B.Sc. Engg.

Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Linear wave shaping: If a non-sinusoidal wave is transmitted through a linear

network, then the shape of the output waveform is different from the shape of
the input waveform. Such a shaping of input waveform by linear network is
called linear wave shaping.

Properties of step wave: The value is zero for all the time 𝑡 < 0 Figure 1: Step signal
And maintain the value 𝑉 for 𝑡 > 0
Symbolically, 𝑣𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 −

𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 +
Response of RC high pass circuit to step input:
Apply KVL to the circuit as shown in fig-2
𝑞 Figure 2: High pass RC circuit
𝑣𝑖 − ⁄𝐶 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0

𝑑𝑣𝑜⁄ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑖⁄
𝑑𝑡 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑖⁄
For step input 𝑑𝑡 = 0
The solution of the above equation can be found
by integration
𝑡
ln 𝑣𝑜 = − +𝑘
𝑅𝐶
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉,
Therefore the solution for step input is
−𝑡⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶
Figure 3: Step input response of high pass RC circuit
𝑣𝑜 −𝑡
⁄𝑉 = 𝑒 ⁄𝜏 = 𝑒 −𝑥

It is seen that the output is changed more than 95% of total change occurs after 3 and more than 99%
after 5.
Properties of pulse wave:
The value is zero for all the time 𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑃
And maintain the value 𝑉 for 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃
Symbolically, 𝑣𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃 +
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡 = 0 + 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃 − Figure 4: A Pulse wave

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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Response of RC high pass circuit to pulse input:

The response of RC high pass circuit to a pulse input in the

interval 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑃 is the same as step input (because pulse
input can be considered to the sum of step voltage 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉
whose discontinuity occurs at 𝑡 = 0 and a step voltage 𝑣𝑖 =
−𝑉 whose discontinuity occurs 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃 )
−𝑡⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶 in the range 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑃
At the end of the input pulse the output
−𝑡𝑝
⁄
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶
Figure 5: A pulse and response of RC high
At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃 + the input falls abruptly by an amount V pass circuit to pulse input
−𝑡𝑝 −𝑡𝑝
⁄ ⁄
∴ 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 1)

Since 𝑉𝑝 < 𝑉 the output becomes negative and decays

exponentially to zero as shown in fig-5
At 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑃 , the output voltage is given by
−𝑡𝑝 −(𝑡−𝑡𝑝 )
⁄ ⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉(𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 1)𝑒 𝑅𝐶

It is seen the distortion occurs during the passing through

RC circuit. There is a tilt at the top of the pulse and an
undershoot at the end of the pulse. The distortion can be
minimized if 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑡𝑃 . If 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 𝑡𝑃 then there is a positive
spike at the top and a negative spike at end of the pulse as
shown in fig-6.

Figure 6: Response due to pulse input for

(i) 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑡𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii) 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 𝑡𝑃

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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Response of RC high pass circuit to square input:

If a square wave (dashed line shown in fig-7)
is impressed at the input of a RC high pass
filter then the output can be calculated as
follows:
If 𝑉1 is the amplitude of positive half cycle
then it will decay in the time interval
0 < 𝑡 < 𝑇1 and output will be
−𝑡⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉1 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
Figure 7: Response of RC high pass circuit to square input
At the end of positive half cycle (𝑡 = 𝑇1 ) the
output will be to 𝑉1′
−𝑇1⁄
𝑉1′ = 𝑉1 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

But at 𝑡 = 𝑇1 the input will be changed by – 𝑉. Since

𝑉1′ < 𝑉 the output becomes negative and decays
exponentially up to 𝑇2 . The output can be written as
−(𝑡−𝑇1 )⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

At the end of negative half cycle (𝑡 = 𝑇2 ) the output

will be to 𝑉2′
−𝑇2⁄
𝑉2′ = 𝑉2 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
Figure 8: Peaking of square wave by RC high pass circuit
If both 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑇1 and 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑇2 then output will consist of alternate positive and negative peaks as shown
in fig-8.

For symmetrical wave 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇⁄2 and 𝑉1 = − 𝑉2 and 𝑉1′ = 𝑉2′ . Under this condition we can write
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1′ = 𝑇⁄
1+ 𝑒 − ⁄2𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑒− 2𝑅𝐶

For 𝑇 ≪ 2𝑅𝐶 above equation reduces to

𝑉 𝑇 𝑉 𝑇
𝑉1 ≈ (1 + ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1′ ≈ (1 + )
2 4𝑅𝐶 2 4𝑅𝐶
The exponential portions are almost linear but it becomes tilted. The percentage of tilt is defined as
𝑉1 − 𝑉1′ 𝑇
𝑃≡ × 100 ≈ × 100 %
𝑉⁄ 2𝑅𝐶
2

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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Response of RC high pass circuit to ramp input:

Exponential input can be written as
−𝑡⁄
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏)

The differential equation of an RC circuit is

𝑑𝑣𝑜⁄ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑖⁄
𝑑𝑡 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝑑𝑡
If exponential input is impressed at the input of RC
high pass circuit, the output can be written as

𝑑𝑣𝑜⁄ 𝑣𝑜 𝑉 −𝑡⁄
𝑑𝑡 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝑒 𝜏
𝜏
Figure 9: The response of RC circuit to ramp input
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑠, 𝑥 ≡ 𝑡⁄𝜏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≡ 𝑅𝐶⁄𝜏
The solution of the differential equation is
𝑉𝑛 −𝑥
𝑣𝑜 = (𝑒 ⁄𝑛 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ), The response for various values of 𝑥 and 𝑛 are shown in fig − 9
𝑛−1
Response of RC high pass circuit to ramp input:
A waveform which is less than zero for 𝑡 < 0 and increases
linearly with time for 𝑡 > 0 and the input is
𝑣𝑖 = 𝛼𝑡
The differential equation of an RC circuit is
𝑑𝑣𝑜⁄ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑖⁄
𝑑𝑡 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝑑𝑡
If a ramp input is impressed at the input of an RC circuit, the
above equation can be written as
𝑑𝑣𝑜⁄ 𝑣𝑜
𝑑𝑡 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝛼
Figure 10: Response of high pass RC
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑜 = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 circuit to ramp input for RC>>T (above)
−𝑡⁄ and for RC<<T (below)
𝑣𝑜 = 𝛼𝑅𝐶 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ) ,
𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≪ 𝑅𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝑡
𝑣𝑜 = 𝛼𝑅𝐶 (1 − + ⋯ ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑔 − 10
2𝑅𝐶
It is seen from that the output is slightly falls from input. The transmission error at (𝑡 =T) is
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑇
𝑒𝑡 ≡ ≈ = 𝜋𝑓1 𝑇
𝑣𝑖 2𝑅𝐶
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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Response of RC Low pass circuit to step input:

Apply KVL to low pass RC circuit as shown in fig-11 we have
𝑞
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑖𝑅 − =0
𝐶
𝑑𝑞
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Figure 11: Low pass RC circuit
𝑑(𝐶𝑣𝑜 )
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖
− = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 > 0, 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑉
∴ − =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑜 𝑡
= (1 − 𝑒−𝑅𝐶 )
𝑉
The response is shown in fig-12. The rise time of the circuit is Figure 12: Response of RC low pass
defined as the time it takes the voltage to rise from 0.1 to 0,9 to its circuit to step input
final value. I gives an indication of how fast the circuit can
respond to a dis continuity in voltage.
The time required for 𝑣𝑜 to reach one-tenth of its final value is 0.1RC and time to reach nine-tenths is
2.3RC. So that rise time 𝑇𝑟 = 2.3𝑅𝐶 − 0.1𝑅𝐶 = 2.2𝑅𝐶 = 2.2⁄2𝜋𝑓 = 0.35⁄𝑓
2 2

Response of RC Low pass circuit to Pulse input:

The output voltage for 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑝 is given by
𝑡
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
Now 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑃 + , 𝑣𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜
∴ − =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
At 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑃 , the output voltage is given by Figure 13: Response of RC low pass circuit to Pulse
−𝑡𝑝 −(𝑡−𝑡𝑝 )
input
⁄ ⁄
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉(𝑒 𝑅𝐶 − 1)𝑒 𝑅𝐶

It is observed that the output increases exponentially with time in the interval 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑃 and it decreases
exponentially with time bound the pulse duration ( 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑃 ).
To minimize the distortion, the rise time must be small compared with pulse width. If cutoff frequency is
chosen 1⁄𝑡 then the rise time 𝑡𝑟 = 0.35𝑡𝑝 .
𝑝

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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Response of RC Low pass circuit to ramp input:

For a ramp input (𝑣𝑖 = 𝛼𝑡) the voltage
across R is (a) (b)
𝑡
𝑣𝑅 = 𝛼𝑅𝐶 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )

The voltage across the capacitor is

(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑅 ). Therefore output is
𝑡
𝑣𝑜 = 𝛼(𝑡 − 𝑅𝐶) + 𝛼𝑅𝐶𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 Figure 14: Response of RC low pass circuit to ramp input for (a) RC<<T
The response is given in fig-14. It is and (b) RC>>T
seen from the figure (as well as above
equation) that the output follows the input but is delayed by one time constant RC from the input (except
near the origin as shown in fig-14a).
The transmission error at 𝑡 = 𝑇 and for 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 𝑇 is given by
𝑅𝐶 1
𝑒𝑡 ≈ = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 3𝑑𝐵 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑇
If 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑇 the output is very distorted as shown in fig-14b. In this case the output can be written as
(expanding the exponential in a power series of 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )

𝛼𝑡 2
𝑣𝑜 ≈
2𝑅𝐶
A quadratic response (𝑣𝑜 = 𝛽𝑡 2 ) is obtained for a linear
input (𝑣𝑖 = 𝛼𝑡) for 𝑅𝐶 ≫ 𝑇

Response of RLC circuit to non-sinusoidal input:

Figure 15: RLC circuit
If we apply KVL we can write
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑖𝐶 = =𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐿
𝑣𝑖 − (𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝐶 )𝑅 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑅 𝑑𝑣𝑜 ∴ 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑖 − ∫ 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑣𝑜 = 0
𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝑣𝑜 𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑖
+ 𝑅𝐶 + = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐) 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝐿𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For step input 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑣𝑜
𝑅𝐶 + + =0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑒 ±𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

The roots of the equation can be written as (roots of a quadratic equation)

1 2
𝑠=− ± √(1⁄2𝑅𝐶 ) − 1⁄𝐿𝐶
2𝑅𝐶
Damping constant 𝑘 and undamped period 𝑇𝑜 is defined as
1
𝑘≡ √𝐿𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑜 ≡ 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
2𝑅
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋
∴ 𝑠=− ±𝑗 √1 − 𝑘 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
The solution and the response can be analyzed by considering the followings three cases:

Case-1: If 𝑘 = 1 (two roots are equal to − 1⁄2𝑅𝐶 and called critical damping):

The solution of the above equation becomes by considering 𝑥 = 𝑡⁄𝑇

𝑜
𝑣𝑜 1
= 4𝜋𝑥𝑒 −2𝜋𝑥 ; 𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘 = 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 1 = √𝐿𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑡⁄𝑇
𝑉 2𝑅 𝑜
𝑣𝑜 4𝑅𝑡 −2𝑅𝑡⁄
∴ = 𝑒 𝐿 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑔 − 16
𝑉 𝐿
Case-2: If 𝑘 > 1 (called over damping): The solution becomes
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
𝑠=− ± √1 − 1⁄𝑘 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
If we apply binomial expression to the radical and assume
that 4𝑘 2 ≫ 1 we have
𝜋 4𝜋𝑘
𝑠1 ≈ − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠2 ≈ −
𝑇𝑜 𝑘 𝑇𝑜
The solution of the above equation becomes by considering
4𝑘 2 ≫ 1 is
𝑣𝑜
≈ 𝑒 −𝜋𝑥/𝑘 − 𝑒 −4𝜋𝑥
𝑉
The exponent of first term is less than 1 accept 𝑥 = 0.
The second exponential term is negligible compared to
first term. We have
𝑣𝑜 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑡 Figure 16: Response of RLC circuit to Step input
−
≈ 𝑒 − 𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇𝑜 = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿
𝑉
𝑘 >> 1 means the capacitance is very small compared to a given value R and L
The response is shown in fig-16.

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 B.Sc. Engg. Part-3 Even Semester Exam-2017

Case-3: If 𝑘 < 1 (called underdamping): The solution becomes

The response can be calculated as
𝑣𝑜 2𝑘
≈ 𝑒 −2𝜋𝑘𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 (√1 − 𝑘 2 ) 𝑥
𝑉 √1 − 𝑘 2
𝑇
The damped period is seen to be 𝑜⁄ which is larger than the free period 𝑇𝑜
(√1 − 𝑘 2 )
The response for several values of k is shown in fig-16.

What is meant by Pulse Transformer?

An iron core transformers are used in the transmission and shaping of pulses which range in width from a
fraction of nanosecond to about 25 micro second.
Some applications of Pulse Transformer:

1. To change the amplitude and impedance level of a pulse

2. To invert the polarity of a pulse and equal positive and negative pulse simultaneously
3. To produce a pulse with negligible DC resistance
4. To make DC isolation between source and load
5. To couple between stages of amplifiers
6. To differentiate a pulse
7. To acts as a coupling element of blocking oscillator

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