B.Sc Engg.

Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Equations of alternating voltage and current:

Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotation in a uniform
magnetic field 𝜙𝑚 with an angular velocity 𝜔 rad/sec as shown in fig-1.
Maximum flux link with coil when it plane coincide with X-axis. At any
other position the flux linkage of the coil will be

𝑁𝜙 = 𝑁𝜙𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
Now according to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
𝑑
𝑒 = −𝑁 (𝛷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝑁𝛷𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 Figure 1: A coil rotation in magnetic
Induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 will be maximum at 𝜃 = 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 field produces emf

𝑒𝑚 = 𝜔N𝛷𝑚 = 𝜔N 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

Where 𝐵𝑚 the maximum is flux density and 𝐴 is the area of the coil.
∴ 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
The equation of current can be written as
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐴𝑚𝑝

Problem: A square coil of 10 cm side and 100 turns is rotated in a uniform speed of 1000 rpm about an axis at
right angle to a uniform magnetic field of 0.5 𝑊𝑏/m2. Calculate induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 when the plane of the coil is (i) at
right angle to the B and (ii) in the plane of the field.
Solution: maximum value of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
and instantaneous value of 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1000 50
Now 𝑓 = = 𝑟𝑝𝑠, 𝑁 = 100 , 𝐵𝑚 = 0.5 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2, 𝐴 = 10−2 𝑐𝑚2
60 3

(i) in this case 𝜃 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚 sin 𝜃 = 0 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

(ii) in this case 𝜃 = 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

50 𝑊𝑏
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚 = 2𝜋 × 𝑟𝑝𝑠 × 100 × 0.5 2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚2
3 𝑚
= 52.30 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

Figure 2: AC

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Phase of an AC: If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°, the
expression becomes 𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃)

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive going
(Increasing with time) slope before 0°, as shown in Fig. 3a, the
expression is (a)

𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

At 𝜔𝑡 =0°, the magnitude is determined by 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜃.

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive-going
(b)
slope after 0°, as shown in Fig. 3b, the expression is
𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) Figure 3: Phase of an AC

Phase difference: The terms leading and lagging are used to

indicate the relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the
same frequency plotted on the same set of axes. In Fig. 4, the cosine
curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90°, and the sine curve is said
to lag the cosine curve by 90°. The 90° is referred to as the phase
angle between the two waveforms.
Figure 4: Phase difference between two AC
If the equation of sine wave is quantities

𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 then the equation of the cosine wave will be

𝜋
𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )

Root-mean-square (RMS) value of AC: The 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value

of an alternation current is given by that steady (DC)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a
given time produces the same heat as produced by the
Figure 5: Illustration for defining the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value of ac quantity
alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time. It is illustrated in fig-5.
𝐼𝑚
If 𝐼𝑚 is the maximum value of an pure sinusoidal wave then its rms value will be 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707 𝐼𝑚
√2

It is also known as effective value. The 𝑟𝑚𝑠 values of common wave shapes (sine wave, square wave and
triangular wave) are given below:

Average value of an alternating current: The average value of an alternation current is expressed by that steady
(DC) current which transfers the same charge across any circuit as is transferred by that alternating current during
the same time. For symmetrical wave, its value is always determined on half-cycle.

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Problem: calculate the average and effective value of the square wave as shown in fig-6
Solution: 𝑣 = 20 volt in the interval 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0.1 second
But in the interval 𝑡 = 0.1 to 𝑡 = 0.3 second, 𝑣 = 0 volt
And time period of the voltage 𝑇 = 0.3 second
Average value of the wave:
1 𝑡 1 0.1 20 × 0.1
∴ 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 20 𝑑𝑡 = = 6.67 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑇 0 0.3 0 0.3
Figure 6: Square wave
The effective/rms value of the wave:
1 𝑡 2 1 0.1 400 × 0.1
∴ 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (20)2 𝑑𝑡 = = 133.33 volt
𝑇 0 0.3 0 0.3

Representation of vector quantities:

(i) Symbolic notation (rectangular or Cartesian) 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎 ± 𝑗𝑏
(ii) Trigonometrical form 𝐸⃗ = E cos𝜃 ± 𝐸 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(iii) Exponential form 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 Figure 7: vector representation
(iv) Polar form 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸∠ ± 𝜃
𝑏
The magnitude can be calculated as E = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 and the angle is 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑎

Problem-1: Write the equivalent exponential and polar for the vector 𝐸⃗ = 3 + 𝑗4 and represent graphically
Solution: magnitude of the vector E = √32 + 42 = 5
4
Angle is given by 𝜃 = tan−1 = 53.1𝑜
3
𝑜
Exponential for of the vector is 𝐸⃗ = 5𝑒 +𝑗 53.1
Polar form is given by 𝐸⃗ = 5 ∠53.1𝑜 is shown in fig-7
2𝜋
Problem-2: Write the various equivalent forms of the vector 𝐸⃗ = 20 𝑒 −𝑗 3 and also draw it
Solution: magnitude 𝐸 = 20 and 𝜃 = 120 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

(i) 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 : 𝐸⃗ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 = Ecos𝜃 − 𝑗𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where 𝑎 = 20 cos 120𝑜 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 20 sin 120𝑜 = −17.32

Expression will be −10 − 𝑗 17.32

(ii) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∶ 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸∠𝜃

Expression will be 20 ∠ − 120𝑜 Figure 8: vector representation of

2𝜋
vector 𝐸⃗ = 20 𝑒 −𝑗 3
The vectors are shown in figure -8

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Problem-3: Convert the following from polar to rectangular form: C = 10 ∠45°

As shown in fig-9.
Solution : X = 10 cos 45° = (10)(0.707) = 7.07
Y = 10 sin 45° = (10)(0.707) = 7.07
and C = 7.07 = j7.07
Figure 9: vector representation of
Problem-4: Convert the following from rectangular to polar form: 10 ∠ 45𝑜
C = ─ 6 + j3 (fig-10)
Solution:

Figure 10: representation of vector

Problem-5: Find a. Find C1 ⋅ C2 if C1 = 5 ∠20° and C2 = 10 ∠30°

b. Find C1 ⋅ C2 if C1 = 2 ∠40° and C2 = 7 ∠120°

Solution:

Problem-6:
Solution: (a)
a. Find C1/C2 if C1 = 1 + j4 and C2= 4 + j5.
b. Find C1/C2 if C1 = ─ 4 ─ j8 and C2 = 6 ─ j1

(b)

Problem-7: Using complex algebra, find the current i for the circuit in Fig.
11. Sketch the 𝑣 and i curves.
Solution:

Figure 11: AC Current through

inductor
The waveforms of 𝑣 and 𝑖 are shown in fig-12.
The Phasor diagram is shown in fig-13

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Figure-12: Waveforms of 𝑣 and 𝒊 Figure-13: Phasor diagram Figure-14: Current through capacitor

Problem-8: Using the complex algebra, find the current 𝑖 for the circuit as shown in fig-14. Sketch the 𝑣 and
𝑖 curves (Remember all bolt faced letter represents vector)
Solution: 𝑣 = 15 sin 𝜔𝑡
Fig-15a
15
⃗ =
⟹ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑉 0
𝑉∠0 = 10.605𝑉∠0 0
√2
⃗⃗
𝑉 10.605𝑉∠00 0
𝐼= = 0 = 5.303𝐴∠90
𝑍𝐶 2Ω ∠ − 90
0 0
𝑖 = √2(5.303)𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 90 ) = 7.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 90 )

Current and voltage curves and Phasor diagram are shown in fig-15a and 15b
Fig-15b
RLC series resonance circuit: When a resistor is connected in series with an
inductor and capacitor, then the circuit is called series resonant circuit as
shown in fig-16.

Voltage drop across R is 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅; Voltage drop across L is 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 and

Voltage drop across C is 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶

Where 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 are the inductive and capacitive reactance of L and C.

From impedance triangle as shown in fig-18, total impedance of the
circuit is given by

𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋 )2 Figure 16: Series resonance circuit

Net reactance of the circuit is 𝑋 = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) . Current of the circuit is
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑍 √𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
2

Figure-17: Impedance triangle of RLC circuit

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

Resonance of RLC circuit: For some frequency of applied voltage 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 . This condition is called resonance
condition of the circuit.
1 1
2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = , ∴ 𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑓𝑜 is called the resonance frequency. At resonance, the impedance
becomes 𝑍 = 𝑅 (fig-18)
Resonance curve : Current and impedance of an RLC circuit are
changed with frequency. This variation curve is called frequency
response curve or resonance curve as shown in fig-19. The
bandwidth is defined as ∆𝑓 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
𝑓𝑜
The quality factor of the circuit is defined as
Figure 18: variation of various parameters of RLC
𝜔𝑜 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅
It is seen that the quality factor of the circuit is dependent on the value of R. The R dependent quality factor curve
is shown in fig-20.

Figure-19: Resonance curve of RLC circuit Figure-20: R dependent Q-factor

Active, reactive and apparent power:

Apparent Power (S): It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and current

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = (𝐼𝑍) I =𝐼2 Z Volt-Ampere (VA)

Active power (P or W): Power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance

𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Reactive power (Q): It is the power developed in the reactive components (Inductor or capacitor)

𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑋 = 𝐼2 𝑍 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 𝐼 (𝐼𝑍)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 Volt-Ampere-Reactive (VAR)

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 B.Sc Engg. Part-1 Odd Semester Examination 2018 (Final)

The relation among the powers is shown in the power triangle (fig-21 )

𝑆 = √𝑃⃗2 + 𝑄
⃗2

Power factor (Fp) An indication of how reactive or resistive an electrical system

is. The higher the power factor, the greater the resistive component.
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 ⋅ 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
√𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐
Figure-21: various powers in
The factor that has significant control over the delivered power level is the 𝑠 𝜃 . power triangle
No matter how large the voltage or current, if 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0, the power is zero; if
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1, the power delivered is a maximum. Since it has such control, the expression was given the name power
factor and is defined by, 𝑭𝒑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

Methods of Power Factor Improvement

1. Static Capacitor

We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take lagging current which decrease
the system power factor. For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel with
those devices which work on low power factor.

2. Synchronous Condenser

When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then it’s called a synchronous Condenser.
Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides leading current and works like a capacitor

3. Phase Advancer

Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and operates with the
motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used to improve the power factor of induction
motor in industries.

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