ……………………………………………(2.1)
e g e g
c f c f
d d
a a
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4 Simple and complex trusses
From this condition, the value of X can be determined and consequently the forces in all
members can be easily determined by adding the two sets of forces F0 and X F1 as follow:
F
X = − 0 ………………………………………………(2.2)
F1
F (final) = F0 + X F1 …………………………………….(2.3)
This approach is illustrated numerically in the following example.

EXAMPLE 2.36
Determine the forces in all members of the shown e f
complex truss. 2m
d g
4m
a c
b
SOLUTION 80 kN
4m 4m 4m 4m
e f
d g
From symmetry: Ya = Yc = 80/2 = 40 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): Xa = 0
a c
Xa =0 b
Ya =40 kN 80 kN Yc=40 kN
If member ef is removed and member dg is added, the following simple truss is obtained
e f
0 0
d -80 g
0 0
Member forces (F0)
-40
-40
89 9. 4
.4 8
a 0 0 c
b
40 kN 80 kN 40 kN
This simple truss can be analyzed using the method of joints and the members forces is called
F0
If the actual applied forces are removed and two equal and opposite unit forces are applied at
joints e and f (the ends of the removed member) and in the direction ef. The following internal
forces (F1) can be determined using the method of joints.
59 e 1.0 kN f 0.5
0 .5 59
d -0.50 g
- 0. 5
5 59 59
Member forces (F1) -0 .
0.25
0.25
0 0
0.50 0.50
a c
b
0 0
The final forces (F) in the original truss members are calculated using the following
relationship:
F = F0 + X F 1
where X is a dimensionless correction factor which is the negative ratio between F0 and F1 of
the added member that is given as follow:
F   −80 
X = − 0  = −  = −160 kN
F
 1 dg  −0.5 
The final internal forces is in the original complex truss is given as follow:
-160 -8 9
.4 .4
- 89
89 .4 89
.4 89 .4
89
.4
-80
-80
Final member forces -80 -80
80 kN 40 kN
40 kN
EXAMPLE 2.37
Determine the forces in all members of the shown 60 kN
complex truss. 10 kN f
10 5m
4
10
.1
e
14
5m
20 kN d
c 20
5 2
2 0.6 5m
SOLUTION
a b
10 m 10 m
60 kN
 Mb =0: Ya  20 + 20  5 + 10  15 10 kN f
– 60  10 = 0 ; Ya = 17.5 kN
 Fy =0 (+): Yb + Ya – 60 = 0 e
20 kN
Yb = 42.5 kN d
c
Xa =30 kN
 Fx =0 (→+): – Xa + 20 +10 = 0 b
a
Xa = 30 kN Ya = 17.5 kN Yb = 42.5 kN
The force in member ad is assumed to be P kN (Fad = P kN). Using the method of joints, the
forces in the other members are determine in terms of P as follows:
Joint d
 Fx =0 (→+): – 10/14.14 Fdf – 20/20.62 P = 0 F df

Fdf = – 1.373 P kN ……………………………(a) d
P
 Fy =0 (+): – Fbd + 10/14.14 Fdf – 5/20.62 P = 0 F bd
Fbd = – 1.212 P kN ……………………………(b)
Joint f
 Fx =0 (→+): – 10/14.14 Fcf – 10/14.14  1.373 P + 10 = 0

Fcf = (14.14 – 1.373 P) kN …………………….(c) 60 kN
10 kN f
 Fy =0 (+): – Fef – 10/14.14 Fcf + 10/14.14  1.373 P – 60 = 0 Fcf

Fef 1.373P
Fef = (1.94 P – 70) kN …………………………(d)
Joint e
 Fx =0 (→+): 10/14.14 Fbe – 10/14.14 Fae = 0 (1.94P-70)

Fbe = Fae
e
 Fy (+): – 10/14.14 Fbe – 10/14.14 Fae + (1.94 P – 70) = 0 Fae Fbe
Fbe = Fae = (1.372 P – 49.49) kN ………….(e)
Joint a
 Fx =0 (→+): 20/20.62 Fad + 10/14.14  (1.372 P – 49.49) – 30 = 0

F ac (1.372P-49.49)
Fad = (67 – P) kN ……………………………….(f)
30 kN Fad
Fac + 5/20.62 Fad + 10/14.14  (1.372 P – 49.49) a
17.5 kN
 Fy = 0 (+): + 17.5 = 0
Fac = (1.254 – 0.728 P) kN ……………………..(g)
It is noticed that member ad has two values. These values are the original estimated value (P)
and the value obtained from Eq. (f) (67 – P). Since the two values must be equal, then
P = 67 – P
Or, P = 33.5 kN
The forces in the members can be obtained by substituting P = 33.5 in Eqs. (a) to (g) as follows:
From Eq.(a): Fdf = – 1.373  33.5 = – 46 kN
From Eq.(b): Fbd = – 1.212  33.5 = – 40.6 kN
From Eq.(c): Fcf = 14.14 – 1.373  33.5 = – 31.8 kN
From Eq.(d): Fef = 1.94  33.5 – 70 = – 5 kN

From Eq.(e):
Fbe = Fae = 1.372  33.5 – 49.49 = – 3.5 kN

From Eq.(g):
Fac = 1.254 – 0.728  33.5 = – 23.1 kN
The force in the remaining member can be obtained by analyzing the forces at joint c as follow:
 Fx =0 (→+): 20/20.62 Fbc + 20 - 10/14.14  31.8 = 0 31.8

c
Fbc =2.6 kN
20 kN F bc
 Fy (+): 23.1 – 5/20.62 Fbc – 10/14.14  31.8 = 0 .(Check) 23.1
60 kN
10 kN f
-5
.8
1
-4
-3
6
Final member forces e
-3
.5
d
.
20 kN
-3
-40.6
c
-2 3.1
3 3 .5 2. 6
b
30 kN a
42.5 kN
17.5 kN
2.9 GRAPHICAL METHOD OF JOINTS (MAXWELL DIAGRAM)
Any group of forces in equilibrium, when plotted to scale successively by arrowhead lines,
should form a closed polygon. The external force polygon represents the reactions and external
forces. Each internal force polygon represents the equilibrium of the concurrent forces at each
joint. If the external forces and reactions is reading in a clockwise manner around the outside
of the truss, the internal forces must also be reading in a clockwise manner around each joint.
The procedure for the graphical method of joints is proposed as follows:
1. Assign a number to the space outside the truss that is separated by either a reaction or an
external force, proceeding clockwise around the truss.
2. Assign a number to each triangle within the truss.
3. Begin the construction of the Maxwell diagram by starting with the external forces system,
drawing a line parallel to and in the direction of a known external force and of a length to
represent its magnitude to scale. Proceed around the structure clockwise; the resulting
force polygon should close, as the external force system is in equilibrium.
4. Then applying superposition on the external force line polygon, such as 1-2-3-4-5 in the
next example, and beginning with joint containing only two unknowns, construct line
polygons for each joint in succession until all joints have been treated. At each joint
proceed from force to force clockwise around the joint.
5. To interpret the results, at a given joint a member is designated by two numbers, always
using the sequence obtained by moving clockwise around a joint. The “number-number”
sequence is the same sequence used on the Maxwell diagram to establish the directions of
the forces. The length of the line on the Maxwell diagram is proportional to the magnitude
of the force.
EXAMPLE 2.38
Determine the forces in the members of the e f

shown truss by the graphical method of joints. 20 kN 3m
30 kN
c d
3m
a b
SOLUTION 3m 4m 3m
The spaces between external forces and reactions are designated 1-2-3-4-5-1 clockwise
around the truss, so the force vector 1-2-3-4-5-1 forms a closed polygon. The four internal
triangles are numbered 6-7-8-9. These numbers are determined in the Maxwell diagram in
succession; for instance, point 6 is the intersection of 1-6 parallel to member ac and 2-6 parallel
to member ce.
The magnitude of each of axial force may be measured from the force diagram and its
direction acting on the joint (tension-compression) is determined by the indicated direction
when proceeding from point to point on the Maxwell diagram according to the name of the
member obtained by reading in a clockwise pattern around a joint of the truss diagram. For
example,
Fab = 7-4 on joint a = 4-7 on joint b = 20 kN (tension)

Fac = 1-6 on joint a = 6-1 on joint c = 14.1 kN (compression)
1 5
2
e f
20 kN 8
6
30 kN
6 9 4
c d 7
1 7
3 8
30 kN a b 2 3
5 4
12.5 kN 7.5 kN
External forces
9
Maxwell force diagram

e 15 f
21
20 kN
.
14
2.
-15
-9
-2.5
30 kN
Member forces c d
-1
.2
4
21
.1
30 kN 20
a b
12.5 kN 7.5 kN
EXAMPLE 2.39
Determine the forces in the members of the truss given in Example 2.19 by the graphical
method of joints.
SOLUTION
11 1
5 e
c g
7 10
11 9
6 8 9 h 2
a b d f
4 3 2 1 7,10
5
30 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 30 kN
8 3
External forces
6 4
-40 -40
-1 6 -5 0
- 50 6 .7 .7
30
30
20
-1
Member forces
40 53.3 53.3 40
20 kN 20 kN 20 kN
30 kN 30 kN
EXAMPLE 2.40
method of joints.
SOLUTION
6 3
50 kN 80 kN
3 4 5 7
c e g
a
6 8 10
7 9 8 4
93.3 kN 76.7kN 1
b f
2 d 1
40 kN
9
2
External forces
5
10
50 kN 80 kN
Member forces -93.3 -100 -76.7

-6
9
4
13
-3
.9
3.
8.
5.
2
0
-3
10
1
1
.2
-4
1 2 0 .9
1 2 6 .4
93.3 kN 76.7 kN
40 kN
EXAMPLE 2.41
Determine the forces in the members of the shown truss
80 kN e
by the graphical method of joints c g 2m
7m
a h
b d f
SOLUTION 100 kN 60 kN
7m 7m 7m 7m
11 1
4
80 kN e 5
c g
9 2
7 10
4
6 8 9 11
a h
10
b d f
3 2 1
125 kN 100 kN 60 kN 115 kN 5
External forces 7
8 6 3

80 kN -130 -119 .6
-2
8
Member forces
-1
8
1.
8.
6.
82.1
62
100
9.3
-1
1
7
.
-1
6
125 132.2 132.2 115
100 kN 60 kN
125 kN 115 kN
EXAMPLE 2.42
Determine the forces in the members of the truss in Example 2.28 by the graphical method of
joints
SOLUTION
11
g
e i 12,13
4 10
30 kN 9
14,15
11 1
c k 5
8 13
30 kN 6 7 9 12 14 15 l 4
d
3,5
a b f h j
3 1
2
60.8 kN 80 kN 19.2 kN
External forces
10
2
6,7,8
9 -56
6. .9
-5 30 kN
68.3
.4
01 - 31
.9
-1
-6
-1 8
80
.4 0 -31
4
Member forces
.1
01 0 0 .9
30 kN -1 0 0
51.1 51.1 51.1 25.6 25.6 25.6
60.8 kN 80 kN 19.2 kN
EXAMPLE 2.43
joints
SOLUTION
d 20 kN 1 2
5 6
40 kN c
4 10 2 40 kN
9 11
80 kN 10 kN
a b
3 e 12 f
60 kN 1
7
g 10 kN 4,9
8 5 6
3
100 kN
External forces
10 12 11
7 8
20 kN
.7
-4 4
33
-86.7
40 kN
1
.3
3.
40 kN
Member forces
11
-20
0
80 kN -10
80 10 kN
.7
-86.7
-1 6
60 kN
10 kN
100 kN
EXAMPLE 2.44
joints.
SOLUTION
7 8
h
5 6
8 9 g
e 1 4
f
2 7
6 50 kN
c d 3 2
5
4
a b
25 kN 1 75 kN
External forces 3 9

70
.7
-10 0
.7
70
-50
-50
Member forces
.3
23
-1 00
37
.6
50 kN
-16.7
-8 3 .3
15
28
-12.5
25 kN 75 kN
EXAMPLE 2.45
method of joints.
SOLUTION
6
10 kN
k
j 7 1,9
14
5
13 15
10 kN g h i
4 11
10 kN 10 12
f 10 12
d e 8
3
7 8
Xa=30 kN 9
c
a b 15
2 11,13
1
Ya=22.5 kN Yc=22.5 kN 2,6
3 4 5 14
External forces Maxwell force diagram

10 kN -5
-6.
6. 2
3.8
-3.8
2
10 kN -5 -10
Member forces -12
11.3
.5
-11.3
.5
12
10 kN 5 -15
-18
22.5
-22.5
.8 .8
18
30 kN 30 0
22.5 kN 22.5 kN
EXAMPLE 2.46
Determine the forces in the members of the shown 50 kN
f
truss by the graphical method of joints. 100 kN
3m
e g
1.5 m
d 1.5 m
a b c
SOLUTION 80 kN
5.2 m 5.2 m 5.2 m 5.2 m
10,11
f 50 kN
5
100 kN 6 4 3
4 e g 1
8 9 10
7 11
50 kN b c d 9 2
a 2 1
3 5 6
80 kN
80.6 kN 99.4 kN
7
External forces
8

50 kN
-39
100 kN 0 .2 7 .9
- 38 0 27
4.
32 -39
Member forces 0 .2 2 7.9
-38 0
50 kN 137.3 3 58 .7
39 4 .8
-100
80 kN
80.6 kN 99.4 kN
EXAMPLE 2.47
Determine the forces in the members of the shown 30 kN h i j 10 kN
truss by the graphical method of joints. 3m
c f g
d e
4m
SOLUTION a 80 kN b
3m 8m 8m 3m
1 11
3,6 7
30 kN h 4 i j 10 kN
9 10
7 8 11 12
c g
6 d e f 13 4
2 1
5 9,10
3 a 80 kN 5,13 12
b
73.8 kN 46.2 kN
2 8
External forces
30 kN h -86.7 i -86.7 j 10 kN
12 4 2
14
.4
10 3.
-73.8
-46.2 -4 6.3
.6
0
42
.1
-10 g
c
-30 d -30 e -10 f
Member forces
-73.8
0
0
a 80 kN b
73.8 kN 46.2 kN
EXAMPLE 2.48
method of joints.
SOLUTION
2 3
100 kN 4 100 kN 8
d f 5
e
c 9 10 h
3 8 11
7
7 b g 12
71.4 kN 71.4 kN
10
a 1 1 4
2 i 6 9
100 kN 100 kN 12
External forces
11
6 5
100 kN 100 kN
-9 3.7 -93 .7
-93 .7 -9 3.7
-100
-100
5 27
102 2 7. .5 10 2
.7
-64.3
-64.3
Member forces .7
.9 - 79
-7 9 .9
71.4 kN 71.4 kN
100 kN 100 kN
EXAMPLE 2.49
Determine the forces in the members of the shown truss by the 10 kN i 20 kN
graphical method of joints. 20 kN 4 m 4m
4m
e g h
f
4m
c d
4m
SOLUTION a b
9m 9m
10 kN 2 3
i
20 kN 5 20 kN
4
f 13 g
e h
9 11 12
10 13 10,11
3 c d 6 1,8
8
10 kN b 20 kN
a 5 12
2 1 7 4 9
13.3 kN 26.7 kN
External forces
7 6
10 kN i
20 kN 20 kN
-8
3
.3
8.
5 f 5 g 5
e h
-20 .6
0
-8
8 .3
6
.3
-2 0 .
Member forces -20
c d
.7
-3
0
-16
3.
3
10 kN 20 kN
a b
13.3 kN 26.7 kN
EXAMPLE 2.50
method of joints.
SOLUTION
1 4
e g
c 8 9 h
2 6
7 f
120 kN
5
d
3
4
a b 5
1 7
270 kN 390 kN
2 8,9
6
External forces

180 240 240

- 67
.1 8 .3
-2 6
30
-7
3 120 kN
5
4.
.9
3
-210
30 1
Member forces -2
25
-2
-135
270 kN 390 kN
EXAMPLE 2.51
method of joints.
SOLUTION
19 1
17
7 h 2
f k 18
12 16
c 10 13 14 j 17 m 15
e 3
8 14
9 11 15 18 19 n 12,16
a 7
b d g i l 13
6 5 4 3 2 1 4
11
100 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 100 kN
9
5
External forces
10
8 6

-106.7 -106.7
-1 3
3 .3 6. 7 -16
80
3 .3
-13
80
-1 .7
20
-3 -1 6
.7 3. 3 1 6. .3
Member forces 66 7 .7 -3 3
6 .7
-1
60
16
40
60
40
133.3 133.3 106.7 106.7 133.3 133.3
40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN
100 kN 100 kN
EXAMPLE 2.52
Determine the forces in the members of the shown truss e i l
by the graphical method of joints. c g k n 3m
p 3m
a
b d f h j m o
SOLUTION
50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
8 at 4 m 32 m
23 1
21
22 2
e i 16
l 9 19
15 20 3
c 12 g 16 17 k 21 n
a 10 11 13 14 18 19 22 23 p 18 4
b d f h j m o 9
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15,20 5
14
175 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 175 kN
6
13
17
External forces 11 7
12
10 8

-400 -400
0 16 -2
-2 5 2 5 0 6.7 6 .7 0 50
-2 0 0
6 5 -2
.7 -4 1 1 20 2
91 . 7 25 8.
3 08 .3 1 2 5 1.7 91
.7
Member forces 2 1 -4
50
50
50
50
- 2
233.3 233.3 100 100 100 100 233.3 233.3
50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
175 kN
175 kN
EXAMPLE 2.53
Determine the forces in the members of the shown truss by the graphical method of joints.
e i m
c o 3m
g k
a p 3m
b d f h j l n
SOLUTION 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
8 at 4 m = 32 m
23 1
21
9 22 2
e i m
14 19 20
c 12 16 17 k 21 o 3
g 20
10 11 13 15 18 22 23 p 16 18
a b d f h j l 2 n 4
8 7 6 5 4 3 1 14,19 9
15
17 5
175 kN 50 kN 50 kN50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 175 kN
13 6
12
10 8
-300 -300
50 1 41 -2 5
-2 25 .7 .7 0
418
-50
5
75
.7 - 29
91
-4 1
.7 3 .3 . 3 12 1 .7 1. 7
83
50
Member forces -2 4
50
75
-
50
50
233.3 200 200 200 200 233.3

233.3 233.3
50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
175 kN 175 kN
EXAMPLE 2.54
Determine the forces in the members of the shown truss e g j
by the graphical method of joints. c d h k 5m
l5m
a
b f i
100 kN 200 kN 100 kN
4 at 10 m = 40 m
SOLUTION
The force in member eg is first determined by the method of section. In this case, this force is
considered as an external force in the Maxwell diagram.
16 1
14 15
300 300 g 7
e j
6 12 13 2
5 c 10 15 k
d h
9 14
8 11 13 16 l
a
b
6,12 5,7
f i
4 3 2 1
200 kN 100 kN 200 kN 100 kN 200 kN
11
3
8 4

-300 -300
-2
.1
21
12
1
12
2.
2.
.1
-2
21
-100 0 -100
1
14
-2
4
Member forces
1.
8
8
1.
.7
2.
.7
2.
14
70
70
70
8
70
8
-2
.7
.7
200 200 200 200
100 kN 200 kN 100 kN

200 kN 200 kN
EXAMPLE 2.55
method of joints.
SOLUTION
The force in member bc is first determined by the method of section. In this case, this force is
3 2,4
20 kN
20 kN i
5 6
4 e 11 12 h
5 kN f g
10 13
3 8
9 14
5 kN d
a b 11.7 11.7 c 5
2 7 10
1 11
28.3 kN 11.7 kN
External forces 8 1,7,14
9
13 6,12
20 kN
20 kN
-5 . 3 0
-1
5 kN
.4
6.
-9
-6.7 -11.7
Member forces
-28.3
-6.7
-11.7
-11.7
5
9.
.
16
4
5 kN 5 11.7 0
28.3 kN 11.7 kN
EXAMPLE 2.56
method of joints.
SOLUTION
The force in member jk is first determined by the method of section. In this case, this force is
14 1
80 kN 80 kN 15
13
j k
6 7
5
11 15
12 2
f g h i
9 13
8 10 12 14 6 5,7
b 1 e
a
4 3 c 2
d
150
10 3
150 kN 100 kN 100 kN 100 kN
External forces
9
11
8 4

-80
.5
-12 6
1 26 .
.5
-1 2 6
126
.5
5
-50 -50
Member forces
.3
7.7
.9
78
-1 6
.5
3 3.
5 5.
78
55
33
.3
- 16
7
5
.7
75 55 55 75
100 kN 100 kN 100 kN

150 kN 150 kN
Problems
Find graphically and analytically the forces in all members for the following trusses:
b d
100 kN e
d f
2m
4.5 m c h 2m
5m
e b g
a i 5m
a c
40 kN 20 kN 100 kN
6m 6m 4 at 10 m = 40m
(1) (2)
100 kN
40 kN
f h
8m
d e 40 kN d
f 1.5 m
b
3m
8m a g
c e
80 kN
a c
b 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
4m 4m 4m 4m
(3) (4)
j h k
10 kN
d e g 1.5 m
h
10 kN i
10 m 10 kN g
b 1.5 m
j
20 kN c f i f
10 m 10 kN d e
a k 1.5 m
a c
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
2m 2m
(5) (6)
20 kN
40 kN
20 kN c
i d
5 kN 2m 1.5 m
f g h b
e e
4m 2m
a f
a d
b c
4m 2m 2m 4m 2m 3.5 m 2m
(7) (8)
50 kN
g 40 kN b c e
e 3m 40 kN
i
c k 3m 4m
f l 3m
a f
b d h j a
d
80 kN 50 kN
6 at 4 m =24 m 3m 3m 3m
(9) (10)
40 kN 60 kN 40 kN g h
g h 20 kN f i
f
6m 5m
a e a e
b d b c d
6m
c 100 kN 100 kN 100 kN
4 at 5 m = 20 m
6 at 4 m =24 m
(11) (12)
b d
10 kN i
20 kN 40 kN
40 kN 4m 4m 4m
2m
c e f g h
e 2m 4m
i c d
a
f g h 4m
40 kN 40 kN a b
3m 1.5 m 1.5 m 3m
9m 9m
(13) (14)
d 60 kN g 20 kN i
c 1m h j 1m
i
10 kN f 1m c 2m
e h a b d e1 m
k 3m
2m
a j b f 40 kN g
20 kN 20 kN
3m 3m 3m 3m 4m 4m 4m 4m
(15) (16)
20 kN h j 10 kN
b d f h j l
e 3m
c g
d f 3m
4m a g
c e i k
a 80 kN b
40 kN 80 kN 40 kN
3m 8m 8m 3m 5 at 4 m = 20 m
(17) (18)
e
80 kN 80 kN 20 kN
40 kN
d e g i k
4m
f 30 kN
20 kN b l
4m
c
1.5 m
c f j
4m b d 2.5 m
a h a g
60 kN
6 at 5 m = 30m 4m 2 m 2 m 2 m2 m 4m
(19) (20)
3
Statically Determinate Beams
and Frames
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams and frames are defined as flexural structures. The members of these structures can
carry external loads through their internal resistance against shears and moments. With flexural
members, it is not sufficient to know only the member-end forces because the member forces
may vary along the length of the member. If the internal member forces are desired at a
specified location, it is necessary to cut the structure at that position and determine the internal
forces at the cut surface to equilibrate the resulting free-body diagrams. To determine the
internal forces acting across any section of a beam subjected to some random loads (Fig. 3.1a),
the beam is cut at the desired section.
R Ax
B
A C
RAy R By
(a) Loaded beam
M M
RAx A N N
B
Q C
CQ
RAy R By
(b) Free body for left portion (c) Free body for right portion
Fig. 3.1 Internal member forces

Applying the equations of static equilibrium ( Fx = 0,  Fy = 0,  M = 0) to the left

portion (Fig. 3.1b), the internal forces are obtained at the required section. That is, the
summation of vertical forces reveals that a transverse force Q is required, the summation of
horizontal forces leads to the axial force N, and the summation of moments shows that a
bending moment M is required-all at the desired plane. If the right portion is treated as a free
body as shown in Fig. 3.1c, equal and opposite forces (N, Q, M) are obtained at the same cross
section.
3.2 AXIAL FORCE, SHEAR FORCE, AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Shear is defined as an internal force acting in the plane and through the centroid of the
section and it has units of a force. Bending moment is defined as an internal couple acting
about a cross-sectional centroidal axis; it acts in a plane normal to the section and has units of
force  distance. Axial force is defined as an internal force acting at the centroid of the section
and along an axis normal to the section. The sign conventions for shear, moment, and axial
force, as applied to beams, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
N N
Q Q M M
Positive axial force Positive shear force Positive bending moment
Fig. 3.2 Sign convention of internal forces.
A graph showing a plot of shear force versus the longitudinal distance along a slender
structural member, as beam, is called a shear-force diagram (SFD); similarly, a graph showing
the variation of bending moment along the length of a member is called a bending moment
diagram (BMD). The same definition applies to normal-force diagram (NFD).
When the internal forces are to be determined at a given point in a beam or frame structure,
the same general technique that was used in trusses is employed. That is, a free-body diagram
is taken which cuts through the structure at the desired location, and each unknown internal
force is assumed to act in the positive direction. The analysis proceeds, and if it produces a
positive value for the unknown, then the assumed direction is correct and the internal force is
indeed positive. If, however, the analysis yields a negative value for the unknown, then the
assumed direction is incorrect and the internal force is negative.
In this approach, a separate free-body diagram (FBD) must be considered for each point
on the structure, where the internal forces are desired. The point may be explicitly defined, or
it may be given as variable location. The analysis for each case gives the desired internal forces
at that cut section.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Determine the shear force, and bending moment at 20 kN 50 kN 30 kN

the indicated sections for the beam structure shown
b1 2 3 e
in the figure. a c d
3m 3m 2m 4m
SOLUTION
Statically determinate beams and frames 105
30 kN
The reactions have been already determined in 20 kN 50 kN
Example 1.12 and given as shown b e
a c d
Yb =73.3 Ye =26.7
Section 1
Considering the part left to section 1,
 Py = 0 (+): – 20 + 73.3 – Q1 = 0 20 kN
Q1 = 53.3 kN Q1
a M1
3m b
 Mb = 0: M1 + 20  3 = 0
M1 = – 60 kN.m 73.3
Section 2
 Py = 0 (+): – 20 + 73.3 – Q2 = 0 20 kN
Q2 = 53.3 kN b Q2
a M2
c
3m 3m
 Mc = 0: M2 + 20  6 – 73.3  3 = 0
M2 = 100 kN.m 73.3
Section 3
Considering the part right to section 3,
 Py = 0 (+): Q3 – 30 + 26.7 = 0 Q 3 30 kN
Q3 = 3.3 kN d e
M3 4m
 Md = 0: M3 – 26.7  4 = 0 26.7
M3 = 106.7 kN.m
53.3 60
a c d e
a b 3.3 e b
c d
-20 -20 -26.7 -26.7 BMD
SFD 100 106.7
EXAMPLE 3.2
Determine the shear force, and bending moment at the 12 kN/m 30 kN

10 kN/m
indicated sections for the beam structure shown. a 2 3 4 e
1 b c d
1.5m
30 kN
12 kN/m 10 kN/m
Xa=0 a b c d e
Ya =28.7 kN Yd=57.3 kN
 Px = 0: (→+) Xa = 0
 Md = 0: Ya  6 – (12  3)  4.5 – 30  1 + (10  2)  1 = 0

Ya = 28.7 kN
 Py = 0: (+) Yd + Ya – (12  3) – 30 – (10  2) = 0

Yd + 28.7 – (12  3) – 30 – (10  2) = 0
Yd = 57.3 kN
Section 1
 Py = 0 (+): 28.7 – 12  1.5 – Q1 = 0 12 kN/m

M1
Q1 = 10.7 kN a
1.5m
Q1
 M1 = 0: M1 – 28.7  1.5 + (12  1.5)  0.75 = 0 28.7
M1 = 29.55 kN.m
Section 2
 Py = 0 (+): 28.7 – 12  3 – Q2 = 0 12 kN/m M2

Q2 = – 7.3 kN a
3m b
Q2
 Mb = 0: M2 – 28.7  3 + (12  3)  1.5 = 0 28.7
M2 = 32 kN.m
Section 3
 Py = 0 (+): 28.7 – 12  3 – Q3 = 0 12 kN/m M3

Q3 = – 7.3 kN a
3m b 2m c
Q3
28.7
 Mc = 0: M3 – 28.7  5 + (12  3)  3.5 = 0
M3 = 17.3 kN.m
Section 4
 Py = 0 (+): Q4 + 57.3 – 10  2 = 0 Q 4 10 kN/m

Q4 = – 37.3 kN e
M4 2m
 Md = 0: M4 + (10  2)  1 = 0 57.3
M4 = – 20 kN.m
20
28.7 20
b c a b c
d e
a d e
-7.3
SFD 17.3 BMD
-37.3 32
EXAMPLE 3.3
40 kN/m
Determine the shear force, and bending moment at the 1 2 60 kN.m
a d
indicated sections for the beam structure shown. b 1m c
3m 2m 1m
SOLUTION
40 kN/m 60 kN.m
The reactions have been already determined in d
Example 1.13 and given as shown a c
b
Ya = 40 kN Yd = 20 kN
Section 1
 Py = 0 (+): 40 – 0.5  40  3 – Q1 = 0 40 kN/m M1

Q1 = – 20 kN b
a
3m
 Mb = 0: M1 – 40  3 + (0.5  40  3)  2 = 0 40
Q1
M1 = 0
Section 2

 Py = 0 (+): Q2 + 20 = 0 Q 2 60 kN.m
Q2 = – 20 kN d
c
M2 1m 1m
 M2 = 0: M2 + 60 – 20  2 = 0
20
M2 = – 20 kN.m
40
40
a b c d a b c d
SFD -20 -20

BMD 20
EXAMPLE 3.4
40 kN 60 kN
Determine the axial force, shear force, and bending 10 kN/m
4
moment at the indicated sections for the beam structure a 3 f
b 1 d 2 e
shown. 1m
3m 1m 2m 2m 3m
SOLUTION
40 kN 48 kN
The reactions have been already determined in 10 kN/m
Xa=36 kN 36 kN
Example 1.14 and given as shown a d e f
b
Ya =33.9 kN Ye =104.1 kN
Section 1
 Px = 0 (→+): – 36 + N1 = 0 40 kN
M1
N1 = 36 kN 36 kN b 1
a 3m 1 m N1
Q1
 Py = 0 (+): 33.9 – 40 – Q1 = 0
33.9 kN
Q1 = – 6.1 kN
 M1 = 0: M1 – 33.9  4 + 40  1 = 0
M1 = 95.5 kN.m
Section 2

 Px = 0 (→+): N2 = 0 Q2 10 kN/m
N2
2 e f
 Py = 0 (+): Q2 + 104.1 – (10  4) = 0 M2 1m 3m
Q2 = – 64.1 kN 104.1
 M2 = 0: M2 – 104.1  1 + (10  4)  2 = 0
M2 = 24.1 kN.m
36 36
33.9 33.9 30
b d
a -6.1 -6.1 e f
a b d e f
NFD SFD
-54.1 -74.1
45
a b d
e f
BMD
83.3
101.6
EXAMPLE 3.5
30 kN
2 3 15 kN/m 4 60 kN
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and
bending moment at the indicated sections for the e
c 1 b d 5
loaded structure shown in the figure. 2m
30 kN
2m
a
SOLUTION
2m 4m 2m 2m
The reaction components at a and e are determined using the equilibrium conditions.
30 kN 60 kN
15 kN/m
e
c b d
56.3 kN
30 kN
a
30 kN
123.8 kN
Section 1
Considering the equilibrium of part ab,

N1
M1
 Py = 0 (+): 123.8 + N1 = 0
b Q1
N1 = – 123.8 kN 2m
 Px = 0 (→+): 30 – 30 + Q1 = 0 30 kN
2m
Q1 = 0 a
30 kN
123.8 kN
 Mb = 0: M1 – 30  2 + 30  4 = 0
M1 = – 60 kN.m
Section 2
Considering the equilibrium of part cb,
 Py = 0 (+): – 30 – 15  2 – Q2 = 0
Q2 = – 60 kN 30 kN
15 KN/m M2
 Px = 0 (→+): N2 = 0 N2
c b
Q
 Mb = 0: M2 + 30  2 + (15  2)  1 = 0 2m 2
M2 = – 90 kN.m
Section 3
60 kN
M3 Q 3 15 kN/m
N3 e
90 M3 b d
b
56.3 kN
60 4m 2m 2m
Joint b Part bde

Considering the equilibrium of part bde,
 Py = 0 (+): Q3 – 15  4 – 60 + 56.3 = 0
Q3 = 63.8kN
 Px = 0 (→+): N3 = 0
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint b,
 Mb = 0 M3 = 90 – 60 = 30 kN.m
Section 4
Considering the equilibrium of part de,

 Py = 0 (+): Q4 – 60 + 56.3 = 0 Q4
60 kN
Q4 = 3.7 kN N4 e
M4 d
 Px = 0 (→+): N4 = 0 56.3 kN
2m 2m
 Md = 0: M4 + 60  2 – 56.3  4 = 0
M4 = 105 kN.m
Section 5
Considering the equilibrium of the part right to section 5,
 Py = 0 (+): Q5 – 60 + 56.3 = 0 Q5 60 kN
Q5 = 3.7 kN N5 e
M5 5
56.3 kN
 Px = 0 (→+): N5 = 0 2m
 M5 = 0: M5 – 56.3  2 = 0
M5 = 112.5 kN.m
The internal force diagrams are completely shown in Example 3.40.
EXAMPLE 3.6
10 kN 15 kN
10 kN/m 3
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and bending 1 d
b e
moment at the indicated sections for the loaded structure shown a
2 20 kN.m 4
in the figure.
4m
SOLUTION
5 6
c
2m 1m 1m 2m
10 kN 15 kN
10 kN/m
The reaction components at c are determined by
considering the equilibrium conditions. 20 kN.m
25 kN.m
Section 1 45 kN
Considering the equilibrium of part ab.

 Py = 0 (+): Q1 – 15 = 0 M1
15 kN
Q1 = 15 kN Q1
N1
b 2m a
 Px = 0 (→+): N1 = 0
 Mb = 0: M1 + 15  2 = 0
M1 = – 30 kN.m
Section 2 
25
s
25 Co 10 kN/m
Si
25
n

e
b  d
30 kN.m 20 kN.m
M2 Sin  = 
Cos  = 
c
25 kN.m
Joint b
45 kN
Force components at b
Considering components of the forces at b,
Q2 = – 25 Cos ϴ = – 25  0.6
Q2 = – 15kN
N2 = – 25 Sin ϴ = – 25  0.8
N2 = – 20 kN
 Mb = 0 M2 = 30 kN.m
Section 3
Considering the equilibrium of part de
 Py = 0 (+): – 10  2 – Q3 = 0 e 10 kN/m d M3
Q3 = – 20 kN N3
20 kN.m 2 m Q3
 Px = 0 (→+): N2 = 0
 Mb = 0: M3 + 20 + (10  2)  1 = 0
M3 = – 40 kN.m
Section 4
20
10 kN 20 
Co
15 kN in
S
s
40 kN.m 20

d
M4
Sin  = 
Cos  = 
Joint d 25 kN.m
45 kN
Force components at d
Considering the components of forces at d,
Q4 = 20 Cos ϴ = 20  0.6
Q4 = 12 kN
N4 = – 20 Sin ϴ = – 20  0.8
N4 = – 16 kN
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint d,
M4 = 40 kN.m
Section 5
10 kN 15 kN
Considering the equilibrium of part abc,
b a
Since member bc is unloaded, then the shear and normal forces at c
(section 5) are the same as those at b (section 2). Therefore,
Q5 = – 15 kN and N5 = – 20 kN M5
c
25 kN
2m 1m
Considering the moment equilibrium for part abc,
 M5 = 0: M5 – 15  1 – 10  3= 0
M5 = 45 kN.m
Section 6
Considering the equilibrium of part cde, e 10 kN/m

d
Since member cd is unloaded, then the shear and normal forces at c 20 kN.m
(section 6) are the same as those at d (section 4). Therefore,
Q6 = 12 kN and N6 = – 16 kN
c M6
Considering the moment equilibrium of part cde,
40 kN
1m 2m
 Mc = 0: M6 + 20 – (10  2)  2= 0
M6 = 20 kN.m
EXAMPLE 3.7
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and bending 15 kN 40 kN 4 30 kN.m

c d
moment at the indicated sections for the loaded structure b 5
shown in figure.
40 kN f 8m
3
2
1 e
a
SOLUION 3m 3m 3m 3m
15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m
The reaction components at a and e are determined d
by considering the equilibrium conditions and the c b
condition equation at b,
40 kN
f
14.1 kN 25.9 kN
e
a
15.4 kN 39.6 kN
Section 1
Considering components of the forces at a,

Q1 = 14.1 Sin ϴ + 15.4 Cos ϴ = 14.1  0.8 + 15.4  0.6 15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m
Q1 = 20.5 kN
N1 = 14.1 Cos ϴ – 15.4 Sin ϴ = 14.1  0.6 – 15.4  0.8 40 kN

14
N1 = – 3.9 kN .1
Si Sin  = 
n Cos  = 
  25.9 kN
14.1
M1 = 0 (hinged support) 15
.4
Co
s
39.6 kN
s

Co
15.4 
n
Si
.1
.4
14
15
Section 2
15.4 kN
Considering the equilibrium of part af
14.1 kN
f
The shear and normal forces at section 2 are the same as
M2
those at joint a, then 4m
14.1 kN
Q2 = 20.5 kN and N2 = – 3.9 kN a
15.4 kN
 Mf = 0: M2 – 15.4  3 – 14.1  4 = 0 3m
M2 = 102.5 kN.m
Section 3
Considering the components of forces at section 3,
15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m 15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m
25
.9
Si
n
Sin  =  Sin  = 

25.9 15 Cos  =  Q3 Cos  = 
.4 3 M3
Co
Si 
N3
.4 o s
s 

15.4
1 5 .9 C
n
25.9 kN 25.9 kN
25
39.6 kN 39.6 kN
Force components at section 3 Force resultant at section 3
Q3 = 15.4 Cos ϴ – 25.9 Sin ϴ = 15.4 0.6 – 25.9  0.8

Q3 = – 11.5 kN
N3 = – 25.9 Cos ϴ – 15.4 Sin ϴ = – 25.9 0.6 – 15.4  0.8

N3 = – 27.9 kN
M3 = M2 (at section 2) = 102.5 kN.m

Section 4
Considering the equilibrium of part bd
 Py = 0 (+): Q4 = 0
Q4 30 kN.m
N4
 Px = 0 (→+): N4 = 0
M4
b d
3m
 Mb = 0: M4 = – 30 kN.m
Section 5
3 9 .9 C
25
.6
39.6 
Si s 
s
Co
n
9 .6
o
30 kN.m 3
25.9 
b d n
9 Si b
2 5.
M5 Sin  = 
Cos  = 
Joint b
25.9 kN
e
39.6 kN
Forces components at b
Considering the components of forces at b,
Q5 = 25.9 Sin ϴ – 39.6 Cos ϴ = 25.9 0.8 – 39.6  0.6

Q5 = – 3.0 kN
N5 = – 39.6 Sin ϴ – 25.9 Cos ϴ = – 39.6  0.8 – 25.9  0.6

N5 = – 47.2 kN
M5 = 30 kN.m

EXAMPLE 3.8
20 kN/m
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and f
40 kN e
bending moment at the indicated sections for the loaded d 2m
structure shown in figure. 20 kN
b c 1m
g
h
1m 3m
a i
1m 3m 4m 2m
SOLUTION
20 kN/m
The reaction components at a and i are determined
using the equilibrium conditions and the condition 40 kN e f
d
equation given by hinge at d.
b c 20 kN
g
h
10.2 kN 10.2 kN
a i
73.8 kN 126.2 kN
Section 1
Considering the equilibrium of part ac,

N1
M1
 Py = 0 (+): N1 + 73.8 = 0
N1 = – 73.8 kN Q1 c
4m
 Px = 0 (→+): Q1 + 10.2 = 0
Q1 = – 10.2 kN 10.2 kN
a
 Mc = 0: M1 – 10.2  4 = 0 73.8 kN
M1 = 40.8 kN.m
Section 2
Considering the equilibrium of part bc,
 Py = 0 (+): – 40 - Q2 = 0
Q2 = – 40 kN 40 kN
Q2 M
2
 Px = 0 (→+): N2 = 0 b c N2
1m
 Mc = 0: M2 + 40  1 = 0
M2 = – 40 kN.m
Section 3
20 kN/m
10
.2
S in
d e f

c 
M3 10.2 20 kN
40 kN.m 
33
S in s  g
.8
c .8 o h
Co
33 . 2 C 33.8
s
40.8 kN.m 1 0
10.2 kN
Sin  =  i
Cos  =  126.2 kN
Joint c
Force components at c
Considering the components of forces at c,

Q5 = 33.8 Cos ϴ – 10.2 Sin ϴ = 33.8  0.832 – 10.2  0.555
Q5 = 22.4 kN
N5 = – 33.8 Sin ϴ + 10.2 Cos ϴ = – 33.8  0.555 – 10.2  0.832

N5 = – 27.2 kN
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint c,
M3 = 40 + 40.8 = 80.8 kN.m:
Section 4
Considering the equilibrium of part ef,
 Py = 0 (+): Q4 – 20  2 = 0
Q4 = 40 kN M4 Q4 20 kN/m
N4
e 2m f
 Px = 0 (→+): N4 = 0
 Me = 0: M4 + (20  2)  1 = 0
M4 = – 40 kN.m
Section 5
Considering the equilibrium of part egi,

N5
M5
 Py = 0 (+): N5 – 20 + 126.2 = 0 Q5 e
N5 = – 106.2 kN 3m
20 kN
g
 Px = 0 (→+): Q5 – 10.2 = 0 h
1m
3m
Q5 = 10.2 kN
i
 Me = 0: M5 – 20  1 + 10.2  6 = 0 126.2 kN
10.2 kN
M5 = – 41.2 kN.m
Section 6
Q 6 20 kN/m
N6
e f
M6
M6 40 kN.m 20 kN 2m
e g
h
41.2 kN.m
10.2 kN
i
126.2 kN
Joint e
Section 6
 Py = 0 (+): Q6 – 20 – 20  2 + 126.2 = 0
Q6 = – 66.2 kN
 Px = 0 (→+): – N6 – 10.2 = 0
N6 = –10.2 kN
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint e,
M6 = 40 + 41.2 = 81.2 kN.m
EXAMPLE 3.9
45
al
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and bending o nH
/ m
1 2 kN 30 kN 1.5 m
moment at the indicated sections for the loaded structure 20 kN
13
d
1.5 m
shown in figure. c b 2 e 10 kN
4m
a f
2m 6m 4m
SOLUTION
The reaction components at a and f are determined using the equilibrium conditions.
l
Ha
on
kN /m d 30 kN
20 kN 12
10 kN
c b e
40 kN
a f
94.9 kN 2.9 kN
Section 1
 Py = 0 (+): – Q1 – 20 = 0 20 kN
Q1 = – 20 kN Q1 M1
c N1
 Px = 0 (→+): N1 = 0 2m b
 Mb = 0: M1 + 20  2 = 0
M1 = – 40 kN.m
Section 2
Considering the equilibrium of part ab

N2
M2
 Py = 0 (+): N2 + 94.9 = 0
Q2 b
N2 = – 94.9 kN
4m
 Px = 0 (→+): Q2 + 40 = 0
40 kN
Q2 = – 40 kN
a
94.9 kN
 Mb = 0: M2 – 40  4 = 0
M2 = 160 kN.m
Section 3
7 4.
74.9 
S in 
9C
74 . 9
os
40 C
os
20 kN


40
40 kN.m c
40
b
M3
S
b
in 
160 kN.m 40 kN Sin  = 

a Cos  = 
94.9 kN
Joint b
Section 3
Q3 = 74.9 Cos ϴ – 40 Sin ϴ = 74.9  0.894 – 40  0.447

Q3 = 49.1 kN
N3 = – 74.9 Sin ϴ – 40 Cos ϴ = – 74.9  0.447 – 40  0.894

N3 = – 68.9 kN
M3 = 40 + 160 = 200 kN.m
Section 5
Q5 2
4 0 . 9 S i 2.9
s
N5 Co n 
Co
s
d
2.9
30 kN 1.5 m
M5
40
1.5 m d 30 kN
q

e 10 kN 
S in
40
e 10 kN
4m
f Sin  = 
2.9 kN Cos  = 
f
2.9 kN
4m
Section 5 Force components at section 5
Q5 = 2.9 Cos ϴ + 40 Sin ϴ = 2.9  0.8 + 40  0.6

Q5 = 26.3 kN
N5 = 2.9 Sin ϴ – 40 Cos ϴ = 2.9  0.6 – 40  0.8

N5 = – 30.3 kN
 Md = 0: M5 – 30  1.5 – 10  3 – 2.9  4 = 0
M5 = 86.6 kN.m
Section 4
2. 9
2.9 
S in 
Co
2 .9 s
s
Co
al 40
o nH 40
40
20 kN k N/ m d
12
S in


M4 86.6 kN.m
c b
d
Sin  = 
Cos  = 
40 kN
a
Joint d
94.9 kN
Force components at section 4

Q4 = 2.9 Cos ϴ – 40 Sin ϴ = 2.9  0.894 – 40  0.447

Q4 = –15.3 kN
N4 = – 2.9 Sin ϴ – 40 Cos ϴ = – 2.9  0.447 – 40  0.894

N4 = – 36.7 kN
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint d,
M4 = 86.6 kN.m
EXAMPLE 3.10
5 8 6
30 kN/m
Determine the normal force, shearing force, and d
g
4
bending moment at the indicated sections for the 20 kN e 7
f 2m
loaded structure shown in figure. 2 b3
c
2 0 kN/m
1
2m
a h
2m
i
1m 2m 6m 2m
SOLUTION
30 kN/m
The reaction components at a and i are d
20 kN g
determined using the equilibrium conditions and the e f 20 kN/m
condition equations given by hinges at e and h. c b
47.5 kN
a h
155 kN 72.5 kN
i
105 kN.m
165 kN
Section 1
Considering the equilibrium of part ab,
 Py = 0 (+): N1 + 155 = 0 M1
N1
N1 = –155 kN
b Q
1
2 m
 Px = 0 (→+): Q1 + 47.5 = 0 47.5 kN
a
Q1 = – 47.5 kN
155 kN
 Mb = 0: M1 – 47.5  2 = 0
M1 = 95 kN.m
Section 2
 Py = 0 (+): – 20 – Q2 = 0
Q2 = – 20 kN 20 kN
Q 2 M2
 Px = 0 (→+): N2 = 0 c b N2
1m
 Mb = 0: M2 + 20  1 = 0
M2 = – 20 kN.m
Section 3
N3
20 kN M3
M3 c b Q3
20 kN.m
b 47.5 kN
a
95 kN.m
155 kN
Joint b Section 3
Considering the equilibrium of part abc,
 Py = 0 (+): N3 – 20 + 155 = 0
N3 = – 135 kN
 Px = 0 (→+): Q3 + 47.5 = 0
Q3 = – 47.5 kN
Considering moment equilibrium at joint b,
M3 = 20 + 95 = 115 kN.m :
Section 4
Considering the equilibrium of part abd,

N4
 Py = 0 (+): N4 – 20 + 155 = 0 M4
Q4
N4 = – 135 kN d
20 kN 2m
c b
 Px = 0 (→+): Q4 + 47.5 = 0 2m
Q4 = – 47.5 kN 47.5 kN
a
155 kN
 Md = 0: M4 – 20  1 – 47.5  4 = 0 1m
M4 = 210 kN.m
Section 5
Q 5 M5
N5
d
M5 20 kN 2m
d c b
1m 2m
210 kN.m a
47.5 kN
155 kN
Joint d
Section 5
Considering the equilibrium of part left to section 5,
 Py = 0 (+): – Q5 – 20 + 155 = 0
Q5 = 135 kN
 Px = 0 (→+): N5 + 47.5 = 0
N5 = – 47.5 kN
Considering moment equilibrium at joint d,
M4 = 210 kN.m
Section 6
Considering the equilibrium of part fg,
 Py = 0 (+): Q6 – 30  2 = 0
Q6 = 60 kN
Q6 30 kN/m
 Px = 0 (→+): N6 = 0 N6 g
M6 f
2m
 Mf = 0: M6 + (30  2)  1 = 0
M6 = – 60 kN.m
Section 7
Considering the equilibrium of part fhi,

N7
M7
 Py = 0 (+): N7 + 165 = 0 f
Q7
N7 = – 165 kN
2 0 kN/m
 Px = 0 (→+): Q7 – 20  6 + 72.5 = 0 6m
h
Q7 = 47.5 kN
72.5 kN
i
 Mf = 0: M7 + (20  6)  3 + 105 – 72.5  6= 0 105 kN.m
M7 = – 30 kN.m 165 kN
Section 8
2m
Q 8 30 kN/m
N8 g
f
M8
20 kN/m
M8 60 kN.m
6m
h
f
72.5 kN
30 kN.m i
105 kN.m
Joint f 165 kN
Section 8
 Py = 0 (+): Q8 – 30  2 + 165 = 0
Q8 = – 105 kN
 Px = 0 (→+): – N8 + 72.5 – 20  6 = 0
N8 = – 47.5 kN
Considering the moment equilibrium at joint f,
M8 = 60 + 30 = 90 kN.m
3.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT
To develop the necessary relationships, consider the beam shown in Fig. 3.3a, which is
subjected to a distributed transverse load of varying intensity w(x). For differential element of
length x isolated from the beam by two parallel sections at x and x + x, and if all forces and
moments acting on the element, are defined, then a free body for the element will result as
shown in Fig. 3.3b.
wa . x
 . x
w(x)
w w + w
a b Q Q + Q
x x
M O M + M
L
Loaded beam x
Small element
Fig. 3.3 Relationships between load, shear, and bending moment

The relationships are obtained from the application of the equations of static equilibrium to the
element of Fig. 3.3b. Horizontal equilibrium is automatically satisfied and the summation of
forces in the vertical direction yields
Q + (wa .x ) − (Q + Q) = 0
where wa is the average load intensity over the element. This relationship leads to
Q
= wa
x
having x → 0, we find
Q dQ
lim = = w ……………………………………(3.1)
x →0 x dx
Eq. (3.1) means that the rate of change of shear (slope of the shear curve) at a point is equal to
the numerical value of the transverse distributed load at that point. Thus the shear is constant
when w = 0 and the shear diagram is linear when w is constant. In general, shear equation will
always be one degree higher than the equation for the transverse distributed load.
Integrating Eq. (3.1) between sections 1 and 2 gives
x2 x
dQ 2
 dx
x1
dx =  wdx
x1
x2
Q2 − Q1 =  wdx ………………………………………(3.2)
x
which means that the difference in the ordinates of the shear curve between any two sections
is equal numerically to the total transverse loads applied between the two sections.
Next, applying the equilibrium condition that  M at O = 0 (Fig. 3.3b) leads to
M + ( Q . x ) + ( wa .x )( . x ) − ( M + M ) = 0
or,
M
= Q + ( wa . .x )
x
As x approaches 0 in the limit, the term (wa .  . x) vanishes, and the resulting differential
equation is
dM
= Q ……………………………………………...(3.3)
dx
which means that the slope of the moment curve at any point is equal to the intensity of the
shear force at that point. Here, the moment equation will be one degree higher than the shear
equation. If the moment is a continuos function of x, then a local maximum or minimum

moment occurs at a point where Q = dM/dx = 0.
Integrating Eq. (3.3) between sections 1 and 2 yields
x2
M2 − M1 =  Qdx ………………….……………………..(3.4)
x1
which means that the difference in the ordinates of the moment curve between any two sections
is equal to the area under the shear curve between the two sections, provided no concentrated
moments act between those sections.
EXAMPLE 3.11
P
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a c
b
beam shown.
a b
L
SOLUTION
P
a c
b
Pb/L Pa/L
Free body diagram
Pb/L Pb/L
a b c
b c
a
-Pa/L -Pa/L Pab /L
Shear diagram Moment diagram
Shear Force Diagram
Between a and b the load intensity is zero, so the shear is constant and equal to Pb/L. Similarly,
in the distance between b and c, the load is zero and then, the shear is constant and equal to -
Pa/L
Bending Moment Diagram
Between a and b the shear is constant and therefore the bending moment diagram is linear. The
slope of bending moment diagram between a and b equal to the shear force in the same zone
according to Eq. (3.3). So, from a to b, the slope of bending moment diagram is given as
 dM  Pab / L Pb
 dx  = =
 a→b a L
which is the same value of shear force between a and b. Similarly, the slope of bending moment
diagram between b and c is given as
 dM  Pab / L Pa
 dx  =− =−
  b →c b L
which is the same value of shear force between b and c.

The maximum bending moment occurs at b where the shear force changes from positive to
negative value and the maximum bending moment is equal to Pab/L.
EXAMPLE 3.12
P
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a b
beam shown.
L
SOLUTION
PL P
a
b
P
Free body diagram
PL
P P
The shear force and bending moment diagrams are constructed by the same way as in the
previous example.
EXAMPLE 3.13
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the w
beam shown. a b
SOLUTION L
w
a b
wL/2 wL/2
Free body diagram
L/ 2 L/ 2
wL/2 a c
b
w L2 /8
Ly1 = wL2/4
b
a
T Tc
-wL/2 a Tb
o
Shear Force Diagram
Since the load between a and b is constant, the shear force diagram is linear. The shear force
changes from wL/2 at a to –wL/2 at b and the slope of shear force diagram is equal to the load
according to Eq. (3.1). The slope of shear force diagram is give as
 dQ  wL / 2
 dx  = L / 2 = w
 
which is the same value of load intensity.
Since the shear force diagram is linear, the bending moment diagram is nonlinear to the second
degree. The maximum bending moment value occurs at midspan where the value of shear
force is zero. This value is equal to wL2/8. At the maximum bending value (at midspan in the
present case), the tangent of the bending moment diagram is horizontal. To construct the
tangent of the bending moment diagram at a (Ta), Eq. (3.3) is applied as follows:
 dM 
 dx  = Qa
 at a
Then,
Ly1 wL
=
L /2 2
Then,
wL2
Ly1 =
4
The tangent of bending moment at b (Tb) is constructed by the same way.
EXAMPLE 3.14
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the shown beams.
b b
W W
L
L
a a
L'
L'
Beam 1 Beam 2
w
b
n b
je ct io
ro
lp
n Ha
w o
L L
a
L'
L'
Beam 3 Beam4
SOLUTION
b
Beam 1
b
c
L’/
2 Tb
wL
-w
L’/8
’/2 Tc
wL a
wL
L’/
Ta
8
o
a SFD BMD
Beam 2
b
b
c
Tb
L/2
wL
-w
/2
2/8
wL a Tc
wL
Ta
2/
a
SFD
8
BMD o
Beams 3 and 4 b
b
c
2L
Tb
L’2/
wL
L -w
’2/2
’2/8
wL a
Tc
wL
’2/8
a SFD Ta
o
BMD
It is noticed that Beams 3 and 4 are the same.
EXAMPLE 3.15
W
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
beam shown. a b
L
SOLUTION
wL2 /2 w
a
b
wL FBD
wL2 /2
wL
Ta
b
a
a b Tb
Lx1 = L/2
SFD BMD
Shear Force Diagram

The load intensity over the beam is constant, then the shear diagram is linear and the slope
of shear diagram is equal to the load according to Eq. (3.1). The slope of shear force is
calculated as follows:
dQ wL
= =w
dx L
which is the same value of load with negative sign (Load intensity = - w).

The bending moment diagram is one degree higher than the shear force diagram, so the
moment diagram is nonlinear to the second degree. The maximum value of moment occurs at
the fixed end and the tangent of moment diagram at that location (fixed end) is given as
 dM 
 dx  = Qa
 at a
Then,
wL2 / 2
= wL
Lx 1
Then,
L
Lx 1 =
2
On the other hand, the tangent of bending moment at b is horizontal (slope = 0) because the
shear value at b is equal zero.
EXAMPLE 3.16
W
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a b
beam shown.
L
SOLUTION
w
b
a
wL/3 wL/6
FBD
wL/3 L/3 2L/3

c
Ly1 =Ly2= wL2/9
Ta b
c b a
Mmax
a
Lx1= L/3 -wL/6 Tb
Ta
x Tb
Tc L/ 3
SFD
o BMD
Shear Force Diagram

The shear force diagram is nonlinear to the second degree (one degree higher than load).
To construct the tangent of shear at a (Ta), Eq. (3.1) is applied as follows:
 dQ 
 dx  = Load at a
 at a
wL / 3
=w
Lx 1
L
Lx 1 =
3
The tangent of shear diagram at b is horizontal (slope = 0) since the load at b is equal zero.

The moment diagram is nonlinear to the third degree (one degree higher than shear
diagram). The maximum bending moment occurs at the value of zero shear. To evaluate this
value, assume the point of zero shear occurs at distance x from point b using the shown free
body, then
wL 1 wx
− x =0 Mmax
6 2 L wx/L
b
L c
x= x
3
then, FBD wL/6
wL 1 wx L x
Mmax = .x −   .x.
6 2 L 3 3
wL L 1 w L L wL2
=  −    =
6 3 2 3 3 3 3 9 3
To determine the position of tangent Ta (line ao) which tangs the moment diagram at a, Eq.
(3.3) is applied as follow:
 dM 
 dx  = Qa
 at a
Ly1 wL
=
L /3 3
wL2
Ly1 =
9
The position of tangent Tb (line ob) which tangs the moment diagram at b is determined by the
same way, therefore,
 dM 
 dx  = Qb
 at b
Ly2 wL
=
2L /3 6
wL2
Ly2 =
9
It is noticed that Ly1 = Ly2 = wL2 / 9 which indicates that the tangents Ta and Tb intersect at
point o as shown in the bending moment diagram.
EXAMPLE 3.17
w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam b
shown. a
L
SOLUTION
w
wL2/6
a
b
wL/2 FBD
wL/2 wL2/6
Ta b T
a a a b
Lx1 =L/2 Tb Lx1 =L/3 Tb
SFD BMD
Shear Force Diagram

The shear diagram is a second-degree curve since the load diagram is linear. The maximum
shear value is obtained at the fixed end. To construct the tangent of the shear diagram at the
fixed end (node a), Eq. (3.1) is applied as follow:
 dQ 
 dx  = wa
 at a
wL / 2
=w
Lx 1
Then,
L
Lx 1 =
2
Notice also that the tangent Tb of the shear diagram at b is horizontal since the load is equal
zero at this point.

The moment diagram is third-degree curve (one degree higher than shear diagram). The
tangent of this diagram at b (Tb) is horizontal since the shear value is equal zero at this end.
The tangent at a (Ta) may be constructed using the following relationship:
 dM 
 dx  = Qa
 at a
wL2 / 6 wL
=
Lx 1 2
L
Lx 1 =
3
It is noticed that the maximum bending moment is obtained at the fixed end.
EXAMPLE 3.18
w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a
beam shown. b
L
SOLUTION
wL2 /3 w
a
b
FBD
wL/2
wL2/3
Lx1 = L/2
wL/2 Ta o Ta
Tb a b
Lx2 = 2L/3 Tb
a
b BMD
SFD
The shear force and moment diagrams are constructed by the same way as in the previous
example.
EXAMPLE 3.19
w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a c
beam shown. b
L/2 L/2
SOLUTION
w
a c
b
wL/4 FBD wL/4
L/2
wL/4 Ta o Lx1 = L/4 a b c
T
wL2/12
Ly1 = wL2 /8
b
c
a Ta Tc
b
Tb
SFD -wL/4 o BMD
Shear Force Diagram

The shear force diagram is a second-degree curve since the load diagram is linear. It is
noticed that, when the load is symmetric, the obtained shear diagram is antisymmetric. The
tangents of the shear diagram at a and c are horizontal since the loads are equal zero at these
ends. The tangent of diagram at b (Tb) can be constructed using the following relationship:
 dQ 
 dx  = wb
 at b
wL / 4
=w
Lx 1
L
Lx 1 =
4

The moment diagram is a third-degree curve (one degree higher than shear diagram).
The maximum bending moment is obtained at c where the shear value is equal zero. The
tangent of the bending diagram at the maximum value is horizontal (Tb). The tangents of the
moment diagram at a and c are constructed using the following relationship:
 dM 
 dx  = Qa
 at a
L y1 wL
=
L/2 4
wL2
Ly1 =
8
It is noticed that the bending moment diagram is symmetric since the load diagram is
symmetric.
EXAMPLE 3.20
w w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
a c
beam shown. b
L/2 L/2
SOLUTION
w w
a c
b
wL/4 FBD wL/4
wL/4 a b c
wL/24
Ly1 =L/4
Ta Tb
Ly 1 = wL / 8
a Tc c
b
Ly1 =L/4 Tb
SFD -wL/4
T
c
Ta
BMD
o
Shear Force Diagram

The shear diagram is second-degree curve that is one degree higher than load diagram.
The tangents at a and c are determined using Eq. (3.1) as shown in figure. It is also noticed
that the tangent at b is horizontal because the load at this point is equal zero. The shear diagram
is antisymmetric since the load diagram is symmetric

The moment diagram is third-degree curve that is one degree higher than shear diagram.
The tangents at a and c are constructed based on the relationship between moment and shear.
The tangent at b is horizontal since shear value is equal zero. The maximum moment value is
obtained at b where the tangent is horizontal. It is noticed that the moment diagram is
symmetric since the load diagram is also symmetric.
EXAMPLE 3.21
w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the a b c
beam shown.
w
L/2 L/2
SOLUTION
w
a b c
w
wL/12 wL/12
FBD
Ly1 =wL2/36
Tc
Lx1= L/4 Lx1= L/4 Mmax=

wL/12 Ta Tc wL/12
Tb ) L/ 2 3 2
( L) b T b (R a b c WL / 36 3
a c
Mmax=
Ly1=wL2/36
L/ 2 3 L /2 3 L/ 2 3
WL2 / 36 3
-wL/6
SFD BMD
Tb
Ta
Shear Force Diagram

The shear force diagram is second-degree curve. It is noticed that the tangents around
b have two different directions since the load direction transverses. On the other hand, the
tangents of this diagram at a and c are horizontals because the load at these nodes are equal
zero. The maximum negative shear force is obtained at midspan where the load changes from
negative to positive.

The moment diagram is third-degree curve. The maximum negative and positive
moments are obtained at points of zero shear. The tangents at maximum moments are
horizontals while the tangents at a, b, and c are constructed using the relationship between shear
and moment.
It is noticed that the load and moment diagrams are antisymmetric while the shear diagram is
symmetric.
EXAMPLE 3.22
w
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the b
a c
beam shown.
w
L/2 L/2
w
b c
a
w
wL/6 wL/6
FBD
Ly1 =wL2 /36

WL2 / 36 3 Tc
wL/6 wL/6
L/ 2 3 L /2 3 L/ 2 3
b a b
a c
Ly 1=wL2 /36
T c
a
Tb -wL/12 Tc L/2 3
Lx1=L/4 Lx1=L/4
Ta WL2 / 36 3
SFD Tb BMD
The shear force and bending moment diagrams are constructed by the same way as in the
previous example.
EXAMPLE 3.23
20 kN 37.5 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 10 kN/m 40 kN.m 4 20 kN/m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the a 3
b c e f
d
figure.
2m 2m 2m 4m 2m
SOLUTION
20 kN 30 kN
10 kN/m 40 kN.m d
20 kN/m 42.5 42.5 40
c f a 12.5
a b e
22.5 kN c d e f
22.5 kN b
-20
82.5 kN 107.5 kN -40
FBD SFD -67.5
60
40
22.5 22.5 15
c d 73.9
a b e f
a b c d e f 25 40
70
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.24
30 kN 20 kN 50 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 15 kN/m e
1m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the a c d
figure. b
1.5 m 4.5 m 1.5 m
SOLUTION
77.3 kN.m 30 kN 15 kN/m e

20 kN 50 kN 51.5 51.5 50 50
21.5
-20
20 kN
d
a b c
51.5 kN 96 kN -46
FBD SFD
77.3 75
55
15.4
20
37.97
-20 -20
BMD
NFD
EXAMPLE 3.25
15 kN 10 kN 15 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 5 kN/m
a f i
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. b c d e g h
6m 2 2 2 2 2 3m 2
SOLUTION
15 kN 10 kN 15 kN 17.5
5 kN/m 10.8 13.6
7.5
3.6
-7.5 -7.5 -11.4

10.8 kN 36.7 kN 21.1 kN 11.4 kN
-19.2
FBD SFD
25
11.7 15
0.0 0.0
22.5
NFD 15 12.1
22.9
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.26
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 10 kN/m 40 kN 15 kN/m 40 kN
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in a c d e 20 kN
b f
the figure.
4m 4m 1 5m 2m
SOLUTION
40 kN 15 kN/m 40 kN 50.4
10 kN/m 40 40
c d 20 kN 10.4
a c d e
b 20 kN e f
a b -3.5 f
50.4 kN 26.1 kN 81 kN -29.6 -29.6
-41
FBD SFD
80
a b c d e f
a b c d
e f
-20 3.5
-20
20
NFD
121.8 BMD
EXAMPLE 3.27
15 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment a b c
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. 60 kN
3m
e
50 kN.m f d
6m 1 1 6m
SOLUTION
15 kN/m
32.2 38.3
96.1 kN 38.3 kN 60 kN 38.3

32.2 kN
50 kN.m -57.8
FBD 21.7 kN SFD -21.7
76.7
38.3 34.6
50 50
NFD 38.3 67.5
BMD
65
EXAMPLE 3.28
50 kN
12 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending e
d
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 120 kN
18 kN/m 3m
figure. a
b c
SOLUTION 6m 2m 4m
50 kN 69.3
12 kN/m 45.3
46.2 kN
d
e -4.7
120 kN 105.3
18 kN/m
52.7 kN 69.3 -52.7
46.2 kN 30.9 30.9
c
a b
FBD SFD
30.9 kN 194.4 kN -89.1 -89.1
46.2 46.2
174.7
24
114.7
-83
BMD
.3
46.2
46.2
NFD 92.7
-8
3.3
EXAMPLE 3.29
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending d
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the

4m
figure.
30 kN
15 kN/m
SOLUTION a c
b
6m 2m
85 kN
127.5 kN
35 30 30
30 kN
15 kN/m
127.5 kN
35 kN
FBD
SFD -55
15
3 .2
60
15
3 .2
40.8 BMD
-127.5 -127.5
NFD
EXAMPLE 3.30
a
b
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. 3m
40 kN
c d
e
4m 2m
SOLUTION
60 60
360 kN.m
40 kN
60 kN
40 kN
40 kN 40 40
20 kN
FBD
-20 -20
SFD
.2
360
72
-40 -40
.2
BMD
72
40 40
80
NFD
EXAMPLE 3.31
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment N /m d

5k
b 0.5 m
c
SOLUTION
10 kN
2.5 m
a
1m 4m
24 kN
d .1
N/ m -7
5k 20 kN 1 2.
9
b
c SFD
FBD .9
10 kN - 8.
9 -13
24 kN
a
18 kN
30 . 4
.8
12 5. 7
4
20.
7
4 .5 NFD BMD
-3 0
-30
EXAMPLE 3.32
d
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending
20 kN
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 40 kN.m 2m
figure. a b c
2m
e
SOLUTION
3m 2m 2m
10 kN 10 kN
20 20
40 kN.m 20 kN
0
10 kN
SFD
FBD 10 kN
.1
14
40 40
.1
14
-1
4 .1
NFD SFD
-1
4.
1
EXAMPLE 3.33
10 kN 25 kN
12 kN/m 20 kN.m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending f g
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the b c d
figure. 4m
10 kN
a e h
SOLUTION
3m 4m 3m 4m 2m
10 kN 25 kN 28.8
12 kN/m 20 kN.m
f 13 13
b g
5
c d
10 kN
29.1 kN 24.1 kN -10 -10 -12
5
-19.2
-5 -5
a e h
5 kN
38.8 kN 32.1 kN 12 kN
FBD SFD
30
-29.1 20 20
10.7
-12
-5 -5
4.62
-1 2
10
.5
- 40
28.1
- 48
.2
BMD
NFD
EXAMPLE 3.34
f g
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 30 kN/m 3m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in a b c e
d
the figure. 160 kN 120 kN
4m 4m 4m 4m
SOLUTION
The external reaction components are first determined f g

by applying the equilibrium equations on the shown 30 kN/m
a b
free body diagram. c d
e
Xa =0
160 kN 120 kN
Ya =240 kN Ye =280 kN
FBD
Having determined the external reaction components, it is necessary to calculate the axial
forces in all link members. The axial force in link member fg can be determined using the
equation condition given by hinge at c as follows:
Σ Mc (left) = 0:  Mc (left) F fg F fg
f g
4
Ffg  3 + 240  8 – 160  4 = 0 a
3
5
30 kN/m
b e
c d
Then, Ffg = – 426.7 kN
240 kN 160 kN 120 kN 280 kN
The axial forces in the other link members are determined by analyzing the forces at joints f
and g as follow:
Σ Fx = 0 ( → +): – 4/5 Faf – 426.7 = 0 f

Faf = – 533.3 kN 426.7
F af
Σ Fy = 0 (+): – 3/5 Faf – Fbf = 0 F bf
– 3/5  (– 533.3) – Fbf = 0
Joint f
Fbf = 320 kN
The axial forces in link members dg and eg are determined by the same way
320 320 320 320

30 kN/m 80 80 160
426.7 426.7 40
-80 -80 -40

240 kN 160 kN 120 kN 280 kN -160
FBD SFD
-53 400
3 .3 -426.7 3 320
426.7 -5 3 .3 426.7
320 320 BMD

NFD
EXAMPLE 3.35
40 kN.m 60 kN 20 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending c
b d e
5
figure.
4. 4
4 4 4m
a 2 3
f
SOLUTION
2m 5m 3m 3m
40 kN.m 60 kN 20 kN/m
The external reaction components are first c
b d e
determined by applying the equilibrium 7
4 .4
conditions on the shown free body ( see Example 4

1.13) Xa =22 kN 2
a f
Xf=22 kN
F ab Ya =44 kN Yf=136 kN
FBD
The force in the link member ab using the geometry of this member, thus,
Fab X Y
= a= a
4.47 2 4
X 22
Fab = a  4.47 =  4.47 = 49.2kN (compression)
2 2
On the other hand, the forces in link members df and ef can be determined by applying the
equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions at joint f,
Σ Fx = 0 ( → +): – 3/5 Fdf + 3/5 Fef – 22 = 0 (a)

Fdf F ef
Σ Fy = 0 (+): 4/5 Fdf + 4/5 Fef +136 = 0 (b)
f
22 kN
Solving (a) and (b), 136 kN
Joint f
Fdf = – 103.3 kN , Fef = – 66.7 kN
The horizontal and the vertical components of the forces Fdf and Fef are determined and then
applied to the structure at points d and e. These components are determined using the geometry
and resultant forces as follow:
Member df:
Fdf X df Ydf
= =
5 3 4
103.3 X df Ydf
= =
5 3 4
103.3
X df =  3 = 62 kN
5
103.3
Ydf =  4 = 82.6 kN
5
Member ef:
Fef X ef Yef
= =
5 3 4
66.7 X Y
= ef = ef
5 3 4
66.7
X ef =  3 = 40 kN
5
66.7
Yef =  4 = 53.4 kN
5
66.7
60 kN
40 kN.m 20 kN/m
-16 -16
22 kN 62 kN 40 kN -53.3
44 kN 82.6 kN 53.4 kN
FBD SFD
40 40 40
-22
40
.2
40
-1
7
6.
-4 9
03
71.1
-6
.3
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.36
50 kN 10 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending a b c d
figure. 3m
30 kN
e f
40 kN
50 kN 10 kN/m
Xa =30 kN b c
a d
The external reaction components are first
determined by applying the equilibrium conditions
3.
61
Ya =68.8 kN 3 Yd =61.3 kN
on the shown free body. 3
30 kN e f
40 kN
FBD
The forces in link members are determined as follow:
Members cf and df:

Fcf Fdf
Σ Fx = 0 ( → +): 2/3.61 Fdf – 2/3.61 Fcf = 0
Then, Fdf = Fcf
f
Σ Fy = 0 (+): 3/3.61 Fdf + 3/3.61 Fcf – 40 = 0 40 kN
Fdf = Fcf = 24.1 kN
Joint f
Fcf X cf Ycf
= =
3.61 2 3
24.1 X cf Ycf
= =
3.61 2 3
24.1
X cf = X df =  2 = 13.4 kN
3.61
24.1
Ycf = Ydf =  3 = 20 kN
3.61
Member ae: 50 kN 10 kN/m

30 kN a b c
Xae d
Σ Mb (left) = 0:
68.8 kN F ae
Yae Yd =61.3 kN
Yae  2 – 68.8  2 = 0 S Mb (left) = 0 F ae
Yae = 68.8 kN e f
30 kN
40 kN
From member geometry, FBD
68.8
X ae =  2 = 45.9 kN
3
68.8
Fae =  3.61 = 82.7 kN
3
Members be and ce:
The forces in members be and ce can be determined using the equilibrium of joint e as follow:
Σ Fx = 0 ( → +): 2/3.61 Fce – 2/3.61  82.7 + 30 = 0 F be

Fce
Then, Fce = 28.6 kN 82.7
30 kN e
Σ Fy = 0 (+): Fbe + 3/3.61 Fce + 3/3.61  82.7 = 0
Fbe = – 92.5 kN Joint e
42.5 42.5
50 kN 10 kN/m
30 kN
45.9 kN 15.9 kN 13.4 kN 13.4 kN
92.5 kN
6 8.8 kN
61.3 kN
6 8.8 kN
23 .8 kN
20 kN
-1.3
20 kN
-41.3
SFD
FBD
82
.6
.7
28
-13.4
24
.1
.1
24
-15.9 85
-92.5
BMD
NFD
EXAMPLE 3.37
8 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending a b c
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 3m
figure.
d e f 15 kN
g
30 kN 40 kN
3m 2m 2m 2m
SOLUTION
The reactions and free body diagram are previously determined in Example 1.23.
515 kN.m 8 kN/m 62.5 75.6 75.6

22.5
15 kN 35.5 kN 49.5 kN
62.5 kN 53.3 kN
74.3 kN
53.3 kN 74.3 kN
35.5 kN 49.5 kN 15 kN 47.5 47.5
47.5 kN 30 kN 40 kN
FBD SFD -35.6 -35.6
.3 515
302.5
89
-15 -15
-50.4 -50.4
34.9
-14.8
-64
NFD
142.5
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.38
50 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending b d
c
figure.
3m
15 kN/m
a
SOLUTION
6m
50 kN
d 32.5 32.5
b c
Xd=22.5 kN
Yd=17.5 kN -22.5
-17.5 -17.5
15 kN/m
FBD
a
Ya =32.5 kN
SFD
45
45
-32.5
-22.5 -22.5
-32.5 NFD 52.5
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.39
25 kN 6 kN/m
15 kN c
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment b
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure.
5m
SOLUTION
a
7m
44.2
25 kN 6 kN/m 23.2
15 kN -1.8
-15
-22.8
22.8 kN
15 kN
FBD
-15
SFD
44.2 kN
75
-44.2
75
43
-4 4.2
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.40
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams for the loaded structure
shown in the figure.
30 kN
15 kN/m 60 kN
e
c b d
30 kN 4m
a
2m 4m 4m
SOLUTION
30 kN 60 kN 63.8
15 kN/m
e 3.7 3.7
c b d
30 kN -30 -60
56.3 kN -56.3 -56.3
30
30 kN
SFD
30
a
FBD
123.8 kN
90
30
60
-123.8
60
105 112.5
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.41
20 kN/m
20 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending b
c
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 1.5 m
30 kN
figure.
1.5 m
d
SOLUTION a
1m
6m
20 kN/m 59.2
20 kN
30 kN
-1 0
-60.8
30
10 kN
60.8 kN
SFD
-10
59.2 kN FBD
40 45
-60 .8
40 45
-30 -30
-59. 2
-60.8
47.5
-5 9.2
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.42
15 kN
50 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment b c
a
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure.
4m
10 kN/m
SOLUTION d
1m 3m 3m
15 kN 50 kN 27.5 27.5
20
20 kN
42.5 kN
-15
-22.5 -22.5
10 kN/m
SFD
-20
20 kN
FBD 22.5 kN
15
-22.5
-20 -20
67.5
20
-2 2.5
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.43
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 15 kN/m 18 kN/m
20 kN
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. b c d
4m
e
a 1m
2m 4m
SOLUTION
50
15 kN/m
20 kN
34
18 kN/m
-14
-40
2 kN
-2
14 kN
-1 4
40 kN
SFD
50 kN FBD
70
-40
40
-34 -34 70 40
-50
13.3
-40
NFD
-50
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.44
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. m kN
N/ 30
1 2k
4m
c
a
SOLUTION
6m 1.5 1.5
22
.6
/m kN
kN 30
22
12
.5
.6
-48
-7
38
.4
24 kN
-7
SFD
.
4
45.7 kN 44.3 kN
FBD
38
38
.3
-25
- 49
.9
1 8.
5
- 49
.3
-25 .2
NFD
.9
60
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.45
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 10 kN 15 kN 10 kN/m
e
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. b a d
20 kN.m
4m
c
SOLUTION
2m 1m 1m 2m
10 kN/m 15 15
10 kN 15 kN
12
20 kN.m
-1
5
-20
12
FBD
25 kN.m SFD
-1
5
45 kN
30 20 40
-1 6
-20
40
30
BMD
45
NFD
20
-1 6
-2
0
EXAMPLE 3.46
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment

b
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. 40 kN 30 kN
4m
a
2m
SOLUTION c
2m 2m 3m 3m
10
b
.6
40 kN 30 kN
10
.1
.6
14
22.5 kN
4 .1
-1
a
2.5 kN 17.5 kN
-1
0 .6
c
FBD 32.5 kN SFD
-1
0 .6
.6
.7
-1
0
17
4
-1
.1
40
-3
45
5
.4
BMD
-3
NFD
5.
4
EXAMPLE 3.47
15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending c d
b
figure.
40 kN
8m
a e
SOLUTION
3m 3m 3m 3m
15 kN 40 kN 30 kN.m
-15
1.5
-3
40 kN
-1
.5
20
14.1 kN 25.9 kN
SFD
-3
15.4 kN 39.6 kN
FBD
45 30
30
45
7.9
-2
-4 7
.2
. 9
-3
2.5
10
-47
NFD
BMD
.2
EXAMPLE 3.48
20 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 40 kN f
d e
20 kN
b c 1m
h g
3m
SOLUTION a i
1m 3m 4m 1m 2m
20 kN/m 40
33.8
.4
40 kN
d e f 22
.4
10.2
20 kN 22
b c -66.3
g
-1 0.2
h
-40
10.2 kN 10.2 kN -20
a
-1 0.2
i
10.2
73.8 kN 126.2 kN
SFD
FBD
81.3
-10.2 -10.2 40
-106.2
.2 .8
-2 7 80
3 0.610.6 41.2
40 28.5
4 0.8
20
-73.8
-12 6 .2
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.49
20 kN/m
d
c
a 40 kN
10 kN/m
2m
e
2m 4m
SOLUTION
20 kN/m
d 33.3
.6
40
b c 23
40 kN 40 kN -40 -46.7
.6
23
a
1 0 kN/m
-2 0
20
73.3 kN
e SFD
FBD
-40
40 kN
46.7 kN
40
-4 6.7
-40 -40
1
0.
26.7
-8
.7
66 54.5
.1
60
0
-8
NFD
-4 6.7
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.50
l
Ha
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending m on
20 kN kN/ d 30 kN 1.5 m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in 12
the figure. 10 kN 1.5 m

c b e
4m
a f
SOLUTION
2m 6m 4m
l 26
n Ha .3
/m o .1
12 k
N 30 kN 49 . 3
20 kN -15 8.
3
10 kN
-40
-20
-4 0
40 kN
SFD
94.9 kN FBD 2.9 kN
.6 8
86 6 .6 .7
-36
200 20
.8
4 -3
74. 0 .3
-6 .
3
160
40
.9
-6 8
-94.9
2.9
BMD NFD
EXAMPLE 3.51
12 kN/m 30 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending d
b c
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 20 kN 2m
figure. e f
3m
a g
SOLUTION
3m 6m 2m
30 kN 30 30
12 kN/m 17.3
8. 9
20 kN 20 20
-54.7
8 .9
40 kN.m SFD
17.3 kN
FBD 104.7 kN
60
52
-84 .7
.8
52 40
-14
40
-104.7
64.5
.8
40
NFD
-14
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.52
30 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 20 kN
d g
e f
20 kN/m
c b
2m
a h
2m
i
SOLUTION
1m 2m 6m 2m
30 kN/m
135
47.5
d 60
20 kN g
e f
20 kN/m
c b -105
-47.5
47.5 kN -20
a h
155 kN 72.5 kN
i
-72.5
SFD
FBD 165 kN 105 kN.m
210
90 60
210
-165
30
-155 -135
-47.5 -47.5
93.8
115
20
95
-165
NFD BMD
105
EXAMPLE 3.53
60 kN
30 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment e
f
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. b c d
80 kN
6m
SOLUTION
a g
1.5 m 5m 3m 2m
30 kN/m 60 kN
110
f 60 60
b c d e
-40
80 kN -40
-45 -40
40 40
-40
40 kN 40 kN
a
g
98.8 kN.m 100 kN -40
-40
155 kN FBD SFD

175
120
33.7
1 41.3
-100
-40
-155
26.7
12 0
-155
-100
98.8
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.54
15 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment b c
diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the figure. 2.5 m
d
40 kN
2m
3m 60 kN
2m
SOLUTION a e
5m 3m
15 kN/m
c 51
b
d -24
-28.8
40 kN
60 kN
28.8
11.2 kN
a 11.2
-31.2
e
51 kN 4.7 kN.m
SFD
FBD 24 kN
67.4
-28.8 -3 67.4
7.
5
-51
19.2
-3
-24
7. 5
33. 5
5 7.7
-51
-24
NFD
BMD
4.7
EXAMPLE 3.55
30 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 40 kN 8k
N/ m 35 kN
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 20 kN d
3m
figure. b
f
c e
3m
80 kN
SOLUTION 3m
a g
2m 3m 3m 6m 2m
30 kN 1 3.
40 kN 6
8 kN 0 .4
20 kN /m 35 kN
4 4.6 35
- 34
-40
.4
40
80 kN -20
40 kN
-40
40 kN
- 40
129 kN.m
SFD
85.2 kN FBD 93.5 kN
-3 7
.9
1 51 15 . 5
1 2. 70
-4 7 9
111
-93.5
.9
-6 4 -6 1
.9 40
120
-85 .2
-93.5
129
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.56
25 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 10 kN
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the c
5 kN/m 15 kN 2m
figure.
b d e
a
15 kN
3m
f 6 kN/m
SOLUTION
3m 2m 3m 1.5 m
25 kN
10 kN
55.5 kN.m 26
5 kN/m 15 kN
11 15 15
11 kN
21
15 kN
26 kN
6 kN/m
12
-3
12 kN
36 kN.m
FBD SFD
-12
29 kN
55.5
22.5
22.5
.6
-29
-25
5
-1
-11 -11 .2
36 47.2
-2 9
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.57
40 kN
20 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending b e
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the c d 2.5 m
figure. 30 kN 2.5 m
a
SOLUTION
3m 3m 2m 8m
40 kN 99.4
20 kN/m
20 20
e
b c d
-20 -20
-60 -60.6
-30 -30
20 kN 30 kN
30 kN
a SFD
FBD 159.4 kN
155
80
75 75
-159.4
60 91.9
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.58
60 kN 20 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 20 kN/m
15 kN
b f
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the c e g
figure. 4m
a d
SOLUTION
6m 2m 4m 2m
60 kN 20 kN 60 60
20 kN/m 26.7 20
c g
b f 15 kN
e
-15
120 kN -33.3
15 kN -60
-15
a d SFD
26.7 kN 93.3 kN FBD
80 80
20
60
-15 -15 -15
-93.3
10
-26.7
NFD 80
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.59
20 kN/m
b
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 40 kN c d e g
h

6m
figure.
a f i
20 kN/m
100
b 50
h 30
40 kN c d e g
-26.7 -26.7
-100 -110
36.7
26.7 36.7 kN 30 kN
a f i
30
SFD
100 kN FBD 150 kN 110 kN
160 160 180

220
-11 0
160
180
-30 -30
-66.7 -66.7 60
90
-15 0
122.5
-10 0
- 110
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.60
8 kN/m
10 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 15 kN d e f 10 kN
12 kN/m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 3m
c b g j
figure. i
4m
a h k
39.6
8 kN/m 10 kN
15 kN 10 kN 12 kN/m
34
-7.5
24
-32.4
7.5 kN 2.5 kN -15
-24
- 2.5
-7.5
54.6 kN 66.4 kN 24 kN
SFD
FBD
82.7 50.7
-32.4
-7.5
-39.6
58.1 50.7
60.1 82.7
68
30 15.1
-66.4
-54 .6
-24
9.9
30.1
24
NFD
BMD
EXAMPLE 3.61
15 kN/m
30 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending b c d
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 30 kN 2m
figure.
2m
a e
SOLUTION
6m 4m
15 kN/m
d
The external reactions, shown in the figure, are b
c 30 kN
determined using the equilibrium equations and the 30 kN
condition equation given by intermediate hinge at b
15 kN
a e 15 kN
35 kN 115 kN
FBD
The internal forces in members ce and de can be determined by applying the equilibrium
equations at joint e as follow:
 Fx = 0 (→+) 4/5.66  Fde + 15 = 0 F ce

Fde = – 21.2 kN F de
e 15 kN
The components of Fde can be calculated 115 kN
using the member geometry. These values
are given as Joint e
Xde = Yde = 15 kN
 Fy = 0 (+) Fce + 115 + 4/5.66  Fde = 0

Fce + 115 + 4/5.66  (– 21.2) = 0
Fce = – 21.2 kN
15 kN/m 35 45
d
b
c 15 kN 30 kN
-1 5 -15
30 kN -15
100 kN 15 kN
-55
15
15 kN
a
FBD
15
35 kN SFD
60
-100
-15 -15
-35
.2
7.5
1
-2
40.8
30
-35
-100
NFD .2
-2
1 BMD
EXAMPLE 3.62
20 kN 50 kN
c
f
e
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment d
2m
b
2m
a
SOLUTION
2m 3m 3m
20 kN 50 kN
The external reaction components, shown in the figure, are c f
calculated using the known equilibrium equations d e
40 kN 31.7 kN
b
40 kN
a
38.3 kN FBD
The internal force in link member be is calculated using the condition equation given by the
intermediate hinge at c
Σ Mc(bottom) = 0:
20 kN 50 kN
Xbe  2 + 40  2 – 40  4 = 0 c f
Xbe = 40 kN d Ybe e
Fbe
F be 31.7 kN
40 kN
The other components are calculated using the b Xbe
member geometry
40 kN S Mc (bottom) = 0
a
Fbe X Y
= be = be 38.3 kN FBD
3.61 3 2
X be
Fbe =  3.61 = 48.1 kN
3
X
Ybe = be  2 = 26.7 kN
3
20 kN 50 kN 45 45
c f
d 26.7 e
-4 0
26.7 -20 -20

40 31.7 kN -31.7 -31.7
40 kN
-40
40
b 40
40 kN
SFD
40
a
38.3 kN FBD
.1
48
40
.1 -40
48
-65
95
80
-38.3
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.63
e g 0.5 m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 1.5 m
f
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in the 100 kN d
80 kN
figure. 3m
c
a b 1m
SOLUTION
1.6 m 3.4 m 4m 2m
e
g
The reaction components at a and b are calculated using d
100 kN f 80 kN
the known equilibrium equations and the condition
equation given by the intermediate hinge at e.
c
80 kN
b
a
80 kN FBD
28 kN 208 kN
The force in link member df can be calculated using the condition equation given by the
intermediate hinge at c
Considering the shown free body diagram, e

g
d Fd f F df
Σ Mc(right) = 0: 100 kN f 80 kN
S Mc (right) = 0
Fdf  3 – 80  6 = 0 80 kN
c
Fdf = 160 kN a b
80 kN
28 kN 208 kN
FBD
e g
64
160 160
d
-80
100 kN f 80 kN
c
-32
80 5
80 kN
.5
.
-20
b
43
a
80 kN
-80
28 kN 208 kN
FBD SFD
9 .6
-128
14
160
0
16
160
7 .9
-4
.6
-128
49
.7 1
7 6
-1
72
8
80
-208
8.
10
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.64
30 kN
10 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment N/ m
15 kN 8k e f
d c
40 kN 2m
b g
3m
SOLUTION a h
2m 4m 3m
30 kN
The external reaction components at a and h are N/ m 10 kN
8k e f
determined using the equilibrium equations. These 15 kN
components are the shown in the figure. d c

40 kN
b g
10 kN
a h
84.8 kN 35.9 kN
FBD
Determination of force components in the intermediate hinges at b and g
30 kN
10 kN
40 kN /m
8 kN e f
15 kN
Xb g Xg
b S Me (right) = 0
d c
Yb Yb Yg
Yg
4m 3m b g
Xb Xg
10 kN
a h
84.8 kN 35.9 kN
The vertical reaction Yb and Yg can be determined considering the equilibrium of member bg,
in which
Σ Mg = 0 : Yb  7 – 40  3 = 0
Yb = 17.14 kN
Σ Mb = 0 : Yg  7 – 40  4 = 0
Yg = 22.86 kN
Σ Fx = 0: Xb = Xg …………………………………….(a)
The horizontal components Xb and Xg are determined considering the condition equation
given by the intermediate hinge at e
Considering frame abcefgh,
Σ Me (right)= 0 : Xg  4 + Yg  3 – 35.9  3 = 0
Xg  4 + 22.86  3 – 35.9  3 = 0
Xg = 9.8 kN
From Eq.(a) Xb = Xg = 9.8 kN
30 kN 10 kN
N/m
15 kN 8k e f
6. 3
d c 3 8.3
-13.1
17.1 kN 22.9 kN
g
-19.8
b
9.8
9.8 kN 9.8 kN
-15 17.1
10 kN
a h
35.9 kN -1 0 -22.9
84.8 kN
40 kN
9.8 kN 9.8 kN
SFD
b g
17.1 kN 22.9 kN
FBD
39.2 39.2
6
-19.9 99.
-13 .1
.3
-2 5
-67.7
.3 30
-41
69.6
9.8 9.8
30
- 35.9
-84.8
68.6
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.65
15 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment c
d
e
f
2m
b
SOLUTION 20 kN
40 kN 2m
a g
3m 3m
15 kN/m
c e
The external reaction components at a and g are determined d
using the known equilibrium equations. On the other hand,
the forces at intermediate hinges b and f can be determined f
using the condition equation given by the hinge at d.
20 kN
b
Xa =20 kN 40 kN
g
a
Ya =24.6 kN Yg =60.4 kN
FBD
Determination of forces components at b and f:
15 kN/m
c e
d
Xf
 Md (left) = 0 f
Considering the portion bcdef as shown in the figure, Yf

Xb
b
Σ Mf = 0: Yb
FBD
Xb  2 – Yb  6 + (15  3)  1.5 = 0 …………………..….(a)
Σ Md (left)= 0:
Xb  4 – Yb  3 = 0 ……………………………………….………..(b)
Solving Eqs. (a) and (b),
Xb = 11.2 kN ; Yb = 15 kN
Σ Fx = 0:
Xf = Xb = 11.2 kN
Σ Fy = 0:
Yf + Yb – 15  3 = 0
Yf + 15 – 15  3 = 0
Yb = 30 kN
15 kN/m 15 15
-11.2
11.2 kN -30
11.2
30 kN
-11.2
11.2 kN
8.8
11.2 kN
15 kN
11.2
9.6 9.6
8.8
20 kN
11.2 kN
40 kN
20 kN SFD -30.4 -30.4
24.6 kN 60.4 kN
FBD
45
22.5
2 2.5
45
-30
-11.3 -11.3
-15
-15
45
11.2 11.2
-30
17.5
45
NFD 17.5
46.3 BMD
EXAMPLE 3.66 25 kN 10 kN
c f
d e
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment 2m
b g
16 kN/m 2m
SOLUTION a h
3m 3m 1m
The reaction components at a and f are determined using the 25 kN 10 kN

Xf = 20 kN
equilibrium equations for the whole frame, while the forces c
d e f
components at b and g are determined are determined by Yf = 66.1 kN
cutting the structure through b and g. b g
20 kN
16 kN/m
a h
Ya = 64.9 kN
FBD
Determination of force components at b and g:
25 kN 10 kN
20 kN
c
d e f
Considering the portion bcdeg as shown in the
66.1 kN
figure,
b  M d (left) = 0 g
Xb Xg
Σ Mg = 0: Yb Yg
FBD
Yb  6 – 25  3 + 20  2 – 66.1  1 = 0
Yb = 16.9 kN
Σ Md (left)= 0:
Yb  3 - Xb  2 = 0 ; Xb = 25.3 kN
Σ Fx = 0:
Xb - Xg + 20 = 0 ; Xg = 45.3 kN
Σ Fy = 0:
Yb + Yg – 25 – 10 + 66.1 = 0 ; Yg = – 48 kN
25 kN 10 kN
20 kN
16.9 16.9
-8.1
-25.3
66.1 kN
25.3 kN
45.3
45.3 kN -66.1
16.9 kN
-25.3
48 kN
25.3
25.3 kN
48
45.3 kN 20 kN
16 kN/m
SFD -48
64.9 kN
FBD
50.6
20 24.4
50 .6
90.6
-25.3 66.1
-16.9
48
50.6 50.6
25.3
50 .6
50 .6
21.4
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.67
90 kN 20
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending kN
e /m 20 kN 3 m
moment diagrams for the loaded structure shown in 20 kN
10 kN
the figure. d c f g
3m
b h
2m
SOLUTION a i
2m 1.5 1.5 4m 3m
The external reaction components at a and i are 90 kN 20

kN
determined by applying the equilibrium conditions 20 kN /m 20 kN
and the condition equation at e. These reaction
components are given in the shown figure. 10 kN
17 kN 7 kN
123.6 kN 106.4 kN
FBD
Determination of normal force in link member bd
Considering the equilibrium of part abc as shown in the figure.

90 kN 20
Σ Mc (bottom)= 0: e kN
/m
20 kN 20 kN
c
2/3.61 Fbd  3 – 17  5 = 0 d f
g
Fbd = 51 kN 10 kN
Fb c 3/3.61 F bd
b h
Xbd = 2/3.61  51 = 28.3 kN 2/3.61 F bd
Mc (bottom)=0
Ybd = 3/3.61  51 = 42.4 kN a i
7 kN
17 kN
106.4 kN
123.6
FBD
Determination of normal forces in link members fg and gh:
The forces Ffg and Fgh are determined using the vertical and the horizontal equilibrium at
joint g as follow:
Σ Fy (+)= 0: – 3/4.24 Fgh – 20 = 0 20 kN

Fgh = – 28.3 kN Ffg g
10 kN
Σ Fx (→+)= 0: – Ffg – 3/4.24 Fgh – 10 = 0 F gh
Fgh = 10 kN
Joint g
21
20
90 kN kN
.2
20 kN /m
61
. 4
10 kN -2
28.3 kN
42.4 kN 42.4 kN 20 kN -5
11.3
9
28.3 kN 20 kN -62.4
27
17 kN 7 kN
7
-17
7
123.6 kN 106.4 kN SFD
FBD
-5 .
4
124.8
6 94
8
1. 13 .8
4.
-2 .8
12
94.8
.2
1
10
5.
-28.4 85
- -6
-86.4
5. 4
-166
3
8.
51
-2
33.9
13.9
-10 6.4
-123.6
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.68
30 kN
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending 15 kN
c d e
figure. 4m
b a f g
SOLUTION 20 kN
2m 6m 2m
30 kN
15 kN c
The external reaction components at a and g are d e
determined by applying the equilibrium conditions
on the whole frame. These reaction components
are given in the shown figure b a f g Xg =15 kN
20 kN Yg =22.5 kN
Ya =27.5 kN
FBD
Determination of forces in intermediate hinges at b and f:

30 kN
15 kN
Considering the equilibrium of part bcdef as shown in the c d
e
figure,
 Md (left) = 0
Σ Mf = 0: b
f
Xb Xf
Yf
Yb  8 + 15  4 – 30  6 = 0
Yb
FBD
Yb = 15 kN
Σ Mb = 0:
Yf  8 – 15  4 – 30  2 = 0
Yf = 15 kN
Σ Md (left) = 0:
Xb  4 – Yb  2 = 0 ; Xb = 7.5 kN
Σ Fx (→+) = 0:
Xb + 15 – Xf = 0 ; Xf = 22.5 kN
30 kN
15 kN
15
-15
22.5
7.5 kN
-7.5
22.5 kN 12.5
15 kN 15 kN
15 kN 15 kN
22.5 kN
15 kN
-15
7.5 kN
27.5 kN 20 kN
SFD -22.5
22.5 kN
FBD
90
30
-15
30
90
-22.5 -22.5
-15
7.5 7.5
-15
30
NFD -15
BMD 45
EXAMPLE 3.69
20 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending moment h
j
20 kN i
f g
40 kN 2m
20 kN
e
SOLUTION c d
3m
a b
3m 3m
20 kN/m
20 kN
j
The vertical reaction components at a and b are determined h i
by applying the equilibrium equations for the whole frame.
f g
These reaction components are given in the shown figure.
40 kN
On the other hand, the horizontal reaction components at a 20 kN
e
and b could not be directly determined as in the case of the c d
vertical components.
The horizontal reaction component at a and b can be Xa Xb
determined after the calculating the forces in the a b
intermediate hinges at f and g. 46.7 kN 113.3 kN
FBD
Determination of the forces in intermediate hinges at f and g:
Considering the equilibrium of part fhijg as shown in the figure,
Σ Mg = 0: 20 kN/m
20 kN
j
i
Yf  6 + 20  2 + (20  6)  3 = 0 h
Yf = 53.3 kN Xf Xg
 Mi (left) = 0 g
f
Σ Mf = 0: Yf Yg
Yg  6 – 20  2 – (20  6)  3 = 0 FBD
Yg = 66.7 kN
Σ Mi (left) = 0:
Xf  2 – Yf  3 + 20)  3)  1.5 = 0 ; Xf = 35 kN
Σ Fx = 0:
Xf + 20 – Yg = 0 ; Xg = 55 kN
Determination of the horizontal reaction components at a and b:
Considering the equilibrium of the shown part of the frame,
Σ Md (left) = 0: 53.5 kN 66.7 kN
f 40 kN 55 kN g
Xa  3 – 46.7  3 + 35  2 + 53.5  3 = 0 35 kN
Xa = – 30 kN 20 kN
d e
c
Σ Fx (→+)= 0:
 Md (left) = 0
Xa Xb
Xa – Xb + 20 – 35 + 55 = 0 a b
Xb = 10 kN 46.7 kN 113.3 kN
FBD
20 kN/m
20 kN
j
h i
53.3
35 kN g 55 kN
f
55
-3 5
53.5 kN 66.7 kN -66.7
f g
35 kN 55 kN
40 kN
-35
55
30
20 kN
10
e -6.7 -6.7
c d -46.7 -46.7
SFD
30
10
30 kN 10 kN
a b
46.7 kN 113.3 kN
FBD
110
70
11 0
70
-55
-53.3
-6 6.7
140
45
90 7 0
30
20
1 10
-113.3
-46.7
NFD BMD
EXAMPLE 3.70
20 kN/m
Draw the normal force, shearing force, and bending e
f
25 kN
figure. 4m
a d
SOLUTION b c
3m 6m 2m
20 kN/m
25 kN
The external reaction components at a and d are e f
determined by applying the equilibrium conditions on
the whole frame. These reaction components are
given in the shown figure a =25 kN a d
b c
Ya =45.5 kN Yd=74.5 kN
Determination of the forces in the intermediate hinges at b and f:
Considering the equilibrium of part bef as shown in the figure.
Σ Me (bottom) = 0: 20 kN/m
Xf
25 kN
e f
Xb = 0
Yf
 Me (bottom) = 0
Σ Fx = 0 (→+): Xb b
Yb FBD
Xb + 25 – Xf = 0 ; Xf = 25 kN
Σ Mf = 0:
Yb  6 – (20  6)  3 – Xb  4 = 0 ; Yb = 60 kN
Σ Fy = 0 (+):
Yb – (20  6) + Yf = 0 ; Yf = 60 kN
20 kN/m
25 kN
e f 25 kN
60
60 kN 60 kN
b 25 kN f
-60
60 kN
25
60 kN 45.5
25 kN a d
b c -14.5 -14.5
45.5 kN 74.5 kN SFD -74.5
FBD
-24.9 90
-60 . 1
-59.7
100
25 25
49.1
NFD 136.4 149.1
BMD
Problems
Draw normal force, shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the following structures:
20 kN 6 kN/m
10 kN/m
a
a c b
b c
7m 3m 5m 2m
(1) (2)
20 kN 30 kN 40 kN
15 kN/m
15 kN/m
b a
a c e f b c d e
d
30 kN.m
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.0 m
2m 2m 2m 4m 2m
(3) (4)
d
/m
8 kN 2m
20 kN 30 kN
8 kN/m
b d e g
a b
c f c
a
6m 3m 5m 2m 3m 2m 10 kN
1m 4m 2.5 m
(5) (6)
20 kN
10 kN/m 40 kN.m 10 kN/m
e f
a b d
c 40 kN
40 kN 3m
3m 20 kN
a b
c
d
e f
3m 3m 2m 4m
6m 2m 3m 2m
(7) (8)
20 kN
10 kN/m 30 kN.m
c f 120 kN
a g f g
b d
4m
3m
20 kN a b c d
e h e
160 kN
4m 4m 4m 4m
3m 4m 3m 4m 2m
(9) (10)
40 kN 50 kN 40 kN
40 kN.m 40 kN/m 20 kN/m
b e
b d e c d
2.5 m
5
c 4 4m 60 kN
3 2.5 m
f a
a
2m 5m 3m 3m
3m 3m 2m 4m 4m
(11) (12)
10 kN/m 12 kN/m
20 kN 30 kN
12 kN/m
e b c d
c b d
25 kN 4m 4m
a
a e
2m 4m 2m 2m 2m 4m
(13) (14)
5 kN/m
b 20 kN/m
c d
b
c
15 kN 2m
a 40 kN
5m
10 kN/m
2m
e
a
2m 4m
2m 2m 2.5 m
(15) (16)
18 kN/m
g al
nH
30 kN e f N/mo d
2m 20 kN 20 k 30 kN 1.5 m
c d 40 kN 10 kN 1.5 m
1m e
b h c b
3m 4m
a i a f
1m 3m 5m 2m 2m 6m 4m
(17) (18)
20 kN 60 kN
20 kN/m 30 kN/m
e
d g f
30 kN b c d
e f
2m
10 kN/m
c b 80 kN
2m 6m
a
h
2m a g
i
1.5 m 5m 3m 2m
1m 8m 2m
(19) (20)
15 kN 60 kN 30 kN/m
60 kN 30 kN/m f
f b
b c e
c e g
4m
4m 20 kN
20 kN a
a d d g
3m 3m 2m 4m 2m
6m 2m 4m 2m
(21) (22)
20 kN 50 kN
20 kN/m c
6 15 kN f
d e
50 kN 5
2m 2m
3 4 40 kN
b
4m 2m
1 2 a g
2m 7m 2m 3m 3m
2m
(23) (24)
f 25 kN
e e 10 kN
g c
d
2m
d 80 kN 2m
100 kN
20 kN
3m b f
c 2m
a 16 kN/m
b 1m g
a
h
2.5 m 2.5 m 4m 2m 3m 3m
(25) (26)
90 kN 20
e kN 30 kN
20 kN /m 20 kN h g
3m f
15 kN
d c f g
4m
3m
h 30 kN
b b d e
i 2m a c
a 20 kN
2m 3m 3m 2m
2 m 1.5 1.5 4m 3m
(27) (28)
20 kN/m
h
j
10 kN i
20 kN/m 2m
e f g
f
25 kN 40 kN 2m
20 kN
4m e
c d
1.5 m
a d
b c
1.5 m
a b
3m 3m 3m 2m
3m 3m
(29) (30)
4
Influence Lines for Statically
Determinate Structures
4.1 Introduction
The influence lines show graphically how the movement of a unit load across a structure
influences some functions of the structure. These functions may include reactions, normal
forces, shear forces, and bending moment. Influence lines are used primarily for calculating
forces and positions for live loads at maximum effects. The procedure for drawing the
diagrams is simply the plotting of values of the function under study as ordinates for various
positions of the unit load along the span.
EXAMPLE 4.1
Construct the influence lines for the reactions, shear a b c
at b, and moment at b for the simple beam shown.
2m 4m
SOLUTION
Influence Lines for Reactions
x 1 kN
a b c
Consider a moving unit load at distance x from
support a. Taking the moment at c, Ra Rc
(1)(6 − x )
Ra =
6
This equation, which is a linear function of x, is the influence line equation for the reaction at
a. Thus, when x = 0, the unit load is at a and Ra = 1; when x = 6, the unit load is at c and Ra=
0. Similarly, the influence line equation for Rc. The graphical representation of the influence
lines of Ra and Rc are given as follow:
1.0
Influence Line Ra
a b c
1.0
Influence Line Rc
a b c
To check the vertical equilibrium of vertical forces, the sum of the ordinates of the influence-
line diagrams for Ra and Rc at any point equals the unit load.
Influence Line for Shear at b
To evaluate the shear at point b, the beam is 1 kN

cut at b and Qb is shown in the positive sense. Q b = -R c
When the unit load acts to the left of point b, it a c
is most convenient to consider the free-body Qb Qb Rc
Ra
diagram to the right of point c. For this
portion, Qb = -Rc as shown in figure
Qb = R a 1 kN
When the unit load acts to the right of b, it is
most convenient to consider the free-body a c
diagram to the left of point b. For this case, Qb Qb Qb
Rc
Ra
= Ra as shown in figure
The influence line of Qb is constructed using these two relationships as follows:

Qb = R a 1 kN
Influence Line Qb a c
Qb Qb
Ra Rc
Influence Line for Moment at b
To determine the moment at point b, the beam is cut at point b, Mb is shown in the positive
sense, and statics is applied to determine the value of Mb.
When the unit load acts to the left of point b, it is most 1 kN Mb = 4 R c

convenient to consider the free-body diagram to the a c
right of point b. For this portion, Mb = 4Rc. Mb Mb Rc
Ra
Influence lines for statically determinate structures 189
Mb = 2 R a 1 kN
When the unit load is right of point b, the free-
body diagram to the left of point b is considered. a c
Then, Mb = 2Ra. Mb Mb Rc
Ra
a b c
Influence Line Mb
4 Rc 1.33 2 Ra
EXAMPLE 4.2
Construct the influence lines for the reactions, shear a b c
at a and b, and moment at b for the cantilever shown.
2m 1m
SOLUTION

1 kN
Ma x
a b c
Ra
The influence lines for reactions can be determined using the equilibrium conditions,
1.0 1.0
Influence Line Ya
a c
-3.0
Influence Line Ma
a c
Influence Line for Shear at b
For the unit load between a and b:

1 kN Qb = 0
Ma
a c
Qb Qb
Ra
 Fy =0 (for the right portion): Qb = 0

For the unit load between b and c:

Qb = 1
Ma a 1 kN
c
Qb Qb
Ra
 Fy =0 (for the right portion): Qb = 1

1.0 1.0
Influence Line Qb
a b c
Influence Line for Moment at b
For the unit load between a and b:
1 kN Mb = 0
Ma a
c
Mb Mb
Ra
 Mb =0 (for the right portion): Mb = 0
For the unit load between b and c:

Mb = -(1) x
x 1 kN
Ma a
c
Mb Mb
Ra
 Mb =0 (for the right portion): Mb = – x

-1.0
Influence Line Mb
a b c
Influence Line for shear at a
Considering the vertical equilibrium of beam ac,
Qa = Ra
1.0 1.0
Influence Line Qa
a c
EXAMPLE 4.3
Construct the influence lines for the reactions, a b c d e
Qc, Mc, Qd(right), Md, and Qb(right) for the
beam shown. 2m 5m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
Influence Line for Reactions

x 1kN
a b c d e
Rb Rd
1.25 1.0
0.375
Influence Line Rb d e
a b c
-0.375
1.375
1.0
0.625
a b
Influence Line Rd c d e
-0.25
Influence Lines for Qc and Mc
For the unit load between a and c:

1kN Q c = -R d , Mc = 3 R d
Mc M c
a b d e
Qc Qc
Rb Rd
 Fy =0 (for portion ce): Qc = – Rd

 Mc =0 (for portion ce): Mb = 3 Rd
For the unit load between c and e:

Qc= -Rb , Mc= 5 R b
1kN
Mc Mc
a b d e
Qc Qc
Rb Rd
 Fy =0 (for portion ac): Qc = - Rb

 M =0 (for portion ac): Mc = 5Rb
0.25 0.375
e
Influence Line Qc a b c d
-0.375
-0.625
-1.875
-0.75
Influence Line Mc b c d
a e
1.875
Influence Line for Qd(right) and Md
For the unit load between a and d:

1kN Q d(R)= 0 , Md= 0
a b d e
Q d(R)
Rb Rd Md
 Fy =0 (for portion de): Qd(right) = 0

 Md =0 (for portion de): Md = 0
For the unit load between d and e:

Qd(R) = 1.0 , Md= -(1)x
x 1kN
a b d e
Qd(R)
Rb R d Md
 Fy =0 (for portion de): Qd(right) = 1

 Md =0 (for portion de): Md = – x
1.0 1.0
Influence Line Qd(right) a b c d e
-3.0
Influence Line Md a b c d e
Influence Line for Qb(right)

1kN Qb(R) = -Rd
For the unit load between a and b: Qb(R) Q
a b(R) d e
Rb Rd
 Fy =0 (for portion be): Qb(right)= -Rd
For the unit load between b and e:

Q b(R) = Rb
1kN
Q b(R) Q b(R)
a d e
Rb Rd
 Fy =0 (for portion ab): Qb(right)= Rb
1.0
0.25
e
Influence Line Qb(right) a b c d
-0.375
EXAMPLE 4.4
Construct the influence lines for the reactions, Qd, a b c d e f g
Qb, Mb, Qc(left), Qc(right), Mc, Qe, and Me for the
beam shown. 3m 2m 2m2m
6m 4m
SOLUTION
Influence Lines for Rf and Qd
For the unit load between a and d:

1 kN
Rf= 0; Q d = 0
a c
Qd Qd g
Ra Rc Rf
Since part dg is unloaded, then Rf = Qd = 0
For the unit load between d and g:

R d =(1)(x)/4; Q d= (1)(4-x)/4
x 1 kN
a c
Qd Qd g
Ra Rc Rf
 Md =0 (for portion dg): Rf = x / 4

 Mf =0 (for portion dg): Qd = (4 – x) / 4
1.5
1.0
Influence Line Rf
a b c d e f g
1.0
g
Influence Line Qd c e
a b d f
-0.5
Influence Line for Ra and Rc
For the unit load between a and d: (Qd = 0)

R a = (1)(10-x)/10 ; R c = (1) x/10
x 1 kN
a c f g
Q d Q d=0
Ra Rc Rf
 Md =0 (for portion ad): Ra = (10 – x) / 10

 Mf =0 (for portion ad): Qd = x / 10
For the unit load between d and g:
R a= -Q d (3/10) ; Rc = Q d (1 3/10)
1 kN
a c f g
Qd Qd
Ra Rc Rf
 Mc =0 (for portion ac): Ra =-Qd (3 / 10)

 Ma =0 (for portion ac): Rc = Qd (13 / 10)
1.0
d e 0.15
Influence Line Ra
a b c f g
-0.3
1.3
1.0
Influence Line Rc f g
a b c d e
-0.65
Influence Line for Mc

Mc = 7 R f
For the unit load between a and c:(Rf = 0) 1 kN
a Mc c Mc f g
Ra Rc Rf
 Mc =0 (for right portion): Mc = 7 Rf = 0

For the unit load between c and g:

Mc = 10 R a
1 kN
a Mc c Mc f g
Ra Rc Rf
 Mc =0 (for left portion): Mc = 10 Ra
-3.0
a b c f g
Influence Line Mc
d e
1.5
Influence Lines for Qe and Me
For the unit load between a and e: Q e= -R f ;Me= 2 R f

1 kN
Q eQ e
a c f g
Ra Rc Me Me R f
 Fy =0 (for right portion): Qe = – Rf

 Mc =0 (for right portion): Me = 2 Rf
For the unit load between e and g: Q e= Q d;Me = 2 Q d

Q d Q e 1 kN
a c
g
Ra Rc Me Me R f
 Fy =0 (for portion de): Qe = Qd

 Me =0 (for portion de): Me= 2 Qd
0.5
a b c d f g
Influence Line Qe e
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0
a b c d e f
Influence Line Me g
1.0
Influence Lines for Qb and Mb
For the unit load between a and b(Rf = 0) 1 kN Q b= -R c ; Mb= 4R c

a Mb Mb c f g
Ra Qb Qb Rc R f= 0
 Fy =0 (for right portion): Qb = – Rc

 Mb =0 (for right portion): Mb = 4 Rc
For the unit load between b and g: Q b= R a ; Mb= 6R a 1 kN

a Mb Mb c f g
Ra Q b Qb Rc Rf
 Fy =0 (for left portion): Qb = Ra

 Mb =0 (for left portion): Mb = 6 Ra
0.4
a c d e 0.15
Influence Line Qb b f
g
-0.3
-0.6
-1.8
a b c f g
Influence Line Mb d e
0.9
2.4
Influence Line for Qc(right)
For the unit load between a and c: (Rf = 0) 1 kN Q c(R) = 0

a Q c(R) Q c(R) f
g
Ra Rc R f=0
 Fy =0 (for right portion): Qc(right) = – Rf = 0
For the unit load between c and g: Q c(R)=1- R f

1 kN
a Q c(R) Q c(R) g
Ra Rc Rf
 Fy =0 (for right portion): Qc(right) = 1 – Rf
1.0 1.0
a b f g
Influence Line Qc(right) c e
d
-0.5
Influence Line for Qc(left)

1 kN Q c(L)= -R c
For the unit load between a and c: (Rf = 0) a Q c(L) Q c(L) f
g
Ra Rc R f=0
 Fy =0 (for right portion): Qc(left) = – Rc
For the unit load between c and g: Q c(L)= R a 1 kN

Q c(R) Q c(R)
a g
Ra Rc Rf
 Fy =0 (for left portion): Qc(left) = Ra
a b c d e 0.15
Influence Line Qc(left)
f g
-0.3
-1.0
EXAMPLE 4.5
Construct the influence lines for Ma, Mc, Mf, Qe(left), a b c d e f g
Qe(right), and Qf.
3m 2m 2m 2m 4m 4m
SOLUTION
Free bodies ab, bd, and dg

b d
Ma Q b Qd g
Qb
Qd
Ra Re Rg
Influence Lines for Qb and Qd
For the unit load between a and b or between d and g:
1 kN Q = Q = 0 1 kN
Ma b d
e g
Qb Qd
Ra Re Rg
Since portion bd is unloaded, then
Qb= 0 and Qd= 0
For the unit load between b and d: Q b= 1 (4-x)/4 ; Q d = (1) x/4

Ma x
1 kN
a e g
Qb Qd
Ra Re Rg
 Md = 0 (for portion bd): Qb = (4 – x) / 4

 Mb = 0 (for portion bd): Qd = – x / 4
1.0
Influence Line Qb
a b c d e f g
c d
Influence Line Qd a b e f g
-1.0
Influence Lines for Ra and Ma
For the unit load between a and b: (Qb=0)

R a = 1; Ma = -(1)x
x 1 kN
Ma
Q b Q b=0
Ra Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Ra = 1

 Ma = 0 (for left portion): Ma = – x
For the unit load between b and g: Ra = Q b ; Ma = -3Q b

1 kN
Ma b e g
Qb Q b
Ra Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Ra = Qd

 Ma = 0 (for left portion): Ma = – 3 Qb.
1.0 1.0
Influence Line Ra
a b c d e f g
-3.0
Influence Line Ma d e f g
a b c
Influence Lines for Re and Rg

Re = -Q d (10/8) ; R g = Qd (2/8)
1 kN
Ma
For the unit load between a and b: a g
Qd Qd
Ra Re Rg
d
 Mg = 0 (for right portion): Re = – 10 / 8 Qd = 1.25 Qd

 Me = 0 (for right portion): Rg = 2 / 8 Qd . = 0.25 Qd
For the unit load between d and g: (Qd=0) Re = 1 (8-x)/8 ; R g = (1) x/8
Ma x 1 kN
a g
Q d =0 Q d Rg
Ra Re
d
 Mg = 0 (for right portion): Re = (8 – x) / 8.= 1 – x / 8

 Me = 0 (for right portion): Rg = x / 8
1.25
1.0
Influence Line Re
a b c d e f g
1.0
a b c d e
Influence Line Rg
f g
-0.25
Influence Lines for Qf and Mf
For the unit load between a and f: Q f= -R g ; Mf = 4 R g

1 kN
Ma Mf Mf
a e g
Qf Qf
Ra Re Rg
f
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qf = – Rg

 Mf = 0 (for right portion): Mf = 4 Rg
For the unit load between f and g: (Ra= 0 and Ma = 0)

Q f= Re ; Mf = 4 R e 1 kN
Ma = 0 Mf Mf
e g
a
Qf Qf
R a= 0 Re Rg
f
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qf = Re
 Mf = 0 (for left portion): Mf = 4 Re
0.5
0.25
a b e f
Influence Line Qf
c d g
-0.5
-1.0
a b e f g
Influence Line Mf c d
2.0
Influence Line for Mc

1 kN Mc= -2 Q d
For the unit load between a and c: Ma
Mc Mc e g
a
Qd Qd
Ra c d Re Rg
 Mc = 0 (for portion cd): Mc = – 2 Qd.
For the unit load between c and g: 1 kN

Mc= 2 Q b
Ma Mc Mc e g
a
Qb Qb
Ra Re Rg
b c
 Mc = 0 (for portion bc): Mc = 2 Qb.
a b c d e f g
Influence Line Mc
1.0
Influence Line for Qe(right)
For the unit load between a and e: 1 kN Q e(R)= -R g

Ma Q e(R) Q e(R)
Re Rg
Ra
 Fy = 0 (for portion eg): Qe(right) = – Rg.
For the unit load between a and e: (Ra= 0 and Ma= 0)

Q e(R)=R e 1 kN
Ma=0 Q e(R) Q e(R)
R a=0 Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for portion ae): Qe(right) = Re.
1.0
0.25
Influence Line Qe(right)
a b c d e f g
Influence Line for Qe(left)
For the unit load between a and e: Q e(L)= Ra -1
Ma 1 kN Q e(L) Q e(L)
Ra Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qe(left) = Ra – 1
For the unit load between a and e: (Ra= 0)

Q e(L)= 0 1 kN
Ma =0 Q e(L) Q e(L)
Ra =0 Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qe(left) = 0
a b c d e f g
Influence Line Qe(left)
-1.0 -1.0
EXAMPLE 4.6
Construct the influence lines for Mb, Me, Mc, Qb, a b c d e f g
Qc(right),Qe(right), Qd and Qf.
3m 3m 2m 2m 2m 3m
SOLUTION
Free bodies abcd, def, and fg
Qf g
Qd
a c f
d Rg
Re Qf
Ra Rc Qd
Influence Lines for Qf and Rg
For the unit load between a and f: 1 kN

Q f= Rg= 0
Rc Re Qf Qf Rg
Ra
Since portion fg is unloaded, then
Qf = 0 and Rg = 0.
For the unit load between f and g: Q f=1(3-x)/3;R g=(1)x/3

x 1 kN
Qf Q f R
Ra Rc Re g
 Mg = 0 (for right portion): Qf = (3 – x)/3

 Mf = 0 (for right portion): Rg = x / 3
1.0
Influence Line Qf a b c d e f
g
1.0
a b c d e f
Influence Line Rg
g
Influence Line for Qd and Re
For the unit load between a and d:(Qf = 0)

1 kN Q d= R e = 0
a c e g
Q d Q d Re Q f Q f=0
Ra Rc Rg
Since portion dg is unloaded, then
Qd = 0 and Re = 0.
For the unit load between f and g: Q d =1(2-x)/2; R e =(1)x/2

x 1 kN
Rc Qd Qd R e Q f Q f=0 R
Ra g
 Me= 0 (for right portion): Qd = (2 – x) / 2

 Md = 0 (for right portion): Re = x / 2
For the unit load between f and g:

1 kN
Q d= -Q f (2/2);R e = Q f (4/2)
Rc Qd Qd R e Qf Qf Rg
Ra
 Me = 0 (for portion df): Qd = – Qf (2 / 2) = – Qf

 Md = 0 (for portion df): Re = Qf (4 / 2) = 2 Qf
1.0
a b c f
Influence Line Qd d e g
-1.0
2.0
1.0
Influence Line Re a b c d
e f g
Influence Lines for Ra and Rc
For the unit load between a and d: (Qd = 0) Ra = (1)(6-x)/6;R c = (1)(x)/6

x 1 kN
Ra Rc Q d Q d=0 R Rg
e
 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Ra = (6 – x) / 6

 Ma = 0 (for left portion): Rc = x / 6
1 kN
For the unit load between d and g: R a = -Q d (2/6);R c = Q d (8/6)
Ra Rc Qd Qd Re Rg
 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Ra = – 2/6 Qd = – Qd /3

 Ma = 0 (for left portion): Rc = 8/6 Qd = 4/3 Qd
1.0
0.33
Influence Line Ra c d e
a b f g
-0.33
1.0 1.33
Influence Line Rc e f g
a b c d
-1.33
For the unit load between a and b: (Re= 0 and Rg = 0)
1 kN Q b= -R c ; Mb = 3R c
x
Mb
Ra Qb Rc R e=0 Rg =0
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qb = – Rc

 Mb = 0 (for right portion): Mb = 3 Rc
For the unit load between b and g:
1 kN
Q b= R a ; Mb = 3R a
Mb Mb
Ra Qb Qb Rc Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qb = Ra

 Mb = 0 (for left portion): Mb = 3 Ra
0.5 0.33
a b c d e g
Influence Line Qb
f
-0.5 -0.33
-1.0
a b c e f g
Influence Line Mb d
-1.0
1.5
Influence Lines for Qc(right) and Mc
For the unit load between a and c: (Re= 0, and Rg = 0)
1 kN Q c(R) = 0;Mc = 0
a Mc Mc g
Ra R c Q c(R) R e =0 R g =0
c
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qc(right) = 0

 Mc = 0 (for right portion): Mc = 0
For the unit load between c and g:
Qc(R)= R a +R c;Mc = 6R a 1 kN
a Mc Mc c g
Ra Rc Qc(R) Re Rg
c
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qc(right) = Ra + Rc

 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Mc = 6Ra.
1.0 1.0
a b e f g
Influence Line Qc (right)
c d
-1.0
-2.0
a b c e f g
Influence Line Mc
d
2.0
Influence Line for Qe(right)
For the unit load between a and e: (Rg = 0)

1 kN Q e(R)=0
Q e(R) Q
a c e(R) g
Ra Rc Re R g=0
e
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qe(right) = 0
For the unit load between e and g: Q e(R) =1-R g

Q e(R) Q 1 kN
e(R)
Ra Rc Re Rg
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qe(right) = 1 – Rg
1.0 1.0
a b c d
Influence Line Qe(right) e f g
EXAMPLE 4.7
Construct the influence lines for the shear and a b Stringer c d e
moment at f for the main girder. The unit load is
applied to the stringers from a to e. f Girder
2.5 m
SOLUTION 4 at 5m = 20 m
Influence Lines for Ra and Re

1 kN
The influence lines for reactions can be
determined by considering the free body a b c d e
diagram of the whole structure.
Ra Rd
1.0
Influence Line Ra e
a b c d
-0.33
1.33
1.0
Influence Line Re
a b c d e
The equilibrium is considered for the main girder as follow:
For unit load from a to b: Q f= -R d, Mf= 7.5R d

1 kN Qf
a Mf Mf d e
Ra Rd
f
 Fy = 0 (for portion fe): Qf = 1 – Rd

 Mf = 0 (for portion fe): Mf = 7.5 Rd
For unit load from c to e: Q f= R a , Mf= 7.5R a

Qf 1 kN
a Mf Mf e
Ra Rd
f
 Fy = 0 (for portion af): Qf = Ra
 Mf = 0 (for portion af): Mf = 7.5 Ra
0.33
Influence Line Qf a b e
c d
-0.33 -0.33
2.67
a b c d
Influence Line Mf e
2.67 2.67
EXAMPLE 4.8
Determine the influence lines for the vertical force a b c
transferred at b, the reactions at d and f, and normal, f
d e
shear and moment at point e.
The unit load moves from a to c. 3
4
4m 4m 4m 4m 4m
SOLUTION
Influence Line for Force at b 1 kN

a b c
Ra Rb Rc
Point b is a simple support for spans ab and bc. The influence line for Rb is easly determined
and given as follows:
1.0
Influence Line Rb
a b c
Influence Line for Rd, Yf, and Xf
As the unit load moves from a to c, the load is transmitted to span df by influence line for Rb
3/5 R d d Rb
f Xf
Free body df b
Rd 4/5 R d Yf
 Md = 0: Yf = 2/3 Rb
 Mf = 0: Rd = 5/12 Rb
 Fx = 0: Xf = 3/5 Rd = 3/12 Rb
0.417
Influence Line Rd
a b c
0.67
Influence Line Yf
a b c
0.25
Influence Line Xf
a b c
Influence Lines for Ne, Qe, and Me
Rb
3/5 R d d Me Q e M f
e
Free bodies de and ef Ne Xf
4/5 R d Yf
The equilibrium of portion de leads to
Ne = 3/5 Rd = 3/12 Rb
Qe = 4/5 Rd = 4/12 Rb
Me = 4/5 Rd  4 = 4/3 Rb
0.25
Influence Line Ne
a b c
0.33
Influence Line Qe
a b c
a b c
Influence Line Me
1.33
EXAMPLE 4.9
Determine the influence lines for the vertical force b
a
transferred at b, the reactions at a, c and e, and the c d e
shear and moment at d.
The unit load moves from a to b and then to e. 5m 4m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
Influence Line for Force at b

1 kN
b
Free body ab a
Ra Rb
The span ab is a simply supported beam. As the load moves over span ab, the reaction at b is
determine as previously shown in Example 4.1. On the other hand, when the load moves from
b to e, the reaction at b is equal zero.
1.0
Influence Line Ra
a b d e
1.0
Influence Line Rb
a b d e
Influence Lines for Rc and Re
For unit load between a and b: 1 kN

a b
Ra R b R =0.6R , R =0.4R
c b e b
Rb
c
Rc Re
 Me = 0 (for part ce): Rc = 0.6 Rb

 Mc = 0 (for part ce): Re = 0.4 Rb
For unit load from a to b: (Rb = 0) a b
Ra R b =0 R =(10-x)/x, R =x/10
c e
Rb=0 1 kN
c
x
Rc Re
 Me = 0 (for part ce): Rc = (10 – x) / x

 Mc = 0 (for part ce): Re = x / 10
1.0
0.4 0.7
Influence Line Re
a b d e
0.6
0.3
Influence Line Rc
a b d e
Influence Lines for Qd and Md
For unit load from a to b: Rb Q d=-R e , Me =3R e

Q
c Md d M d e
Rc Re
 Fy = 0 (for portion de): Qd = – Re

 Md = 0 (for portion de): Md = 3 Re
For unit load from a to b:(Rb = 0) Q d= Rc , Me =7R e 1 kN

R b=0 Qd
Md Md
c
Rc Re
 Fy = 0 (for portion ce): Qd = Rc

 Md = 0 (for portion ce): Md = 7 Rc
0.3
a b
Influence Line Qd
d e
-0.4 -0.7
a b d e
Influence Line Md
1.2
2.1
EXAMPLE 4.10
Determine the influence lines for the shear
and moment at f for the stringer dj, the shear b Stringer c d e f g h i Stringer
a j
and moment at d for the main girder aj, and 3m k 2.5 m Girder
the shear and moment for the main girder at 2m 2m
2m 5m 5m 2m 2m 3m
k. The unit load is applied to the stringers.
SOLUTION
Influence Lines for Forces at b, c, e, g, and j

1 kN 1 kN
a b c d d e g h j
Free bodies abcd, and deghi
Rb Rc Re Rg Rj
The influence lines for these forces can be determined by considering the equilibrium for each
of beam ad and dj, individually.
1.4
1.0
Influence Line Rb c d j
a b
0.4
1.4
1.0
a b j
Influence Line Rc c d
0.4
1.4
1.0
a h j
Influence Line Re
d e g
-0.4
1.0 1.4
Influence Line Rg a d
e g h j
-0.4
1.0
Influence Line Rj
a h i j
Influence Lines for Reactions at a and I (for main girder)

1.0
Influence Line Ra i j
a -0.15
1.0 1.15
Influence Line Ri a i j

1 kN
The equilibrium is only consider for the beam dj and the e f g h j
influence lines for Qf and Mf can be easily determined.
Re Rg Rj
0.4 0.5
e f g h j
Influence Line Qf
d
-0.5 -0.4
-1.0 -1.0
e f g j
Influence Line Mf h
d
1.25
Influence Lines for Qk and Mk
The equilibrium is considered for the main girder aj

Q k=Ra -R b, Mk=5R a -3R b
R Qk Rc R e Rg Rj
a b
j
Ra Mk Mk Ri
k
 Fy = 0 (for portion ak): Qk = Ra – Rb

 Mk = 0 (for portion ak): Mk = 5 Ra – 3 Rb
0.95 0.55
0.65 0.45
a b 0.2 j
Influence Line Qk
-0.1 c d e f g h i -0.15
-0.4
a b c d e f g h i -0.75
Influence Line Mk j
0.8 1.5 1.0
2.25
3.25
3.95 2.75
Influence Lines for Qd and Md
The main girder is cut at d and then equilibrium is considered for the whole structure as follow:
For unit load from a to d: Q d = -R i , Md = 11R i

1 kN
Qd
j
Ra Md Md
Ri
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qd = – Ri

 Md = 0 (for right portion): Md = 11 Ri
For unit load from d to j:

Q d = R a , Md = 9R a
1 kN
Qd
j
Ra Md Md
Ri
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qd = Ra

 Md = 0 (for left portion): Md = 9 Ra
0.55
Influence Line Qd a d i j
-0.45 -0.15
-1.35
a d i
Influence Line Md j
4.95
EXAMPLE 4.11
Construct the influence lines for Qb, Mb, Nc(left), a b c d
Qc(left), Mc(left), and Mc(bottom) for the frame shown.
1 4m
2
e
SOLUTION
6m 4m 3m
For unit load at distance x from support a: x 1 kN

0.447R a c d
0.894R a
Ra
Xe
 Me =0 0.447Ra (4) + 0.894Ra (10) − 1 (10 − x ) = 0

Ye
10 − x
Then, Ra =
10.73
 Fy = 0: Ye = 1 − 0.894 Ra
 Fx = 0: Xe = 0.447 Ra
0.93
0.372
Influence Line Ra d
a b c
-0.28
0.417
0.167
Influence Line Xe d
a b c
-0.125
0.833
0.333
Influence Line Ya d
a b c
-0.25
1.25
1.0
0.667
0.167
Influence Line Ye
a b c d
Influence Line for Qb and Mb
For unit load between a and b: Q b= -Ye ; Mb= 4Ye -4X e

1 kN
0.447R a Mb Mb c d
0.894R a
Qb
Ra
Xe
Ye
Y = 0 (for right side): Qb = – Ye
Mb = 0 (for right side): Mb = 4 Ye – 4 Xe
For unit load between b and d:

Q b = 0.894R a ; Mb = 0.894R a (6)
1 kN
0.447R a Mb Mb d
0.894R Qb
a
Ra
Xe
Ye
 Fy = 0 (for left side): Qb = 0.894 Ra
Mb = 0 (for left side): Mb = 0.894 Ra  6 = 5.364 Ra
0.33
a b c d
Influence Line Qb
-0.167 -0.25
-0.67
-1.5
-1.0
b c
Influence Line Mb
a d
2.0
Influence Line for Mc(bottom)
For unit load between a and d: 1 kN

0.447R a c d
0.894R a Mc(B)
Ra
Mc(B)= -4X e
e
Xe
Ye
Mc = 0 (for column ce): Mc(bottom) = – 4 Xe
-1.67
- 0.67
Influence Line Mc(bottom) d
a b c
0.5
Influence Lines for Qc(left) and Mc(left)
For unit load between a and b: 1 kN

0.447R a
Mc(L) Mc(L) d
0.894R Q c(L)
a
Ra
Q c(L)= -Ya
Mc(L)= -4X e Xe
Ye
 Fy = 0 (for right side): Qc(left) = – Ye
 Mb = 0 (for right side): Mb(left) = – 4 Xe
For unit load between c and d:

1 kN
0.447R a Mc(L) Mc(L) d
0.894R Q c(L)
a
Ra
Q c(L)= 0.894R a ; Mc(L)= 0.894R a (10)
Xe
Ye
 Fy = 0 (for left side): Qc(left) = 0.894 Ra

 Mc = 0 (for left side): Mc(left) = 0.894 Ra  10 = 8.94 Ra
a b c d
Influence Line Qc(left)
-0.167 -0.25
-1.0
-2.5
-1.67
Influence Line Mc(left)
a b c d
Influence Line for Nc(left)

1 kN
For unit load between a and d: 0.447R a d
N c(L)
0.894R a
Ra
Nc(L) = -Xe Xe
Ye
 Fx = 0 (for right side): Nc(left) = – Xe
0.125
a b c
Influence Line Nc(left) d
-0.417
EXAMPLE 4.12
Construct the influence lines for Qc, Mb, Ndf, Qdf, Mdf, b c d e
Qdc and Mdc for the frame shown.
6m
a f
SOLUTION 6m 6m 3m
For unit load at distance x from b: 1 kN

x
d e
b c
 Mf = 0: Ya = (15 – x) / 15
 Ma = 0: Yf = x / 15
Xa Xf
Ya Yf
For unit load between b and c:
1 kN
d e
b c
 Mc = 0 (for right side): X = 9/6 Yf = 1.5 Yf

X X = Yf (9/6) X
Ya Yf
1 kN
For unit load between c and e: d e
b c
X = Y a (6/6)
X X
Ya Yf
 Mc = 0 (for left side): X = 6/6 Ya = Ya
1.0
0.6
Influence Line Ya 0.2
b c d e
0.8 1.0
0.4
Influence Line Yf
b c d e
0.6
0.2
Influence Line X
b c d e
Influence Line for Mb

1 kN
For unit load between b and e: Mb Mb d e
c
Mb = -6X
 Mb = 0 (for column ab): Mb = – 6 X X X
Ya Yf
a
-3.6
Influence Line Mb
b c d e
Influence Lines for Qdc and Mdc

1 kN
Mdc Mdc e
b
For unit load between b and d: c Q dc
X Q dc = -Yf X
Mdc =3Yf - 6X
Ya Yf
 Fy = 0 (for right side): Qdc = – Yf

 Md = 0 (for right side): Mdc = 3 Yf – 6 X
For unit load between d and e:

Mdc Mdc 1 kN
b e
c Q dc
X Q dc = Ya X
Ya Mdc =12Y a - 6X
Yf
 Fy = 0 (for left side): Qdc = Ya

 Mdc = 0 (for left side): Mdc = 12 Ya – 6 X
0.2
b c e
Influence Line Qdc
d
-0.8
-2.4
d e
Influence Line Mdc b c
1.2
Influence Lines for Ndf, Qdf, and Mdf

1 kN
Md f e
For unit load between b and e: b
c Q d f N Md f
df
Qdf
in 
XS
X Cos  =0.447 
Sin  =0.894  X
Ya s  
X C in 
o Yf
Yf C
Yf S
os

 N =0 (for member df): Ndf = – X Cos – Yf Sin = – 0.447X – 0.894Yf
 Q =0 (for member df): Qdf = X Sin – Yf Cos = 0.894X – 0.447Yf
Md = 0 (for member df): Mdf = 3Yf – 6X
b c d e
Influence Line Ndf
-0.626 -0.894
0.358
d e
Influence Line Qdf b c
-0.447
-2.4
Influence Line Mdf d e
b c
EXAMPLE 4.13
Construct the influence lines for Qb, Mb, Ngh, Mca, Qcg, a b c e f g
Mcg, and Mf for the frame shown.
4m
d h
Influence Lines for Qe and Rh

Q e = 0 ;R h = 0
1 kN
For unit load between a and e: a c g
Qe Qe
Ra
0.6R h
 Mh =0 (for right portion): Qe = 0, and Rh = 0 Xd h
Yd Rh 0.8R h
For unit load between e and g: x 1 kN

a c g
Qe Qe
Ra
0.6R h
Xd h
Yd Rh 0.8R h
 Mg (left) = 0 (for right portion): Qe = (1) (6 – x) / 6

 Fy = 0 (for right portion): 0.8 Rh =1 – Qe
Then, Rh = 1.25 (1 – Qe) = x / 4.8
1.0
0.5
a b c
Influence Line Qe e f g
1.25
0.625
Influence Line Rh a b c e
f g
Influence Lines for Ra, Yd, and Xd
For unit load between a and e: (Qe = 0, Rh=0)

x 1 kN 0.6Rh =0
c e e g
a
Qe = 0
Ra Qe = 0
R a = (1)(7-x)/7 Xd 0.6R h
Yd = 1-R a h
Xd = 0 Yd 0.8R h
R h=0
 Md = 0 (for left portion): Ra = (7 – x) / 7
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Yd = 1 – Ra = x / 7
For unit load between e and g:

e 1 kN
c 0.6R h g
a
Qe Qe
Ra
Ra = -Q e(2/7)- 0.6R h(4/7)
Yd = Q e (9/7) +0.6R h (4/7) Xd = 0.6R h 0.6R h
h
Xd= 0.6R h
Yd Rh 0.8R h
 Md = 0: (for left portion) Ra = – Qe  2/7 – 0.6 Rh  4/7

 Fy = 0: (for left portion) Yd = Qe  9/7 + 0.6 Rh  4/7
 Fx = 0: Xd = 0.6 Rh
1.0
0.429
c e f g
Influence Line Ra a b
-0.286
-0.429
1.286
1.0
0.571 0.429
Influence Line Yd
a b c e f g
0.75
0.375
a b c e
Influence Line Xd f g

1 kN
c g
For unit load between a and b: (Xd = 0 and Rh = 0)
Mb Q b Mb
Ra
Xd=0 0.6R h
Q b = -Yd h
Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qb = – Yd Mb = 3Yd Yd
R h=0 0.8R h
Mb = 0 (for right portion): Mb = 3 Yd
For unit load between b and g:

c 1 kN
g
Mb Q Mb
b
Ra
Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qb = Ra Qb = R a
0.6R h
Mb = 0 (for left portion): Mb = 4 Ra Mb = 4R a Xd h
Yd Rh 0.8R h
0.429
a c e f g
Influence Line Qb b
-0.286 -0.429
-0.571
-1.714
-1.143
Influence Line Mb a b c
e f g
1.714
Influence Lines for Qcg and Mcg
For unit load between a and c: (Rh = 0)
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qcg = 0

1 kN c
a Mcg Mcg g
Q cg Q cg = 0
Ra Mcg = 0
Xd=0 0.6R h
 Mc = 0: (for right portion), Mcg = 0 h
Yd 0.8R h
Rh =0
For unit load between c and g: 1 kN

Mcg Mcg g
Ra Q cg
Xd =0.6R h 0.6R h
h
Q cg = R a +Yd
Yd Rh 0.8R h
Mcg = 7R a + 4X d
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qcg = Ra + Yd

 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Mcg = 7 Ra + 4 Xd
1.0 1.0
Influence Line Qcg

a b c e f g
-2.0
Influence Line Mcg a b c e f g
Influence Line for Mca
For unit load between a and c:(Rh = 0)

1 kN
Mca Mca g
Mca = 0
Ra
Xd =0 0.6R h
 Mc = 0 (for right portion): Mca = 0 h
Yd R h=0 0.8R h
For unit load between c and g:(Rh = 0) 1 kN

Mca Mca g
Ra
 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Mca = 7 Ra Mca = 7R a
0.6R h
h
Xd
Yd Rh 0.8R h
-3.0
-2.0
Influence Line Mca a b c e f g
Influence Line for Mf
For unit load between a and f: 1 kN

Mf Mf g
0.6R h
Ra
Rh
0.8R h
Mf = 0.8R h (3)
Xd
Yd
 Mf = 0 (for right portion): Mf = 0.8 Rh (3) = 2.4 Rh

1 kN
g
For unit load between f and g:
Qe Qe Mf M f
Ra
Rh
Mf = 3Q e
Mf = 0 (for portion ef): Mf = 3 Qe
Xd
Yd
a b c e f g
Influence Line Mf
1.5
EXAMPLE 4.14
Construct the influence lines for reactions, Mb, Qc, Mc, b c d e f
Mh, Ndg, Neg, and Nfg for the frame shown.
2m
g
4m
a h
4m 4m 4m 4m
SOLUTION
Pos. (1) 1 kN Pos. (2) Pos. (3) Pos. (4) Yh

e f
b g X
d
g X
Mh = 4 X
Yh
X
h X
Mh
Ya Yh
For unit load at position (1):
X = 0 , Ya =1 kN
Yh = 0 , and Mh = 0
Md = 0 (for left side): 8 Ya – 6 X = 0 ……………..(a)

Mg = 0: 12 Ya – 4 X –1  4 = 0 ……………..(b)
Solving Eqs. (a) and (b) yields

Ya = 0.6 kN and
X = 0.8 kN
Fy = 0: Yh= 1 – Ya = 0.4 kN

Mg = 0 (for column gh): Mh= 4 X = 3.2 kN.m
X = 0, Ya =0
Yh = 1 kN, and Mh = 0
 Md = 0 (for left side): 8 Ya – 6 X = 0 …………….(c)

 Mg = 0: 12 Ya – 4 X +1 (4) = 0 …………….(d)
Solving Eqs. (c) and (d) leads to

Ya = – 0.6 kN , and X = – 0.8 kN
 Y = 0: Yh= 1 – Ya = 1.6 kN
 Mg = 0 (for column gh): Mh= 4 X = – 3.2 kN
1.0
0.6
Influence Line Ya e f
b c d
-0.6
1.6
1.0
0.4
Influence Line Yh
b c d e f
0.8
f
Influence Line X
b c d e
-0.8
-3.2
b c d e
Influence Line Mh f
3.2
Influence Lines for Mb

b M 1 kN
b e f
For unit load from b to f: Mb d
g X
Mb = -6X Yh
X
a
 Mb = 0 (for column ab): Mb = – 6 X Ya
-4.8
e f
Influence Line Mb b c d
4.8
Influence Lines for Qd
For unit load between b to d: 1 kN Qd Qd f

e
b
d
g X
Fy = 0 (for right portion): Qd = – Yh Q b= -Yh Yh
X a
Ya
For unit load between d to f: Qd 1 kN

Qd e f
b
d
g X
Yh
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Qd = Ya
X a
Q b = Ya
Ya
0.6
c d e f
Influence Line Qd
b
-0.2
-0.4 -0.6
Influence Lines for Nfg, Neg, and Ndg
Pos. (1) 1 kN Pos. (2) Pos. (3) Pos. (4)

e f
b d Nde Nef
For unit load at position (1):(Yh = 0, X = 0) Ndg Nfg
g
X
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Nfg = 0 Yh
 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Neg= 0 X

a
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Ndg = 0 Ya
For unit at position (2): (Yh = 0.4, X = 0.8)
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Nfg = 0

 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Neg= 0
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Ndg = – 4.47/2 Yh = – 4.47/2 (0.4) = – 0.897 kN
For unit at position (3): (Yh = 1, X = 0)
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Nfg = 0

 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Neg= – 1
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Ndg = – 4.47/2 (Yh + Neg) = – 4.47/2 (1 – 1) = 0
For unit at position (4): (Yh = 1.6, X = – 0.8)
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Nfg = – 4.47/2  1 = – 2.239 kN

 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Neg= 0
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Ndg = – 4.47/2 Yh – Nfg = – 4.47/2  1.6 + 2.239 = – 1.336 kN
b c d e f
Influence Line Nfg
-2.239
b c d e f
Influence Line Neg
-1.0
b c d e f
Influence Line Ndg
-0.897
-1.336
Influence Lines for Mc and Qc

1 kN
For unit load between b to c: c
Qd Qd e f
b Mc Mc
Qc d
 Fy = 0 (for part cd): Qc = Qd g X
 Mc = 0 (for part cd): Mc = – 4 Qd Q c= Q d Yh

Mc =-4Q d
X
a
Ya
For unit load between c to f: 1 kN

c
e f
b Mc Mc
Qc d
g X
 Fy = 0 (for part bc): Qc = Ya Yh
 Mc = 0 (for part bc): Mc = 4 Ya – 6 X Q c= Y a
X
a Mc = 4Ya - 6X
Ya
0.8 0.6
Influence Line Qc b c e f
-0.2 d
-0.6
-2.4
b c e f
Influence Line Mc
d
0.8
2.4
EXAMPLE 4.16
Construct the influence lines for Fbd, Fde, Fef, Fdg, Feg, c f h k
o
Feh, Ffh, Fab, and Fgh.
3m
The unit load is applied to the upper chord. b e j
n
3m
a l
d g i
SOLUTION
4 at 4.5 m = 18 m
1 kN s 1 s2 h
Influence Lines for Reactions c f k o
5 .4
3 1
b e 4.5 j n
The influence lines for reactions can be determined by
considering the equilibrium conditions and are given as a l
d g i
follow: Ra Rl
1.0
0.75
0.5 0.25
Influence Line of Ra
c f h k o
1.0
0.75
0.25 0.5
Influence Line of Rl
c f h k o
Influence Lines for Ffh and Fdg
Considering Section s1-s1,

c f h k
F fh o
F ef
b e j n
F ed
a F dg l
d g i
Ra Rl
For unit between c and f:
Md = 0 (for right portion): Ffh= – 13.5/6 Rl = – 2.25 Rl

Mf = 0 (for right portion): Fdg= 13.5/6 Rl = 2.25 Rl
For unit between f and o:
Md = 0 (for left portion): Ffh = – 4.5/6 Ra= – 0.75 Ra

Mf = 0 (for left portion): Fdg = 4.5/6 Ra = 0.75 Ra
c f h k o
Influence Line of Ffh
-0.563
0.563
Influence Line of Fdg

c f h k o
Influence Lines for Feh and Feg
Considering equilibrium of joint e,

F ef
 Fx = 0 (at joint e): 4.5/5.41 Feh = – 4.5/5.41 Feg F eh
Then, Feh = – Feg Joint e e
F eg
F de
c f h k
Considering section s2-s2, F fh o
F eh
b e j n
F eg
a F dg l
d g i
Ra Rl
For unit load between c and f:
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): – 3/5.41 Feh +3/5.41 Feg + Rl = 0

Then, Feh = 5.41/6 Rl and Feg = – 5.41/6 Rl
For unit load between h and o:
 Fy = 0 (for at left portion): 3/5.41 Feh – 3/5.41 Feg + Ra = 0

Then, Feh = – 5.41/6 Ra and Feg = 5.41/6 Ra
0.225
h k
Influence Line of Feh c o
f
-0.225
-0.45
0.45
0.225
Influence Line of Feg c f o
h k
-0.225
Influence Lines for Fgh

F hg F gj
From symmetry; Fgj = mirror of Feg F eg
Joint g
Fy = 0 (for joint g): Fgh = – 3/5.41 (Feg + Fgj) F dg g F gi
0.45
0.225
k o
Influence Line of Fgj c f h
-0.225
c f h k o
Influence Line of Fgh
-0.5
Influence Lines for Fbd
The force in this member can be obtained by the same way as member eg, then
For unit load at joint c:
Fbd = 5.41/6 Rl = 0
For unit load between f and o:
Feg = 5.41/6 Ra
0.676
Influence Line of Fbd c f h k o
Influence Lines for Fde
Fbd F de
 Fy = 0 (at joint d): Fdl = – 3/5.41 Fbd
Joint d
F ad d F dg
0.375
0.25
Influence Line of Fde
c f h k o
Influence Line for Fef

Fef F eh
 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Fef = Fdl + 3/5.41 Feg – 3/5.41 Feh
e
but Feh = – Feg Joint e
then Fef = Fdl + 6/5.41 Feg F de F eg
0.25
c f
Influence Line of Fef h k o
-0.625
Influence Lines for Fab

F ab
 Fy = 0 (at joint a): Fab = – Ra Joint a
a F ad
Ra
c f h k o
Influence Line of Fab
-1.0
EXAMPLE 4.17
Construct the influence lines for Fef, Feg, Ffg, Ffh, Fgi, b d f h j
l
and Fgj.
3m
The unit load is applied to the lower chord.
a c e g i k
SOLUTION 5 at 4 m = 20 m

b d f s1 h s2 j
l
1 kN
3 5
The influence lines for reactions are determined 4
k
a c e s1 g s2 i
using the equilibrium conditions and are given as
follow: Rc Rg
1.5
1.0
0.5
Influence Line of Rc i k
a c e g
-0.5 -1.0
1.5 2.0
1.0
a c 0.5
Influence Line of Rg -0.5
e g i k
Influence Lines for Ffh, Feg, and Ffg
Considering section s1-s1,

b d f F fh h j
l
F fg
For unit load between a and e a c e F eg g i k
Rc
 Mg = 0 (for right portion): Ffh = 0 Rg
 Mf = 0 (for right portion): Feg = 4/3 Rg

 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Ffg = – 5/3 Rg
For unit load between g and k
 Mg = 0 (for left portion): Ffh = – 8/3 Rc

 Mf = 0 (for left portion): Feg = 4/3 Rc
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Ffg = 5/3 Rc
2.67
Influence Line of Ffh

a c e g i k
0.67
a i k
Influence Line of Feg c e g
-0.67
-1.33
0.83
c e g i k
Influence Line of Ffg a
-0.83
-1.67
Influence Lines for Fgi, and Fgj
Considering section s2-s2, b d f h F hj j

l
F gj
a c g F gi i k
e
For unit load between a and i
Rc Rg
 Mj = 0 (for right portion): Fgi = 0
For unit load at k
 Mj = 0 (for right portion): Fgi = – 1  4/3 = – 1.33 kN
For unit load between a and g
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Fgj = 0

For unit load between i and k
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Fgj = – 5/3 = – 1.67 kN
a c e g i k
Influence Line of Fgi
-1.33
a c e g i k
Influence Line of Fgj
-1.67 -1.67
For unit load at joint e

Fef
 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Fef = 1 F ce F eg
e
For unit load at any joint except e
 Fy = 0 (at joint e): Fef = 0
1.0
Influence Line of Fef

a c e g i k
EXAMPLE 4.18
Construct the influence lines for Fab, Fac, Fbc, Fbd, Fbe, and Fce. e
c g 2m
The unit load is applied to the lower chord.
7m
a h
b d f
SOLUTION
7m 7m 7m 7m
Influence Lines for Reactions s1 e

7
c 7 .2 8 2 g
9 11
The influence lines for reactions are determined using 1 kN 9. 7 9
.4
the equilibrium conditions and are given as follows: a 7 h

7
b d f
s1
Ra Rh
1.0 0.75
0.5
Influence Line of Ra 0.25
a b d f h
0.75 1.0
0.5
0.25
Influence Line of Rh
a b d f h
Influence Lines for Fab and Fac
For unit load at a :(Ra = 1)

 Fy = 0 (at joint a): Fac = 9.9/7 (1 – Ra) = 0 Fac
 Fx = 0 (at joint a): Fab = – 7/9.9 Fac = 0 Joint a a
Ra F ab
For unit load between b and h
 Fy = 0 (at joint a): Fac = – 9.9/7 Ra

 Fx = 0 (at joint a): Fab = – 7/9.9 Fac = Ra
1.0 0.75
0.5
0.25
Influence Line of Fab
a b d f h
0.75 1.0
0.5
Influence Line of Fac 0.25
a b d f h
Influence Lines for Fbc and Fce

c
 Fx = 0 (at joint c): Fce = 7.28/7 (7/9.9 Fac) = 0.735 Fac
F ac
F ce
 Fy = 0 (at joint c): Fbc = 2/7.28 Fce – 7/9.9 Fac = – 0.505 Fac Joint c F bc
0.536
0.357
0.179
Influence Line of Fbc
a b d f h
a b d f h
Influence Line of Fce
-0.78
Influence Line for Fbd e

c F ce g
F be
F be
a h
b F bd
d f
For unit load between a and d Ra Rh
 Me = 0 (for right portion): Fbd = 14/9 Rh
For unit load between d and h
 Me = 0 (for left portion): Fbd = 14/9 Ra
0.778
Influence Line of Fbd

a b d f h
Influence Line for Fbe

F bc F be
Considering the equilibrium at joint b, F ab
b F bd
For unit load at any node except b
 Fy = 0 (at joint b): Fbe = – 11.4/9 Fbc = – 1.267 Fbc
For unit load at joint b:
 Fy = 0 (at joint b): Fbd = 11.4/9 (1 – Fbc) = 0.588
0.588
d f h
a b
-0.452
EXAMPLE 4.19
Construct the influence lines for Fbd, Fcd, Fce, Fdh, Ffg, c e h k m
and Fgh. a n 4.5 m
The unit load is applied to chord abdgiln. g
b d i l 4.5 m
f
6 at 6 m = 36 m
SOLUTION

s2
c s1 e h k m
1 kN
a 7 .5 4.5 n
6
The influence lines for reactions are determined using b d g i l
f
the equilibrium conditions and are given as as follows: Ra Rn
Rf
1.0
Influence line for Ra 0.67
0.33
a b d g i l n
1.0
0.67 0.67
0.33 0.33
Influence line for Rf
a b d g i l n
1.0
0.67
0.33
Influence line for Rn
a b d g i l n
Influence Lines for Fce, Fbd, and Fcd

c Fce e h k m
Considering section s1-s1, a F cd n
b Fbd d g i l
Ra f
Rn
Rf
For unit load between a and b (Rn = 0):
 Mc = 0 (for right portion): Fbd = 12/4.5 Rf

 Md = 0 (for right portion): Fce = – 6/4.5 Rf
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Fcd = – 7.5/4.5 Rf
For unit load between b and n:
 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Fbd = 6/4.5 Ra

 Md = 0 (for left portion): Fce = – 12/4.5 Ra
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Fcd = 7.5/4.5 Ra
a b d g i l n
Influence Line of Fce
-0.89
0.89
a b d g i l n
0.56
Influence Line of Fcd a b

d g i l n
-0.56
Influence Line for Ffg
Considering the equilibrium at joint f,
 Fx = 0 (at joint f): Fdf = 0 F fg

 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Ffg = – Rf Joint f F df
f
Rf
a b d g i l n
Influence Line of Ffg
-1.0
Influence Lines for Fgh
Considering the equilibrium at joint g, F gh

F gi
For unit load at g:(Ffg = -1) g
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Fgh = Ffg + 1 = – 1 + 1 = 0
Ffg
For unit load at any joint except g:
 Fy = 0 (at joint g): Fgh = Ffg = – Rf
a b d g i l n
Influence Line of Fgh
-0.67 -0.67
Influence Line for Fdh
Considering sections s2-s2,

c e F eh h k m
a Fdh n
b d g i l
For unit load between a and d: (Fdf = 0, Rn = 0) Fdf f
Ra Rn
Rf
 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Fdh = 7.5/4.5 Rf
For unit load between g and n: (Fdf = 0, Ra = 0)
 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Fdh = 0

1.11
Influence Line of Fdh

a b d g i l n
EXAMPLE 4.20
Construct the influence lines for Fab, Fcd, Fce, Fde, d e g i k l
Ffi, Fgi, Fhi, Fhj, and Fik. b
4m
The unit load is applied to chord bdegikl. c f j
4m
a h
SOLUTION 6 at 5 m = 30m
The influence lines for reactions are determined

using the equilibrium conditions and the
condition equation given at e. These influence
lines are given as follow:
1.0
0.75
0.5 0.25
Influence Line Ya i k l
b d e g
-0.25 -0.5
1.5
1.25
1.0
0.75
0.5
Influence Line Yh 0.25
b d e g i k l
0.625
0.3125 0.3125
Influence Line X k l
b d e g i
-0.3125
-0.625
Influence Line for Fab

F cd
Fbc
 Mc = 0 Fab = – Ya + 4/5 X Section s1-s1 F ab
F ce
c
a
X
Ya
b d e g i k l
Influence Line Fab
-0.5
-1.0
Influence Line for Fcd

d
For unit load at joint d F bd Fde
 Fy = 0 (at joint d): Fcd = – 1 kN Fcd
For unit load at any joint except d
 Fy = 0 (at joint d): Fcd = 0
b d e g i k l
Influence Line Fcd
-1.0
Influence Lines for Fde and Fce

b d F de e g i k
Considering section s2-s2, l
F ce
c f j
X a h X
Ya Yh
For unit load between b and d
 Mc = 0 (for right portion): Fde = – 15/4 Yh + 4/4 X = – 3.75Yh + X

 Fy = 0 (for right portion): Fce = 6.4/4 Yh
For unit load between e and l
 Mc = 0 (for left portion): Fde = – 5/4 Yh + 4/4 X = – 1.25Yh + X

 Fy = 0 (for left portion): Fce = – 6.4/4 Ya
b d e g i k l
Influence Line Fde
-0.625
0.8
0.4
Influence Line Fce e g i
b d k l
-0.8
Influence Lines for Fgi and Ffi

b d e g F gi
i k
Considering section s3-s3, F fi l
c f j
F fh
X a h X
For unit load between b and g Ya Yh
 Mf = 0 (for right portion): Fgi = – 5/4 Yh + 4/4 X = – 1.25 Yh + X

 Me = 0 (for right portion): Ffi = 6.4/4 (10/10 Yh – 8/10 X) = 1.6Yh – 1.28 X
For unit load between i and l
 Mf = 0 (for left portion): Fgi = – 15/4 Ya + 4/4 X = – 3.75Ya + X

 Me = 0 (for left portion): 5/6.4 Ffi (4) + 4/6.4 Ffi (5) – Ya (10) + X (8) = 0
Then, Ffi = 1.6 Ya – 1.28 X
1.25
b d e g i
Influence Line Fgi k l
-0.625
0.8
Influence Line Ffi b d e g i k l
Influence Lines for Fik and Fhj

b d e g i F ik k
Considering section s4-s4, l
F ij
c f Fhj j
X a h X
Ya Yh
For unit load between b and i:
 Mj = 0 (for right portion): Fik = 0

 Mi = 0 (for right portion): Fhj = 0
For unit load at k:
 Mj = 0 (for right portion): Fik = 0

 Mi = 0 (for right portion): 5/6.4 Fhj (4) + 4/6.4 Fhj (5) + 1  5 = 0
Then, Fhj = – 0.8
For unit load at l:
 Mj = 0 (for right portion): Fik = 5/4  (1) = 1.25

 Mi = 0 (for right portion): 5/6.4 Fhj (4) + 4/6.4 Fhj (5) + 2  5 = 0
Then, Fhj = – 1.6 kN
1.25
Influence Line Fik b d e g i k l
b d e g i k l
Influence Line Fhj
-1.6
Influence Line for Fhi
Considering the equilibrium at joint h, F hi F hj
 Fx = 0 (at joint h): Ffh = Fhj – 6.4/5 X = Fhj – 1.28 X F fh

 Fy = 0 (at joint h): Fhi = – Yh – 4/6.4 Ffh – 4/6.4 Fhj h X
Yh
Substituting for Ffh in this equation leads to
Fhi = – Yh – 1.25 Fhj + 0.8 X
b d e g i k l
Influence Line Fhi
-1.0
EXAMPLE 4.21
Construct the influence lines for Fce, Fde, Fdf, Fdg, Feg, e i m
Fgh, Ffg, and Fei. c g o 3m
k
The unit load is applied to the lower chord. a p 3m
b d f h j l n
SOLUTION
8 at 3 m = 24
s1 i
Influence Lines for Reactions s2
e m
3
g 3 o
4
1 kN c
2
k
4.
a p
b d f h j l n
Ra Rp
1.0
0.75 0.5
Influence Line Ra 0.25
a b d f h j l n p
1.0
0.5 0.75
0.25
Influence Line Rp
a b d f h j l n p
Influence Lines for Fei, Fdf, and Fgh

F ei i
e m
Ffg
c g k o
Fdf F fh F gh
f a p
b d f F fh h j l n
Ra Rp
Joint f
Section s1-s1
For unit load between a and f:
 Mh = 0 (for portion right to Sec. s1-s1 ): Fei = – 12/6 Rp = – 2 Rp

 Me = 0 (for portion right to Sec. s1-s1): Ffh = 18/6 Rp = 3 Rp
 Fx = 0 (at joint f): Fdf = Ffh = 3 Rp
 Fy = 0 (for portion right to Sec. s1-s1): Fgh = – 4.24/3 Rp
For unit load between h and p:
 Mh = 0 (for portion left to Sec. s1-s1): Fei = – 12/6 Ra = – 2 Ra

 Me = 0 (for portion left to Sec. s1-s1): Ffh = 6/6 Ra = Ra
 Fx = 0 (at joint f): Fdf = Ffh = Ra
 Fy = 0 (for portion left to Sec. s1-s1): Fgh = 4.24/3 Ra
a b d f h j l n p
Influence Line Fei
-1.0
1.125
0.75
0.5
Influence Line Fdf
a b d f h j l n p
0.707
Influence Line Fgh a b d f

h j l n p
-0.354
-0.53
Influence Line for Ffg
Considering the equilibrium of joint f,

For unit load at joint f: Ffg

Fdf Ffh
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Ffg = 1 kN
f
For unit load at any joint except f:
 Fy = 0 (at joint f): Ffg = 0

1.0
Influence Line Ffg a b d f h j l n p
Influence Lines for Feg and Fdg
Considering the equilibrium of joint g,

F eg
g
 F (in the direction of dg) = 0: Fdg = – 3/4.24 Ffg
 F (in the direction of eg) = 0: Feg = Fgh + 3/4.24 Ffg F dg
F gh
Ffg
a b d f h j l n p
Influence Line Fdg
-0.707
0.707
Influence Line Feg a b d

f h j l n p
-0.354
Influence Line for Fce i

e m
F ce
g k o
Considering section s2-s2, c F cd
a p
b Fbd d f h j l n
Ra Rp
For unit load between a and b:
 Md (for right portion) = 0: Fce = – 4.24/3 (18/6 Rp) = – 4.24 Rp
For unit load between d and p:
 Md (for left portion) = 0: Fce = – 6/4.24 Ra = – 1.41 Ra

a b d f h j l n p
Influence Line Fce
-1.06
Influence Line for Fde

e
 Fy (at joint e) = 0: Fde = – 3/4.24 (Fce + Feg) F ei
F ce F eg
F de
1.0
Influence Line Fde l p

a b d f h j n
EXAMPLE 4.22
Construct the influence lines for Fab, Fad, Fbc, Fcd, f
Fbe, Fce, Fdf, and Fef. d i 1m
The unit load is applied to chord acehj.
a c h j 3m
SOLUTION e 2m
b g
4m 4m 4m 4m

f
s1 4.1 2 i
d 1
4 4
1 kN
3
The influence lines for reactions are determined a
5
c h j
using the equilibrium conditions and are given as e
4. 4
7
2
follows: b s1 4 g
Rb Rg
1.5
1.0
Influence Line Rb 0.5
j
a c e h
-0.5
1.5
1.0
-0.5
a
Influence Line Rg c e h j
-0.5
Influence Line for Fdf

F df f
i
d
a c F ce h j
e
F be
b g
Rb Rg
For unit load between a and e:
 Me (for right portion) = 0: Fdf = – 4.12/4 (4/4 Rg) = – 1.03 Rg
For unit load between e and j:
 Me (for left portion) = 0: Fdf = – 4.12/4 (4/4 Rb) = – 1.03 Rb
0.515 0.515
Influence Line Fdf c e h

a j
-0.515
Influence Line for Fad and Fcd d

F ad F df
 Fx (at joint d) = 0: Fad = 5/4 (4/4.12 Fdf) = 1.21 Fdf
F cd
 Fy (at joint d) = 0: Fcd = 1/4.12 Fdf – 3/5 Fad = – 0.483 Fdf
0.625 0.625
c e h
Influence Line Fad
a j
-0.625
0.25
Influence Line Fcd a j

c e h
-0.25 -0.25
Influence Line for Fab
Considering the equilibrium at joint a,
For unit load at a:

F ad
 Fy (at joint a) = 0: Fab = 4.47/2 (3/5 Fad –1) = 1.34 Fad – 2.24
a F ac
Fab
For unit any joint except a:
 Fy (at joint a) = 0: Fab = 4.47/2 (3/5 Fad ) = 1.34 Fad
0.84
a c e h
Influence Line Fab j
-0.84
-1.4
Influence Line for Fce F ad
 Fx (at joint a) = 0: Fac = – 4/5 Fad – 4/4.47 Fab a F ac

F ab
F cd
Considering the horizontal equilibrium at joint c,
 Fx (at joint c) = 0: Fce = Fac = – 4/5 Fad – 4/4.47 Fab F ac
c
F ce
1.25 F bc
0.75
Influence Line Fce j
a c e h
-1.25
Influence Line for Fbe

Fbc
 Fx (at joint b) = 0: Fbe = Fab F ab F be
b
\ Rb
0.84
a c e h
Influence Line Fbe j
-0.84
-1.4

f F fi
 Fx (at joint f) = 0: Fdf = Ffi F df
 Fy (at joint f) = 0: Fef = – 1/4.12 (Fdf + Ffi) = – 0.49 Fdf
F ef
0.25
a j
Influence Line Fef c e h
-0.25 -0.25
Influence Line for Fbc
For unit load at c: (Fcd = 0)

Fcd
 Fy (at joint c) = 0: Fbc = – 1 kN Fac c Fce
For unit any joint except c: Fbc
 Fy (at joint c) = 0: Fbc = Fcd
a c 0.25 h j
Influence Line Fbc
e 0.25
-0.25
-1.0
4.2 APLICATIONS OF INFLUENCE LINES
Once an influence line for a function, such as reaction, normal, shear, or moment, is
determined, it can be used to determine the value of the function when any loading system is
applied to the structure. This is valid if the structure is linearly elastic and the principle of
superposition is allowed.
EXAMPLE 4.23
Calculate the reaction at b, and shear and moment at c 15 kN 30 kN 10 kN
3m 2m 4m
for the shown beam and load configuration. a b d e
c
2m 5m 3m 3m
SOLUTION
The influence lines for Ra, Qc and Mc are constructed as follow:
1.25
1.0
Influence Line Rb 0.625
0.375
d e
a b -0.125
-0.375
0.25 0.375
d e
Influence Line Qc a b c
-0.125
-0.375 -0.375
-0.625
-1.875
-0.75 -0.625
Influence Line Mc c
a b d e
1.125
1.875
The required internal forces are determined by multiplying the respective influence-line
ordinates under the load by the value of the load. Using the shown influence lines for reaction
at a, and shear and moment at c, the required values are calculated as follow:
Ra = 15(0.625) + 30(0.375) + 10(−0.125) = 19.375 kN

Qc ( Neg.) = 15(−0.375) + 30(−0.625) + 10(−0.125) = −25.625 kN
Qc ( Pos.) = 15(−0.375) + 30(0.375) + 10(−0.125) = 4.375 kN
Mc = 15(1.125) + 30(1.875) + 10(−0.625) = 66.875 kN.m
4.3 DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Consider the structural segment shown in Fig. 4.1a, which subjected to a uniformly
distributed downward load of intensity w between points a and b. Let us assume that the
influence line ordinates for Mc are represented by function f(x) as shown in Fig. 4.1c. The load
on a small element dx is wdx and can be taken as a concentrated load. The effect of this
infinitesimal load on Mc is
dc M = w dx f ( x )
The value of Mc for total load acting between A and B will be
b
Mc = w  f ( x ) dx = w  area of influence-line diagram below the load
a
Uniformly Distributed Load Longer than Span
For uniformly distributed load w, longer than the span of simply supported beam,
shown in Fig 4.1a, and moving from right to left, the maximum positive shear at C, Qc(Pos.),
will occur when the front of the load has just reached C. In such case, it is equal to w times the
area BdC. Similarly, the maximum negative Qc(Neg) will occur when the rear of the load has
reached c, and it is equal to w times the area Ad’C, as shown in Fig. 4.1b. On the other hand,
the maximum positive bending moment at c is obtained when the live load cover the entire
length of the beam. In thus case, the maximum moment Mc due to uniformly distributed load
longer than span is equal to w times the area AoB shown in Fig. 4.1c.
A C B
2m 4m
(a) Considered beam

for max. Qc(Neg.)
w
for max. Qc(Pos.)
A C B
d
+
A C + B
- o
d'
(b) Influence line for shear (c) Influence line for bending moment
Fig. 4.1 Beam under uniformly distributed load longer than span
Uniformly Distributed Load Shorter than Span
For uniformly distributed load that is shorter than the span, again two cases have to be
considered for shear at C, the front and rear of the load at C as shown in Fig. 4.2b. The
maximum moment Mc due to uniformly distributed load shorter than span will found when the
area stqp, shown in Fig. 4.2c, is maximum, that is when the front of the load is at distance m
from the point C. In order to derive this, the sum of areas Ats and Bpq is a minimum. Thus,
 = area Ats + area Bpq
M(a − m)2 M( L − a − r + m)2

= +
2a 2( L − a)
Then d/dm = 0 leads to
m a
= ……………………………..…………..………………(4.1)
r L
It can be shown that ordinate st = ordinate pq

for max. Q c (Neg.)
for max. Q c (Pos.)
A B C
d k'
a A h C + B
L - k
h'
d'
(a) Considered beam (b) Influence line for shear
w
a
m
A s C p B
M +
t q
or
(c) Influence line for bending moment.
Fig. 4.2 Beam under uniformly distributed load shorter than span
EXAMPLE 4.24
Calculate the maximum bending moment and shear 50 kN/m
force at C for the beam AB due to moving
3m
uniformly distributed load of 50 kN/m and of length
A C B
3m.
4m
SOLUTION 10 m
Maximum Positive Shear at C:
The maximum negative shear at C is produced when the front of uniform load is at C.
50 kN/m
Load position for Max. 0.6

0.3
positive shear at C A C + B
-
- 0.4
 0.6 + 0.3  
Qc = 50    3 = 67.5 kN
 2  
Maximum Negative Shear at C:
The maximum negative shear at C is produced when the rear of uniform load is at C.
50 kN/m
Load position for Max. 0.6
negative shear at C A C + B
-
-0.1
-0.4
 −0.4 − 0.1  
Qc = 50    3 = −37.5 kN
 2  
Maximum Bending Moment at C:
To get the load position which give maximum bending moment at C, the criteria given in Eq.
(4.1) is applied
50 kN/m
r = 3m
m r-m
Load position for Max. A C B
bending at C +
M1 M2
a = 4m 2.4 L-a = 6m
m a
=
r L
Substituting for a, r and L,
m 4
=
3 10
Then, m = 1.2 meter
a−m  4 − 1.2 
M1 = 2.4   = 2.4   = 1.68 kN.m
 a   4 
M2 = M1 = 1.68 kN.m
 1.68 + 2.4   1.68 + 2.4  
M c = 50    1.2 +    1.8 = 306 kN.m
 2   2  
4.4 CONCENTRATED LOAD
Many structures are subjected to a series of rolling or moving concentrated loads, which
are of various magnitudes and spacing, such as a moving train crossing a bridge. For such
loads, the critical position of loads is only deduced by trial-and-error method using criteria
based on the concept of influence lines. For each category of influence lines, there will be a
corresponding criterion for maximum. Such criteria is derived for common types of influence-
lines diagrams as those shown in Fig. 4.3.
(a) Type (1) (b) Type (2)
(c) Type (3)
Fig. 4.3 Different general types of influence lines
Maximum Value of Influence-Line Diagram for Type 1
This type of influence line corresponds to the end reaction of a simply supported beam,
girder, or truss. Now, consider the simply supported beam AB subjected to a group of loads
P1, P2, P3, and P4, with resultant R acting at a distance x from B, as shown in Fig. 4.4a. The
maximum value of the reaction RA is determined by constructing the influence-line diagram for
RA as shown in Fig. 4.4b. In this case, the influence-line ordinate corresponding to the resultant
R is x/L. Thus
x
RA = R  
L
The maximum value of RA is obtained when the term x/L is greatest for the same value
of R (i.e., there is no wheel entering or leaving the span during the load movement). In other
case in which a change in R occurs, the greatest value of R(x/L) will yield the maximum reaction
in question. Such a maximum value will always occur when one wheel is placed over the
support in question.
x
R
P1 P2 P3 P4 1.0
A B x/L
L
RA RB
(a) Loaded beam (b) Influence line for Ra
Fig. 4.4 Load position for maximum value for influence line diagram of type 1
EXAMPLE 4.25
Determine the maximum reaction RA for the beam and load 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
shown in figure. 1 2 3 4
2m 2.5 m 2.5 m
A B
SOLUTION
15 m
RA RB
Three trials are making for RA as follows:
Trial 1: the first load is put at A
60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN

1 2 3 4
1.0 0.867 0.7 0.533
2m 2.5 m 2.5 m 8m
RA =60 (1) + 180 (0.867) + 220 (0.7) + 150 (0.533) = 450 kN
Trial 2: the second load is put at A
180 kN 220 kN 150 kN

2 3 4
1.0 0.833 0.667
2.5 m 2.5 m 10 m
RA =180 (1) + 220 (0.833) + 150 (0.667) = 463.3 kN

Trial 3: the third load is put at A
220 kN 150 kN
3 4
1.0 0.833
2.5 m 12.5 m
RA = 220 (1) + 150 (0.833) = 345 kN
It is noticed that maximum reaction RA = 463.3 kN is obtained when load 2 is over support A
Such influence-line diagram relates to the shear at a section in simply supported

structures. Consider the maximum shear is required at a particular section C in a simply
supported beam due to a group of loads as shown in Fig. 4.5a. As the loads move across the
beam, the positive value of the shear force will increase until the load P1 is just to the right of
C as shown in Fig. 4.5b. In this position, the positive shear at C is given as
d R
P1 P2 P3 P4
A B
C
a b
RA L RB
(a) Beam geometry and loading configuration
R x R x +d
d d
P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4
P1 P2
A A B
B
C C
(b) Position 1. (c) Position 2.
Fig. 4.5 Maximum value for influence line diagram of type 2
Rx
( Qc )1 = RA =
L
When the load P1 passes C, there will be a sudden decrease in shear force by amount of P1. As
the loads move to the left, the value of positive shear will again increase until the load P2 is
just to the right of C as shown in Fig. 4.5c and the shear at C is
R (x + d)
( Qc )2 = RA − P1 = − P1
L
where d = distance between P1 and P2.
The total change in shear force between the previous two cases is given by
Rd
Qc = (Qc )2 − (Qc )1 = − P1
L
From the above expression, one can say that
Rd R P1
(Qc)2 is greater when  P1 or  (4.2a)
L L d
Rd R P1
(Qc)1 is greater when  P1 or  (4.2b)
L L d
The above criterion is valid provided there is no load entering of leaving the span.
EXAMPLE 4.26
Find the maximum and minimum shear forces at midspan C for 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
the beam AB due to the given moving loads. 1 2 3 4
2 m 2.5 m 2.5 m
A C B
SOLUTION 7.5 m 7.5 m
Maximum Positive Shear
Trial 1: First load is just right of C

60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
Applying the above criterion (Eq. 4.2) to A 1 2 3 4
B
the first trial position of the loads as shown C d=2
RA RB
in figure, we find that 7.5 m 7.5 m
R . d / L = (610) (2) / 15 = 81.3 kN > P1 (60)
Therefore, this position doesn’t produce the maximum shear force and the maximum shear
force is produced from the second trial when load 2 reaches at C
Trial 2: Second load is just right of C

60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
1 2 3 4
For such case, the shear force at C is calculated C
using the influence line diagram of shear at C 2m 2.5 m 2.5 m
RA RB
60 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
1 2 3 4
0.5 0.333 0.167
+
-
-0.367 -0.5
Qc = (60) (– 0.367)+ (180) (0.5) + (220) (0.333) + (150) (0.167) = 166.3 kN
Maximum Negative Shear
Trial 1: End load is just left of C
Applying the above criterion (Eq. 4.2) to the first 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
trial position of the loads as shown in figure, we 1 2 3 4

d C
find that RA RB
R . d / L = (610) (2.5) / 15 = 101.7 kN < P4 (150)
Therefore, this position produces the maximum negative shear force at C. The shear force is
calculated using the influence line diagram at C as follow
60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN

1 2 3 4
0.5
A +
-0.033 -0.167 - C B
-0.333 -0.5
Qc = (60) (– 0.033)+ (180) (– 0.167) + (220) (– 0.333) + (150) (– 0.5) = – 180.3 kN
This type of influence line corresponds to bending moment in simply supported beam
and an axial force in chord members of some trusses. To establish the maximum value of such
a function, let us consider the load group in Fig. 4.6a passing over the simply supported beam
AB. The influence line for moment at C is shown in Fig. 4.6b. The problem in hand is to
determine the position of loads group that produces maximum bending moment at C. Let R1
is the resultant of all loads on the beam to the left of C and R2 of those loads to the right of the
C. The bending moment at C for this load position is given by
P1 P2 P3 P4 R1 R2
A x1 x2
B
A C B
C
a b y1 M y2
L
(a) Loaded beam (b) Influence line for moment at C
Fig. 4.6 Critical position of bending moment at C
x  x 
M c = R1 y1 + R2 y2 = R1  1  M + R2  2  M
a b
When the loads move a small distance dx to the left, with the value R1 and R2 remaining
unchanged. The change in moment Mc is
M
( −dx ) + R2   dx
M
dM c = R1  
 a   b 
 M  M 
=  R2   − R1    dx
  b   a 
So, as long as R2 / b > R1 / a, the bending moment at C will increase and the movement of the
load to the left must be continued until one load in group R2 reaches at C.
EXAMPLE 4.27
Calculate the maximum bending moment at midspan 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
(C) for the simply supported beam AB and load 2m 2.5m 2.5m
1 2 3 4
group shown in figure A C B
SOLUTION a = 7.5 m b = 7.5 m
Trial 1: Load 2 is at C
60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
2m 2.5m 2.5m
1 2 3 4
A C B
1.25
2.75 2.5
3.75
a = 7.5 m b = 7.5 m
Applying the previous criterion, we find that
R1 60 R2 550
Load 2 is included in R2: =  =
a 7.5 7.5 7.5
R1 240 R2 370
a 7.5 7.5 7.5
Then, this position doesn’t produce the maximum bending moment at C
Trial 2: Load 3 is at C 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN

1 2 3 4
A C B
1.5
2.5 2.5
3.75
Applying the previous criterion, we find that
R1 240 R2 370
a 7.5 7.5 7.5
R1 460 R2 150
Load 3 is included in R1: =  =
a 7.5 7.5 7.5
Therefore, this load position causes the maximum bending moment at C. Using influence line
diagram of Mc, the maximum bending moment at C is calculated as
Mc = (60) (1.5)+ (180) (2.5) + (220) (3.75) + (150) (2.5) = 1740 kN.m
4.5 MAXIMUM ABSOLUTE BENDING MOMENT
The maximum absolute value of shear and moment is required for design purpose.
Absolute maximum shear will always occur at a section or panel adjacent to one of supports.
In simply supported beam subjected to a group of moving loads, the maximum bending
moment does not usually occur at midspan. Consider a simply supported beam AB subjected
to a group of moving load as shown in Fig. 4.7. It is required to determine the bending moment
under load Pm which is assumed to be maximum. Let R represents the resultant of all loads on
the beam and RL represents the resultant of all loads to the left of Pm but still on the beam. The
left end reaction RA is obtained by taking moments about B, then
RL a R x
Pm b
A B
L-x-b C.L.
RA L RB
Fig. 4.7 Load position for maximum absolute moment
Rx
RA =
L
Thus, the moment under Pm is
Rx
M = RA ( L − x − b ) − RL a = ( L − x − b ) − RL a
L
The maximum value of M is obtained by setting dM / dx = 0, or
dM R
= 0 = ( L − 2x − b )
dx L
Thus, L–x–b=x
This result states that, the centerline of the span bisect the distance between Pm and R.
For a single wheel load on the beam, this criterion implies locating the wheel load at midspan.
With more than one load on the beam, the maximum moment is always near midspan. Such
moment will occur under the load that is closest to the resultant R.
EXAMPLE 4.28
Determine the absolute maximum bending for the R = 610 kN
simply supported beam loaded as shown 60 kN 180 kN 220 kN 150 kN
1 2 3 4
0.283 0.283
R A=316.5 kN C.L. RB =293.5 kN
SOLUTION
Since load 3 is closest to the resultant R, then the loads group is placed in a position in
which the centerline of the span bisects the distance between load 3 (220 kN) and the resultant
R. Then, the distance between the resultant load and the centerline is 0.283 m. The absolute
maximum moment is calculated under load 3 (220 kN) as follow:
MMax. = (293.5) (7.217) – (150) (2.5) = 1743.3 kN.m
With reference to the previous example, the maximum possible moment at center of beam is
1740 kN.m
Problems
(a) Draw the influence lines for normal force, shearing force, and bending moment at the
indicated sections for the following structures:
a b c d
a
b c d e
3m 4m 3m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.0 m
(1) (2)
a b c d e a b c d e f g
2m 4m 4m 2m 3m 3m 3m 5m 2m 5m
(3) (4)
a b Stringer c d e f g
b Stringer d h iStringer
a j
k Girder
f Girder 3m
3m 2m 5m 4m 3m 2m2m 3m
4 at 6m = 24 m
(5) (6)
d
b c
2m f g
1 kN
a 3m
a b c d
e
2m
e 4m 4m 4m 4m
2m 2m 2m
(7) (8)
g b d e
c e c
b
d
5m
4m
a
a f
6m 2m 4m 4m
2m 5m 3m 3m
(9) (10)
f g c f g
b b
e e
c 2m
4m
a 2m
a d d
h
3m 3m 2m 4m 2m
3m 3m 2m 4m 2m
(11) (12)
(b) Draw the influence lines for normal force in marked members for the following trusses:
1 kN
c e g a c e g
1 kN
3m 3m
a h b f
b d f 1.5 m
40 kN d
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
4 at 4 m = 16m
(13) (14)
g
e i 3m f h k
3m c 3m
c k 1 kN e j m
1 kN
a 3m
a l 3m n
b d g i l
b d f h j
6 at 4 m = 24m
6 at 4 m =24 m
(15) (16)
g k o r o
c n p
5m 3m
1 kN k
b f j n j l m
5m a 3m
1 kN e i m q i
b c d e f g h
a 5m
p
d h l 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
(17) (18)
1 kN h i j
e i l
c 3m g k n 3m
g c
d e f p 3m
4m a
a b b d f h j m o
3m 8m 8m 3m 8 at 4 m 32 m
(19) (20)
g h
f
e g j 1 kN 6m
5m a
c d h k e
b d
a l 5m 6m
b f i c
4 at 10 m = 40 m 6 at 4 m =24 m
(21) (22)

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Analysis of Structures

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Analysis of Structures

Prof. Dr. Ahmed Hasan Zubydan

Prof. Dr. Ahmed Hasan Zubydan

Chapter 1 Statics of Structures 1

1.1 Supports and Reactions 1

Chapter 3 Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 103

3.1 Introduction 103

Chapter 4 Influence Lines for Statically determinate Structures 187

4.1 Introduction 187

(a) Roller support

(b) Hinge support

(c) Fixed support (d) Guide support

Fig. 1.1 Symbols for various support types

1.2 STABILITY AND DETERMINANCY

r < 3; structure is statically unstable externally

where r is the total number of unknown reaction components.

Fig. 1.2 Unstable structures

Fig. 1.3 Stable and statically determinate structures

1.3 CONDITION EQUATIONS

Some structures incorporate unique internal features of construction that significantly

r < 3 + c ; structure is statically unstable externally

Fig. 1.4 Condition equations

The number of condition equations given by an intermediate hinge depends

(a) One condition equation

(b) Two condition equations (c) Three condition equations

Fig. 1.6 Number of condition equations given by intermediate hinge.

e > 3; structure is statically unstable internally

Structures (c) and (d)

Structures (a), (b), and (c)

Structures (a), (b), and (c)

e=3 internally stable and statically determinate

Structures (a) and (b)

Structure (c) 3+c =3

Structure (a) 3+c=3

e=3 internally stable and statically determinate.

Structure (d) 3+c=3

1.4 COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS

The inclined force is shown resolved into two components.

Free body abc

Free body efi

Free body def

Free body acd

 Px = 0: (→+) – 2/2.83 Fe + 2/2.83 Fd = 0

Free body diagram

 Py = 0: (+) Yf + 4/4.47 Fa – 60 – 120 = 0

Free body diagram

 Me = 0: Ya  6 – Xa  1 + 20  4 – (15  6)  3 – 36  8/3 = 0 ……(b)

Solving (a) and (b),

 Py = 0: (+) Ya + Yg – 20 – 40 –30 – 53.67 – 35 = 0

2/3.61F be 2/3.61Fcf 2/3.61F be 2/3.61F cf

Free Body defg

 Mo = 0: 2/3.61 Fcf  4.5 – 3/3.61 Fcf  7 + 30  3 + 40  7 – 15  4.5 = 0

 Px = 0: (→+) – 2/3.61 Fbe + 2/3.61 Fcf – 15 = 0

 Py = 0: (+) Yd + 3/3.61 Fcf – 3/3.61 Fbe – 30 – 40 = 0

Free Body abc

 Ma = 0: Ma – 40  2.5 + 3/3.61 Fbe  5 – 3/3.61 Fcf  9 = 0

 Px = 0: (→+) Xa + 2/3.61 Fbe – 2/3.61 Fcf = 0

 Py = 0: (+) Ya – 40 + 3/3.61  Fbe – 3/3.61  Fbe = 0

2 m 1.5 1.5 4m 3m a 1.5 m

2.2 TRUSSES CONFIGURATION

Fig. 2.1 Examples of simple trusses

Fig. 2.2 Compound and complex trusses

2.3 CONDITION EQUATIONS

As discussed in Chapter 1, three independent reaction components can be determined for