International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)

Published online 6 February 2006 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/oa.846

Dental Status of Napoleon’s

Great Army’s (1812) Mass
Burial of Soldiers in Vilnius:
Childhood Peculiarities
and Adult Dietary Habits
Ž. PALUBECKAITĖa, R. JANKAUSKASa*, Y. ARDAGNAb, Y. MACIAb,
C. RIGEADEb, M. SIGNOLIb AND O. DUTOURb
a
Department of Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Vilnius, M. K. Čiurlionio 21, 03101, Vilnius, Lithuania
b
Unité d’anthropologie, UMR 6578 CNRS–Université de la Méditerranée,
Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France

ABSTRACT A mass grave of the soldiers of Napoleon’s Great Army, containing no less than 3269
individuals who died during the retreat from Russia in December 1812, was uncovered during
an archaeological rescue excavation in 2002 in Vilnius, Lithuania. General dental analysis,
including that of dental wear, tooth loss, caries, calculus, and periodontal diseases and
abscesses, was used to evaluate the oral health status and possible dietary patterns of
individuals who represented recruits from almost all of Western and Central Europe. Growth
conditions in childhood were studied by scoring of linear enamel hypoplasia. In all, 293
individuals (6528 teeth) were selected for the analysis; 20–30 year old males made up the
majority of the sample. Their general dental status is characteristic of young individuals: low
dental attrition and antemortem tooth loss, as well as low prevalence of calculus and
abscesses. The caries rate was average compared with late Medieval/early industrial
populations and typical for individuals with diverse diets. However, a considerable amount
of pulp caries and a high number of carious teeth in some individuals indicate consumption of
cariogenic products (e.g. sugar, sweet drinks) and poor oral hygiene. The frequency and
severity of hypoplasia was lower compared with other populations of that time, suggesting the
selection of the fittest individuals for military service; this correlates with the historically known
selection criteria of that period. Copyright ß 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: dental status; diet; enamel hypoplasia; Napoleonic Wars

Introduction about oral health, diet, and daily habits. An

Dental status analysis has proved to be a valuable
tool in the evaluation of health and diet of people
in the past. Such studies could be divided into
two main blocks. The first provides information
* Correspondence to: Department of Anatomy, Histology and
Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Vilnius,
M. K.Čiurlionio 21, 03101, Vilnius, Lithuania.
e-mail rimantas.jankauskas@mf.vu.lt
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
assessment of caries or dental decay is often
used for this purpose. Caries is a disease that
leads to a breakdown of the hard dental tissue.
Clinical studies have revealed a correlation
between caries and dietary products like sugar
and starches, which are the most cariogenic (Burt
& Ismail, 1986). Numerous palaeopathological
studies have found that the prevalence of caries
in humans increased with the introduction of
agricultural products, the greatest rise occurring
Received 13 May 2005
Revised 23 September 2005
Accepted 20 October 2005
356
in the late 18th and 19th centuries (Larsen, 1997;
Mays, 1998; Alexandersen, 2003). These changes
were connected to a marked increase in sugar
consumption and changes in flour-making tech-
nology (Corbett & Moore, 1976; Saunders et al.,
1997). Additional information about food prefer-
ences could be acquired from the location of
carious cavities; surface affect depends on basic
food items and the quality of the food (Hillson,
1986). Since dental plaque is a necessary condi-
tion for decay to develop, a prevalence of caries
also provides information about oral hygiene.
Dental plaque itself is a soft organic coating
that is not preserved in archaeological material.
However, it predisposes to calculus—calcified
dental deposits that remain adherent to the teeth
after death. Calculus could provide some protec-
tion from caries during life, but extensive deposits
irritate the gums and help to initiate periodontal
disease (Brothwell, 1972).
Periodontal disease and periapical abscesses
are mostly a consequence of caries complications,
a condition that often leads to subsequent ante-
mortem tooth loss (AMTL). Such pathological
conditions can serve as additional tools in the
evaluation of dental health. Teeth can also be lost
due to severe dental attrition, trauma or extrac-
tion. Severe dental attrition and periodontal dis-
eases were the main causes of AMTL in
prehistoric populations (Bennike, 1985; Meikle-
john & Zvelebil, 1991). Medieval and modern
populations show less pronounced tooth wear
due to changes in food preparation, thus dental
diseases emerged as the crucial factor in ante-
mortem tooth loss (Larsen, 1997).
The second trend of dental studies concerns
life conditions in childhood. A non-specific stress
indicator—linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH)—
is most often used for this purpose. The condition
appears due to disturbances in enamel formation
during tooth development (Skinner & Goodman,
1992). Enamel formation could cease due to
various factors that affect a child’s growth, such
as weaning, malnutrition, infections, hereditary
diseases, and others (Pindborg, 1970). If the child
recovers, enamel formation continues, leaving a
line as a sign of experienced stress. As LEH
reflects periods of non-specific stress, it is con-
sidered a good indicator of growth conditions
and general stress levels of a population (Skinner
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ž. Palubeckaitė et al.
& Goodman, 1992; Larsen, 1997). When survey-
ing all the years during which permanent teeth
have been developing, and taking into account
varying sensitivity of teeth to growth distur-
bances (Goodman & Armelagos, 1985), only
those individuals with at least four anterior teeth
are usually included in the LEH analysis. Despite
numerous studies, however, disagreement still
remains as to the interpretation of the results.
On the one hand, a population with numerous
LEH could represent disadvantaged individuals
who were exposed to numerous stresses as a result
of poor social status and/or difficult life condi-
tions (Goodman et al., 1983; Duray, 1996). On
the other hand, LEH occurrence means that an
individual had recovered from stress; thus, he/she
must have had better living conditions and/or a
high resistance (Lewis & Roberts, 1997; Arcini,
1999).
The military origin of the sample can provide
information about health and daily habits of
soldiers at that time. It is generally considered
that life in the army of the 18th and 19th
countries was detrimental to one’s health. It
involved bad food, hard work, and a lack of
sanitation (Sledzik & Sandberg, 2002). According
to these authors, the army apparently had
managed to take young men who were of
above-average health and convert them into
unhealthy soldiers. Dental status is a good test
of this supposition, because dental lesions occur
in a short time and depend on several factors,
including diet, hygiene, and the general health of
an individual.
Although dental studies conducted on Medieval
populations are numerous, materials from the
early industrialisation period are quite scarce.
The aim of our study was to evaluate the dental
health of Napoleon’s Great Army, who died
mostly from cold, exhaustion and starvation in
December 1812 in Vilnius during Napoleon’s
Russian campaign. Individuals found in the mass
grave (the estimated minimum number of indivi-
duals is 3269, with males constituting over 96%
of the sample) in Vilnius represent a unique
sample of individuals from almost all of Western
and Central Europe from the early 19th century
(Signoli et al., 2004). This study is therefore a
good opportunity to fill in the gap in dental
analyses of early modern European populations.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
Dental Status of Napoleon’s Great Army
Materials and methods
The age and sex of each individual was deter-
mined according to standard morphological
criteria (Workshop of European Anthropologists,
1980). In all, 293 adult males (6528 permanent
teeth) of known age were used for the analysis.
Dental status analysis included that of teeth loss,
attrition, caries, calculus, abscesses and enamel
hypoplasia.
Incidence of tooth loss was determined in all
cases where the alveolar bone was present. A
tooth was recorded as lost antemortem (before
death) if its alveolus had been partly or comple-
tely closed. If there was no trace of alveolar
remodelling, the tooth was recorded as lost
postmortem (after death). Prevalence of antemor-
tem tooth loss (AMTL) and postmortem tooth
loss (PMTL) was computed on the basis of
the number of tooth sockets available. Results
of the analysis are shown as the number and
percentage of lost teeth in relation to the tooth
type and to the age at death.
Dental attrition was recorded according to
Smith (1984). Results are shown as the average
degree for each tooth category by age group.
The presence of caries was determined macro-
scopically using a dental probe, by the commonly
accepted clinical evaluation. A tooth was recorded
as carious if there was a discolouration (brown
spots) or disintegration of the external surface of
the enamel or cementum. Brown spots on a tooth
crown are considered arrested caries and often
omitted from dental studies (Hillson, 1996).
Nevertheless, we think it is proper to record all
possible manifestations of decay, as they do pro-
vide information about oral health. The penetra-
tion and location of cavities were recorded. Three
grades of penetration were defined: enamel/
cementum caries (including brown spots), dentine
caries, and pulp caries. A cavity’s location was
defined according to the corresponding surface it
affected: occlusal, approximal (contact), buccal or
cervical. In the case of extensive decay where it
was not possible to determine the initial surface,
the caries was defined as gross. The results are
given in the number and percentage of affected
individuals and teeth. The location of caries was
calculated from all particular surfaces at risk
according to Hillson (1996).
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
357
Abscesses were recorded for all teeth according
to Brothwell (1972). The results are shown as the
number and percentage of affected individuals.
Calculus was recorded for all teeth according
to Brothwell (1972), as modified by Schultz
(1988): 1st degree—slight (less than 1/3 of a
crown covered); 2nd degree—medium (1/3–2/3
of a crown covered); 3rd degree—considerable
(more than 2/3 of a crown covered). The results
are shown as the number and percentage of
affected individuals.
Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) was recorded
macroscopically on all permanent teeth. Our aim
was to survey all the years during which perma-
nent teeth were developing. The severity of hypo-
plasia was recorded according to Schultz (1988):
1st degree—mild; 2nd degree—moderate; 3rd
degree—severe. Individuals were scored accord-
ing to the most severe degree. The number of
stress episodes per individual and age at which
hypoplasia formed were also defined. The age of
LEH formation was determined according to
Massler et al. (1941), with correction for anterior
teeth proposed by Reid and Dean (2000). If the
LEH on several teeth of the same individual
matched their age at formation, they were defined
as one stress episode. The results are shown as the
number and percentage of affected individuals, the
average number of stress episodes per individual,
and the average degree of hypoplasia.
Statistical analyses were performed using
the SPSS statistical package (chi-square test,
Student’s t-test, ANOVA procedures).
Results
The analysis of age at death distribution revealed
that the average age at death was low—88% of
all the individuals were less than 35 years old at
the time of death; the mean age at death was 26.0
years (range from 15–55 years) (Signoli et al.,
2004). Although only a small number of skeletons
were exhumed as individuals during the salvage
excavation, they were collected as thoroughly as
possible (Signoli et al., 2004). The average num-
ber of preserved teeth per skull was 22.3
5.9.
Only 12.5% of the teeth were recorded as lost
postmortem. Central incisors were the most fre-
quently lost teeth (32.2–34.9%), followed by
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
358 Ž. Palubeckaitė et al.
Table 1. Prevalence of tooth loss, caries and abscesses related to tooth type and dentition (right and left sides
combined)

PMTL AMTL Caries Abscesses

No. of No. of
sockets teeth n % n % n % n %

Upper teeth
I1 498 323 175 34.9 0 0 16 5.0* 4 1.2*
I2 504 418 82 16.3 4 0.8 24 5.7** 4 1.0*
C 508 454 46 9.0 1 0.2 13 3.1* 4 0.9*
Pm1 506 470 31 6.1 5 1.0 58 12.4** 9 1.9*
Pm2 505 455 41 8.1 9 1.8 73 16.1 3 0.7*
M1 498 444 28 5.6** 26 5.2** 103 23.2 21 4.7
M2 482 453 24 5.0** 5 1.1** 100 22.1 5 1.1
M3 376 285 56 14.8** 11 2.9** 36 12.7 0 0
Total 3877 3302 483 12.5 61 1.6** 424 13.3** 50 1.5*
Lower teeth
I1 481 323 156 32.2 2 0.4 0 0 0 0
I2 490 395 94 19.2 1 0.2 1 0.3 0 0
C 498 434 64 12.9 0 0 1 0.3 0 0
Pm1 491 448 40 8.2 3 0.6 15 3.3 0 0
Pm2 490 450 28 5.7 12 2.4 56 12.5 0 0
M1 487 424 11 2.2 52 10.7 110 26.0 16 3.8
M2 490 442 12 2.3 36 7.4 111 25.1 5 1.1
M3 400 310 30 7.5 39 9.8 32 10.4 0 0
Total 3827 3226 435 11.4 145 3.8 326 10.1 21 0.7

*Difference significant between corresponding upper and lower teeth (P < 0.05).
**Difference significant between corresponding upper and lower teeth (P < 0.01).

lateral incisors (16.3–19.2%) and third molars
(7.5–14.8%). The lowest postmortem tooth loss
was recorded for the first and the second lower
molars (2.3%). The right and left sides of the
dentition did not differ significantly in PMTL
rates. Upper/lower tooth loss differences were
significant only for molars: maxillary molars had
greater PMTL rates than corresponding mandib-
ular teeth (P < 0.01). The results are presented in
Table 1.
Antemortem tooth loss was low. Although
33.1% of individuals had at least one tooth
lost before death, in all only 2.7% of the
teeth were lost antemortem. No significant
differences were detected between the left and
the right sides of the dentition. Maxillary and
mandibular AMTL rates did not differ in the
anterior teeth and premolars. However, analysis
of the molars revealed a statistical difference:
the lower teeth were affected more frequently
than the upper ones (P < 0.01). Overall, lower
molars represented the most frequent antemor-
tem tooth loss (Table 1). Only a few cases of
antemortem tooth loss were detected for ante-
rior teeth. An analysis of age influence on the
tooth loss revealed a statistically significant
increase in AMTL with the age at death
(P < 0.01) (Table 2).

Table 2. Prevalence of caries and antemortem tooth loss in different age groups

Caries AMTL

No. of No. of No. of Individuals Teeth Individuals Teeth

Age group indiv. teeth sockets affected* n (%) affected* n (%) affected** n (%) affected** n (%)

<25 149 3460 4005 96 (64.4) 363 (10.5) 33 (22.2) 60 (1.5)

25–35 109 2352 2793 77 (70.6) 290 (12.3) 42 (38.5) 84 (3.1)
>35 35 716 906 28 (80.0) 97 (13.6) 22 (62.9) 62 (6.8)
Total 293 6528 7704 201 (68.6) 750 (11.5) 97 (33.1) 206 (2.7)

*Difference significant between the 1st and the 3rd age groups (P < 0.05).
**Difference significant between all age groups (P < 0.01).

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
Dental Status of Napoleon’s Great Army 359

Figure 1. Tooth wear in different age groups (upper and lower dentition combined).

Dental attrition was low. The greatest wear
was detected for the first molars and central
incisors—the teeth that erupted the earliest.
Tooth wear slightly increased with age in all
teeth groups, suggesting equal masticatory use
of all teeth (Figure 1). However, the dentition of
at least two individuals displayed rounded
notches that formed an opening (Figure 2). The
opening corresponds to a clay pipe stem and
represents habitual pipe smoking. This habit
became popular in Europe from the 16th century
and was recorded in several skeletal populations,
including those of the same period (Meyer, 2003;
Newell, 2003). Darkly stained tartar rims found
on the teeth of some individuals could be addi-
tional evidence of habitual tobacco use (Macia,
2003).
Almost 70% of individuals had at least one
carious tooth (Table 2). In all, 11.5% of the teeth
were affected. The number of carious teeth per
individual ranged from 0 to 14, with 2.6 carious
teeth per mouth on average. Upper teeth were
significantly more affected than the lower ones
(P < 0.01). The greatest prevalence of caries was
detected for the first and the second molars, with
no significant difference between right/left sides
or upper/lower dentition. Anterior teeth were the
least affected, and among those, upper incisors
and canines had a significantly greater incidence
of decay than their lower counterparts (Table 1).
The number of affected individuals and affected
teeth increased with age, but significant differ-
ences were obtained only between the youngest
versus the oldest age groups (Table 2). The
majority of lesions affected only enamel or
cementum. However, 17.6% of the caries were
severe enough to affect the pulp cavity (Table 3).
The degree of decay significantly depended on

Table 3. Penetration of caries in different age groups

(n ¼ number of carious teeth)

Age Enamel/cementum Dentine Pulp

group caries* n (%) caries* n (%) caries n (%)

<25 248 (61.2) 89 (22.0) 68 (16.8)

25–35 211 (64.3) 61 (18.6) 56 (17.1)
>35 45 (43.3) 36 (34.6) 23 (22.1)
Total 504 (60.2) 186 (22.2) 147 (17.6)

Figure 2. Rounded notch in occlusion due to habitual *Differences significant between the 1st–2nd and the 3rd
pipe smoking (individual no. 2/130, male, 20–25 years). age groups (P < 0.05).

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
360 Ž. Palubeckaitė et al.
Table 4. Location of caries in relation to surface at risk (n ¼ number of surfaces affected)

Occlusal Approximal Buccal Cervical Gross

Age group caries* n(%) caries n(%) caries n(%) caries n(%) caries n(%)

<25 85 (3.9) 231 (3.5) 12 (0.4) 24 (0.7) 53 (1.5)

25–35 110 (7.5) 137 (3.1) 13 (0.6) 24 (1.1) 44 (1.9)
>35 23 (5.1) 45 (3.3) 5 (0.7) 22 (1.7) 19 (2.7)
Total 218 (5.2) 413 (3.3) 30 (0.5) 60 (0.9) 116 (1.8)

*Differences significant between all age groups (P < 0.05).

the age at death: individuals over 35 years of age
had a lower number of enamel caries and a higher
number with dentine affected compared with
younger individuals (P < 0.05). An analysis of
caries location revealed that the occlusal surface
was the most frequently affected, followed by
the approximal (contact) surface (Table 4). The
number of occlusal lesions increased in the 25–35
year age group and decreased again in the age
group over 35 years. These changes are statisti-
cally significant (P < 0.01). Changes in other
sites of affect are not significant, although a trend
could be noted for the increase in cervical and
gross caries in the older age groups.
Of all the individuals, 18.4% had at least one
periapical abscess; 1.1% of teeth were affected.
Maxillary teeth were significantly more affected
than mandibular teeth (P < 0.05) (Table 1). The
first upper molar had the greatest number of
abscesses (4.7%), followed by the first lower
molar (3.8%). No abscesses were detected for
the lower anterior teeth, the lower premolars, nor
any of the third molars. The analysis of age
influence revealed a slight, but insignificant
increase in the number of affected individuals
older than 25 years (Table 5).
Prevalence of calculus was low. The majority
of individuals had only traces of tartar; only 7.2%
of individuals had calculus of medium to
considerable degree (Table 5). The analysis of
age influence revealed no significant changes in
prevalence of calculus.
Some specific cases of dental status were
recorded. Two individuals had a congenital
absence of lower lateral incisors. Eight indivi-
duals had impacted maxillary permanent canines:
three of them had both and another five had only
the right canine impacted. In all, impacted
canines made up 1.4% of all upper canines.
According to clinical studies, permanent maxil-
lary canines are the second most frequently
impacted teeth; the prevalence of their impaction
is 1–2% in the general population (Richardson &
Russell, 2000). Two cases of deciduous tooth
retention were noticed: one individual still had
his upper right milk canine, while another indi-
vidual still had both upper milk canines. Both of
these individuals also had impacted permanent
upper canines.
Of the total sample, 78.5% had at least one
hypoplasia. The majority of individuals had 1–2
stress episodes; the average frequency of stress
episodes was 1.72
1.31 per individual. The
severity of hypoplasia was low; the majority of
individuals had a mild to moderate degree of
LEH, with an average of 1.32
0.87 degrees.
The peak of hypoplasia formation was at 3 to
4 years of life.

Table 5. Prevalence of abscesses and calculus in different age groups

Calculus

Age group No. of indiv. Abscesses n (%) Slight n (%) Moderate n (%) Considerable n (%)

<25 149 25 (16.8) 140 (94.0) 9 (6.0) 0

25–35 109 22 (20.2) 102 (93.6) 5 (4.6) 2 (1.8)
>35 35 7 (20.0) 30 (85.7) 5 (14.3) 0
Total 293 54 (18.4) 272 (92.8) 21 (6.5) 2 (0.7)

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
Dental Status of Napoleon’s Great Army 361

Discussion considered an eccentric habit up till the late 19th

Our analysis of dental status revealed low dental
attrition, low antemortem tooth loss, and a low
prevalence of calculus and abscesses. All of these
features are typical of young individuals and could
indicate good dental health among Napoleon’s
soldiers. However, the analysis of caries raised
some doubt. Although the total caries rate was
average, a substantial amount of pulp caries and a
high number of carious teeth in some individuals
suggest increased vulnerability to disease.
A prevalence of caries depends on several
factors: diet, oral hygiene, the fluoride level in
drinking water, and general immune status (Burt
& Ismail, 1986). Nowadays oral hygiene is one of
the most important factors in the prevention of
caries. However, in the early 19th century oral
hygiene was practically neglected. Although the
toothbrush was known in Europe since the end of
the 18th century, daily brushing of teeth was
century. A list of knapsack contents of a French
fusilier included three different brushes, but not
one toothbrush (Magueron, 1897–1906). Medi-
cal dental care was provided, but only in cases of
severe pain, and usually consisted of pulling out
decayed teeth (Wols & Baker, 2004).
Diet is another important factor in discussing
the prevalence of decay. Corbett and Moore
(1976) have observed an increase in the total
frequency of cavities and proportion of cavities in
the occlusal and approximal contact areas in the
British population. They argue that these trends
probably began in the late Middle Ages and were
certainly well established by the 17th century.
According to these authors, secular changes in
the prevalence and distribution of caries coin-
cided with the increase in the consumption of
sugar and other refined carbohydrates (Corbett &
Moore, 1976). Figure 3 shows the caries rate and
antemortem tooth loss of selected European

Figure 3. Caries rate and antemortem tooth loss in select late Medieval and early modern populations in Europe,
together with those of North American 19th century military and Napoleon’s Great Army samples. Only individuals of
16–35 years were selected.
1
Varrela (1991); 2Kerr et al. (1990); 3Šlaus (2000); 4Lingström & Borrman (1999); 5Moore & Corbett (1975); 6Whittaker &
Molleson (1996); 7Corbett & Moore (1976); 8,9,10Sledzik, Sandberg (2002); 11Present study.

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
362
populations, military samples from North
America, and the present study. To avoid a
possible influence of age at death on caries and
AMTL rates, only the data of young adults (less
than 35 years) were used for comparison. It is
noticeable that the caries rate of Napoleon’s
soldiers is close to that of late medieval popula-
tions from North and Central Europe, which
were characterised by poor oral hygiene and a
diet based mostly on carbohydrates, but with low
consumption of sugar (Moore & Corbett, 1975;
Kerr et al., 1990; Varrela, 1991; Lingström &
Borrman, 1999; Šlaus, 2000). This could suggest
that the diet of Napoleon’s soldiers consisted of
products of low cariogenicity. Moreover, the
caries rate of the Great Army was much lower
compared with early modern British populations,
which are characterised by a high consumption
of sugar and refined carbohydrates (Corbett &
Moore, 1976; Whittaker & Molleson, 1996).
Indeed, the majority of lesions in our sample
were at the early stage, either affecting only
enamel or being at the stage of arrested caries.
However, 17.6% of the lesions were severe
enough to affect the pulp cavity. About 10% of
all the individuals had five or more carious teeth
each. Taking into account the low average age at
death of the sample, this might suggest an
aggressive rate of decay and cariogenous items
in the diet. An analysis of the location of cavities
revealed that the occlusal surface was the most
affected, followed by the approximal contact
area. Lesions on these surfaces serve as indicators
of soft, non-abrasive food that sticks to the teeth
and remains adherent long enough to cause
decay (Hillson, 1986).
According to the literature, wartime diet relied
heavily on carbohydrates such as bread, biscuits,
flour and grouts (Pugačiauskas, 2004; Wols &
Baker, 2004). Meat was included in the diet, but
was served in low quantities. Fresh vegetables and
fruits, as well as meat and other products, were
occasionally foraged, purchased or taken as spoils
of war. However, considering the great number
of soldiers in the army, the local population was
not always able to provide a sufficient amount
of fresh food. In general, the diet consumed by
most soldiers was of poor quality and did not
satisfy the caloric requirements for an adult man
(Sledzik & Sandberg, 2002). It is known that
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ž. Palubeckaitė et al.
individuals with a poor immune system and/or
who are exposed to frequent stresses are more
susceptible to caries and other oral diseases. Poor
sanitation in camps, long marches with heavy
loads, and the poor quality of diet could make
individuals less resistant to oral disease and
increase the rate of caries. There is no evidence
that sugar, the most cariogenous product, was a
common dietary item of the soldiers. It was
actually a luxury, and one that was used in great
amounts when it was available. In his memoirs
about the Moscow campaign in 1812, Sergeant
Bourgogne (Mémoires . . . , 1992) described drink-
ing punch: soldiers found a substantial amount
of sugar in a grocery, and during the month of
their stay in Moscow they made punch in a huge
bowl three to four times a day. The life of soldiers
was composed of alternating periods of half-
starvation and feasts. This, in concert with poor
oral hygiene, could increase the risk of caries.
Was the dental status of the soldiers influenced
by their former living conditions? Early industrial
times were characterised by an increase in the
consumption of sugar and refined carbohydrates.
The amount of sugar eaten per year, however,
varied greatly. In Britain it reached 6.7 kg per
individual in 1792, but in France it did not exceed
1.2 kg until the end of the 18th century (de
Lemps, 1996). Caries at that time was a disease
of older people, thus it would be unreasonable
to expect a high caries rate in young recruits.
Moreover, evidence shows that dental loss and
bad dental health was a reason for discharge
(Sledzik & Sandberg, 2002). Although we do
not know what part of the Great Army consisted
of recruits drafted in the War of 1812, it is highly
possible that the majority of soldiers had started
their service much earlier in other military cam-
paigns. Thus, we argue that the dietary habits of
military life were mostly responsible for the
dental status of the soldiers.
Regarding the growth conditions of
Napoleon’s soldiers, 78.5% of the individuals
had LEH. This percentage is lower than that for
individuals of low social status from 19th century
Florence (Moggi-Cecchi et al., 1994) or of
ordinary townsmen from 17th century Vilnius
(Palubeckaitė et al., 2002). A low number
of affected individuals (i.e. those with a low
frequency and severity of hypoplasia) could be
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
Dental Status of Napoleon’s Great Army
interpreted in two ways. These individuals could
have had better living conditions and less stress-
ful growth. Alternatively, they could represent
part of a disadvantaged population with a high
stress level and high mortality rates of children.
In the latter case, according to the ‘osteological
paradox’ (Wood et al., 1992), the majority of
children who had experienced stress would
have died without developing LEH. Unfortu-
nately, we cannot say much about the social
origin of the individuals in this study. They
came from various social groups and various
homes. The one unifying feature is their military
service. As mentioned above, literature sources
indicate high standards for conscription into the
army; only the healthiest individuals without
diseases and bodily deformities were selected
(Sledzik & Sandberg, 2002; Thierry Vette, perso-
nal communication). Thus, the low prevalence of
LEH in our sample most likely represents the
fittest individuals who lived through unstressful
periods or managed to recover from experienced
stress. The fact that the recruits of Napoleon’s
army had a frequency and severity of hypoplasia
close to that of Vilnius aristocracy of the 16–18th
centuries (Palubeckaitė et al., 2002) could be
additional evidence. It is interesting that the
soldiers of Napoleon’s Great Army had a much
higher prevalence of hypoplasia than military
samples from 19th century North America, where
only 26.1% of individuals were affected (Sledzik
& Sandberg, 2002). This might be due to different
methods of recording LEH, although the exis-
tence of specific differences in stress patterns
cannot be excluded altogether.
A lack of information about the origins of the
recruits, as well as the uniform age profile of the
dead, precludes the sample’s child mortality from
direct analysis. However, palaeodemographic
studies indicate a decrease in child mortality at
the end of the 18th century. This tendency, with
a difference in degree of affect, was noticed for
the greater part of Western Europe, regardless of
the population’s social and economic status and
despite the economic instability of that time.
Perrenoud (1997) noted that infant mortality
had decreased by 30% in France from 1790 to
1809, while the mortality of children under
four years of age had decreased by 47%.
Perrenoud argued that improved medical care
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
363
such as vaccination did have an effect on infant
survival, but the main cause of the decrease in
mortality was climatic changes. According to
him, a decrease in temperature (the so-called
‘Little Ice Age’) reduced the possibility of infec-
tions and parasitic diseases which were the main
cause of child mortality during the summer time.
Such changes in child mortality profiles could
support our hypothesis that a low frequency
and severity of hypoplasia in the recruits of
Napoleon’s Great Army did not result from
higher mortality of highly stressed individuals.
Our analysis revealed a peak of hypoplasia
formation in the third year of life. Many authors
have found that 2–4 years of life is the most
common time of LEH formation in Medieval and
early modern populations. Some authors relate it
directly to the physiological stress caused by
weaning (Corrucini et al., 1985; Lanphear, 1990;
Moggi-Cecchi et al., 1994). Changes in nutri-
tional habits definitely influence a child’s health.
However, the time of weaning varies significantly
between populations and cannot be the only
explanation of the similarities in LEH chronology
(Judkins & Baker, 1996; Katzenberg et al., 1996). It
is more likely that the peak of hypoplasia forma-
tion is a combined result of the increased vulner-
ability of children, probably due to childhood
diseases like measles, scarlet fever and mumps,
which coincided with the time of formation of
the most susceptible anterior teeth (Goodman,
1988; Skinner & Goodman, 1992; Wood, 1996).
Conclusions
The general dental status of Napoleon’s Great
Army buried at Vilnius was found to be charac-
teristic of young individuals: low dental attrition
and antemortem tooth loss as well as a low
prevalence of calculus and abscesses. The caries
rate was average compared with late Medieval/
early industrial populations, and typical for
individuals with diverse diets. However, a con-
siderable amount of pulp caries and a high
number of carious teeth in some individuals
indicate the consumption of cariogenic products
(e.g. sugar, sweet drinks) and poor oral hygiene.
A low frequency and severity of hypoplasia
suggests a selection of the fittest individuals for
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 355–365 (2006)
364
military service. This corresponds with the
historically known selection criteria of that
period.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to
Thierry Vette for sharing historical data, re-
viewers of the manuscript for valuable discussion
and suggestions, and Dr Indre Antanaitis-Jacobs
for editing of English language. The study was
supported by the Lithuanian–French programme
of bilateral cooperation ‘Gilibert’.
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