Prebiotics
PS Panesar and V Bali, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, India
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
There has been a remarkable increase in people having gastro-
intestinal and digestive problems without showing the charac-
teristic clinical symptoms (i.e., associated with changing life
style and age). These are caused due to imbalances in the
intestinal microflora, referred to as dysbiosis. To overcome
this problem, probiotics and prebiotics play a major role in
prevention of dysbiosis. Probiotics are beneficial bacteria that
colonize in human intestines (mainly the colon) and provide
health related benefits to the host. These probiotic microor-
ganisms may not be able to survive the harsh, acidic conditions
of the stomach; thus, making it difficult to colonize in the
intestine. Most of these bacteria are strict anaerobes and obtain
their energy by fermentation of food. Therefore, food and
energy in the form of dietary supplementation work to restore
the intestinal ecology of the probiotic microorganisms. The
food and dietary supplements that stimulate the growth and
multiplication of the microorganisms that are beneficial to our
health (mainly lactobacilli and bifidobacteria) are termed as
prebiotics. Thus, prebiotics are nondigestible food ingredients
which enhance the growth and colonization of probiotic
bacteria, and contribute to the improved health of the host.
Prebiotics were recognized in the 1950s, but the term
‘prebiotics,’ was coined by Gibson and Roberfroid in 1995.
The contribution of colonic microbiota to the health associ-
ated benefits to the host has been a breakthrough in the field of
medical and nutrition research.
The main types of fermentative substrates of dietary origin
are as follow:
• Nondigestible carbohydrates such as resistant starch, non-
digestible oligosaccharides, non-starch polysaccharides.
• Undigested proteins that escape digestion in the small
intestine and reach the colon.
Out of these, the dietary carbohydrates (10–60 g day
1 reaches
the colon) serve as the major substrate for the bacterial growth.
They include resistant starch (8–40 g day
1, fermented by most
of the colonic bacterial species including Bacteriodes sp., Eubac-
terium sp., Bifidobacterium sp., etc.), non-starch polysaccharides
(8–18 g day
1), unabsorbed sugars (2–10 g day
1), and
oligosaccharides (2–8 g day
1). Out of these, prebiotics such
as fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galacto-oligosaccharides
(GOS), xylo-oligosaccharides, lactulose, etc. are selectively fer-
mented by the probiotic microorganisms, thereby resulting in
their growth and multiplication and hence are termed as
prebiotics.
Sources of Prebiotics
The short chain prebiotic oligosaccharides occur widely in
nature and can be obtained in small amounts by direct
464 Encyclopedia of Food and Health
extraction from natural sources such as plants – including
chicory, onion, garlic, asparagus, artichoke, bananas,
tomatoes, and leeks. These are reported to be present in animal
sources such as human milk and colostrum (in relatively smal-
ler amounts). They can also be produced in comparatively
larger amounts by using microorganisms and their enzymes
at large scale. Enzymes, mainly hydrolases (E.C. 3.2.) and
transfereases (E.C. 2.4.), of plant origin can also be used for
enzymatic synthesis of prebiotic oligosaccharides. Prebiotic
oligosaccharides can also be produced by controlled hydrolysis
of natural polysaccharides. To make the production process
economical, prebiotics can also be synthesized by using agro-
industrial waste/byproducts like whey, wheat and rice straw,
and sugarcane bagasse.
Characteristics of Prebiotics
Prebiotics are short, have low molecular weight, and are heat
resistant bio-molecules with three to ten sugar moieties. They
possess b-glycosidic bonds which enable them to resist hydro-
lysis by human salivary and pancreatic enzymes. They have low
caloric value – 4.l2–8.4 kJ g
1. Figure 1 represents the structure
of some common prebiotics. The characteristics of ideal pre-
biotics are:
(i) They should not be absorbed or hydrolyzed by mamma-
lian tissues or enzymes.
(ii) They should selectively enhance the growth and multipli-
cation of beneficial/probiotic microorganisms.
(iii) They should beneficially alter the activity of the intestinal
micro-flora.
(iv) They should have beneficial effects on the host defense
system.
(v) They should be stable across a wide range of pH in the
stomach and colon.
(vi) They should be advantageous to the host’s defense system.
Types of Prebiotics
Common prebiotics in use include inulin, FOS, GOS, soya-
oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, pyrodextrins, isomalto-
oligosaccharides, lactulose, pectic oligosaccharides, lactosucrose,
sugar alcohols, gluco-oligosaccharides, levans, and resistant
starch. These can be produced using various substrates such as
lactose, sucrose, starch, and xylan by both chemical and enzy-
matic methods through transgalactosylation activity on respec-
tive carbohydrates (Figure 2). Enzymes from different microbial
sources, such as bacteria, yeast, and fungus, are responsible for
the production of prebiotics.
Prebiotics have been classified into two categories: established
prebiotics and emerging/tentative prebiotics. Established prebi-
otics include inulin, GOS, FOS, and lactulose. Emerging/tentative
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00560-2
 Prebiotics 465

CH2OH
O OH

α O
HO

O OH OH
CH2OH O
O
O
HO
β
OH
n
OH O OH
CH2
n
O O
HO
CH2OH O HO HO
O O
OH OH
β
OH

CH2OH

Fructo-oligosaccharide Galacto-oligosaccharide

CH2OH
O
CH2OH
O CH2OH
HOH2C
CH2OH O
O OHHO O O O O
Gal1 O HO HO O
β 1
O HO HO O
4Gal1
β 4Gac1 1 OH OH HO CH2OH
OH OH
H.OH
OH

Xylo-oligosaccharide Soya-oligosaccharide

X OH OH H
OH N
O O O

H O OH
OH OH OH

OH OH OH
OH O O O
m n

Malto-oligosaccharide

OH OH
OH
CH2 OH OH
O
O
HO H OH
OH O OH
OH H OH O
H OH
O O O O
H OH
H OH
OH OH OH

OH
H OH HO

Lactulose Lactosucrose

Figure 1 Some common prebiotics and their structure.

466 Prebiotics

extraction
Beet Raffinose

extraction
transglycosylation
Sucrose Fructo-oligosaccharides
transglycosylation
Cow’s milk Lactosucrose
extraction
isomerization
Lactose Lactulose

Starch transglycosylation
Galacto-oligosaccharides
hydrolysis
hydrolysis transglycosylation
Malto-oligosaccharides Glycosylsucrose
Soluble starch
hydrolysis
Isomalto-oligosaccharides
transglycosylation

extraction
Soybean extraction
Soybean whey Soybean oligosaccharides

hydrolysis
Xylo-oligosaccharides Xylan

hydrolysis
Chitin oligosaccharides Chitin

Figure 2 Production process of nondigestible oligosaccharides. Reproduced from Sako, T., Matsumoto, K. and Tanaka, R. (1999). Recent progress on
research and applications of non-digestible galacto-oligosaccharides. International Dairy Journal 9, 69–80, with permission.

prebiotics include isomalto-oligosaccharides, xylo- Fructo-oligosaccharides

oligosaccharides, and soya-oligosaccharides. Prebiotics can also
be distinguished on the basis of the substrate used for their
production, such as:
(i) lactose derived prebiotics, including GOS, lactosucrose
and lactulose;
(ii) sucrose derived prebiotics, including FOS,
isomaltulose;
(iii) starch derived prebiotics, including isomaltose-
oligosaccharide, isomaltotriose; and
(iv) xylan derived prebiotics including xylo-oligosaccharide.
Galacto-oligosaccharides
GOS made up of b-linked (mostly b-[1 ! 4], but b-[1 ! 2]-,
b-[1 ! 3]-, or b-[1 ! 6] linkages are also observed) galactose
units with mainly glucose residue at its reducing end. These are
synthetically produced by the trans-galactosylation activity of
b-galactosidase (E.C. no. 3.2.1.23), or b-glycosidase (E.C. no.
3.2.1.21), enzymes using lactose, glucose, or galactose as a
substrate having lactose as a galactosyl donor. These enzymes
can be obtained by using different microorganisms such
as Lactobacillus reuteri, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus
acidophilus, or Kluyveromyces lactis. Oligomate 55, Cup-oligo
H-70, Vivinal-GOS, and TOS-syrup, are some of the commer-
cial available GOS. They are mainly used as cosmetic additives,
bulking agents, low-calorie sweeteners, and food ingredients in
breads, jams, marmalades, desserts, etc.
FOS, generally known as fructans, are of the inulin and levan
type, including 1-kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3), and 1-b-
fructofuranosyl nystose (GF4) composed of fructosyl (F)
units linked by b-(2 ! 1) glycosidic bonds. These are
mainly produced by the transfructosylation activity of
b-fructofuranosidase (E.C. no. 3.2.1.26) or fructosyltransferase
(E.C. no. 2.4.1.9) enzymes using sucrose as a substrate. These
can also be synthesized by the hydrolysis of inulin using
endoinulase as enzymes. Enzymes from microbial sources,
such as Aspergillus japonicus, A. niger, Penicillium citrinum,
Arthrobacter sp., Zymomonas mobilis, Lactobacillus reuteri, and
Candida, are used for the production of prebiotics. FOS
occur naturally in wheat, onions, bananas, garlic, artichoke,
dahlia tubers, etc. Commercially available FOS includes Acti-
light, NutraFlora, Raftilose, Inulin FOS, Fibrulose, etc. These
have low calories, are safe for diabetics, are not cariogenic, have
bifidus-stimulating factors, and aid immune-regulatory
functions.
Xylo-oligosaccharides
These constitute oligosaccharides made up of xylose units
(2–10) that are linked through b-(1 ! 4) linkages. They also
possess side groups such as a-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid and
4-O-methyl derivative. They are produced through the hydro-
lysis of xylan by xylanase enzymes, and mainly consist of
xylobiose, xylotriose, and xylo-tetraose. Enzymes involved in
their production are endoxylanase (E.C. no. 3.2.1.8), b-D-

xylosidases (E.C. no. 3.2.1.37), and debranching enzymes like
esterases (E.C. no. 3.1.1.72). These enzymes are produced by
microorganisms such as Aspergillus sp., Trichoderma sp., Penicil-
lium sp., Thermomyces lanuginosius, Bacillus halodurans, and
Pichia stipiti. Xylo-oligosaccharides are present in fruits, vegeta-
bles, bamboo, honey, and milk and can be synthesized on a
large scale from xylan-rich substrates or agricultural waste/by-
products such as cornstalks, bagasse, and corncobs. Xylo-
oligosaccharide 95P, 70L, 35P, 20P, etc. are commercially
available xylo-oligosaccharide products. These have an
acceptable odor, as well as non-cariogenic and low-caloric
properties.
Soya-oligosaccharides
Soya-oligosaccharides are composed of trisaccharide raffinose
(consists of one unit of D-galactose, D-glucose, and D-fructose)
and tetrasaccharide stachyose (consists of two molecules of
D-galactose and one of D-glucose and D-fructose), which are
linked by a-(1 ! 6) linkages. These oligosaccharides have
degrees of polymerization ranging from 3 to 4 (trisaccharide
raffinose and tetrasaccharide stachyose). These can be extracted
from soya beans, peas, and some other beans. They may have a
role in the prevention of allergies and may be used in the
treatment of galactosemia and lactose intolerance.
Lactulose
Lactulose is a ketose disaccharide, chemically known as 4-O-b-
D-galactopyranosyl-D-fructose. The enzymes used for the bio-
catalytic production of lactulose are b-galactosidase (EC
3.2.1.23) and b-glycosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) – using lactose and
fructose as a substrate. It can also be produced by the alkaline
isomerization of lactose. Microorganisms used for the produc-
tion of lactulose are Kluyveromyces lactis, Sulfolobus solfataricus,
Arthrobacter sp., Pyrococcus furiosus, etc. Some of the commer-
cial preparations of lactulose include Duphalac, Bifiteral,
Chronulac, Cephulac, etc. It is mainly used as a laxative and
may be used for prevention of hepatic encephalopathy.
Lactosucrose
Lactosucrose (lactosylfructoside) is a trisaccharide that consists
of galactose, glucose, and fructose units, chemically known as
O-b-D-Galactopyranosyl-(1 ! 4)-O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 2)-
b-D-fructofuranoside. Being an artificial oligosugar, it is low in
caloric content and stimulates the growth of bifidobacteria pre-
sent in the colon. It can be synthesized by transfructosylation of
lactose with sucrose using levansucrase (E.C. no. 2.4.1.10) and
fructofuranosidase (E.C. no. 3.2.1.26) enzymes; or, by transga-
lactosylation of sucrose with lactose using b-D-galactosidase
enzymes (E.C. no. 3.2.1.23). Microbial sources used for their
production are Zymomonas mobilis, Paenibacillus polymyxa,
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus circulans, etc. The commercially available
lactosucrose products are Nyuko-Oligo LS-40L, Nyuko-Oligo
LS-55P, Pet-Oligo L55, Newka-Oligo LS-35L, etc. These may
be used as pet foods, table sugar, drinks, or confectionery
ingredients.
Prebiotics 467
Isomalto-oligosaccharides
These are oligosaccharides having a-D-(1 ! 6) linked glucose
moieties (and rarely a-D-(1 ! 4) glucosidic linkages) with
degrees of polymerization ranging from 3 to 6. These occur
naturally in honey and fermented food products such as sake
and soybean sauce. These oligosaccharides can either be pro-
duced by using dextranase (E.C. no. 3.2.1.11) and dextransu-
crose (2.4.1.5) as enzymes with starch as a substrate; or, by
transglucosidase (E.C. no. 2.4.1.24) enzymes using sucrose as a
substrate. Transformation of maltose into isomalto-
oligosaccharide can also be achieved using a-glucosidase
enzymes (E.C. 3.2.1.20). Penicillium lilacinum, Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, etc. are the microbial
sources for the enzymes. The commercially available isomalto-
oligosaccharide products are IMO-900, IMO-800, etc. It has been
reported that they may be used in the treatment of constipation
and hyperlipidemia in elderly and hemodialysis patients.
Isomaltotriose
Isomaltotriose, chemically known as a-D-glucopyranosyl-
(1 ! 6)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 6)-D-glucose, consists of
three molecules of isomaltose. Isomaltotriose can be synthe-
sized by the hydrolysis of dextran using dextranase enzymes
(E.C. no. 3.2.1.11). Flavobacterium sp., Streptomyces anulatus,
etc. are the microbial sources for the production of isomalto-
triose using dextrans as a substrate. The commercially available
isomaltotriose products are available under the brand name
Isomaltotriose, manufactured by Santa Cruz Biotechnology
Inc. (California), Advanced Technology & Industrial Co. Ltd
(Hong Kong), etc.
Isomaltulose (Palatinose)
Isomaltulose, chemically known as 6-O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-D-
fructose, is a structural isomer of sucrose constituting of glu-
cose and fructose units linked by a-(1 ! 6) glycosidic bonds. It
is commonly produced by the enzymatic rearrangement of
sucrose using a-glucosyltransferase (i.e., isomaltulose synthase
[E.C. no. 5.4.99.11]). Isomaltulose can also be synthesized by
palatinose synthetase followed by the interamolecular dehy-
dration of palatinose. The microorganisms responsible for the
conversion of sucrose into isomaltulose are Erwinia sp., Klebsi-
ella planticola, Serratia, etc. Isomaltulose occurs naturally in
products such as sugarcane and honey. The commercially
available isomaltulose products of are available under the
brand name Isomaltulose, manufactured by Shaanxi Sciphar
Hi-Tech Industry Co. Ltd (China), Xian Yuensun Biological
Technology Co. Ltd (China), and Palatinose manufactured by
Shanghai Honghao Chemicals Co. Ltd (China) etc.
Resistant Starch
Resistant starch is a small fraction of the starch that escapes
digestion in the small intestine and reaches the colon. This
portion of starch that is resistant to digestion is then fermented
in the large intestine, mainly the colon, by the endogenous
microflora. Starch is basically glucose molecules linked by a-D-
(1 ! 4) or a-D-(1 ! 6) glycosidic bonds, and is digested in the
small intestine. It comprises mainly amylose (straight chains
468 Prebiotics
that form 15–20% of starch possessing a-D-[1 ! 4] linkages)
and amylo-pectin (highly branched and a major component
possessing both a-D-[1 ! 4] and a-D-[1 ! 6) linkages]. Amylo-
pectin is a highly branched structure that provides more surface
area available for digestion in the small intestine. Resistant
starch possesses a higher amount of amylose, which limits
the exposed surface area. Therefore, starch with a high amylose
content is digested slowly, and some parts of it escapes diges-
tion in the small intestine and reaches colon. On the basis of its
structure and complexity, resistant starch is further classified
into four classes. Type I includes physically inaccessible starch
granules. Type II includes resistant starch granules. Type III
includes retrograded starch. Type IV includes chemically mod-
ified starches. Resistant starch naturally occurs in under-ripe
bananas, oats, lentils, white beans, etc. Commercially available
resistant starch products include Hi-maize, CrystaLean, Nove-
lose, Amylomaize VII, etc. These are reported to contribute in
promoting apoptosis and reducing the risk of colon cancer.
The Prebiotic Effect
Movement of food is rapid through the stomach and small
intestine (4–6 h) compared to colonic transit time, which is
around 48–70 h. This results in the formation of a stable
microbial community in the large intestine. Prebiotics (along
with other dietary fibers and undigested proteins) escape the
upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract undigested, thus serving
as a potential substrate for probiotic endogenous bacteria
(bifidobacteria and lactobacilli) in the colon. Most of the
microflora in the colon are strict anaerobes and derive their
energy through fermentation. Prebiotics increase the popula-
tion growth rate of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli from tenfold
to a hundredfold. The presence of ‘osidic’ bonds makes pre-
biotics nondigestible by human salivary and intestinal
enzymes; therefore, they reach the colon in the undigested
form. The hydrolysis and fermentation of these prebiotic oli-
gosaccharides in the intestine by colonic microflora results in
their breakdown – mainly into short chain fatty acids. Pre-
biotics provide energy, metabolic substrate, and essential
micronutrient selectively to the endogenous probiotic bacteria.
These probiotic bacteria have health related effects on the host
by reducing the risk of intestinal infections. The end product of
these prebiotics include short chain fatty acids (such as acetate,
butyrate, and propionate), lactate, pyruvate, ethanol, succi-
nate, polyamines, bacitracin, and gasses such as H2, CO2,
CH4, H2S. Short chain fatty acids are mainly responsible for
causing the prebiotic effect. Short chain fatty acids lower lumi-
nal pH, which restricts the growth of disease-causing and
putrefactive microorganisms like Escherichia coli, Salmonella,
Listeria, and Shigella. Short chain fatty acids have also been
reported to contribute in the regulation of absorption of
sodium and water, maintenance of cholesterol, and increased
absorption of calcium and other minerals by the host.
Health Benefits for Human
Changes in dietary habits influence the balance of colonic
bacteria in the human gut. Probiotics and prebiotics, together
known as synbiotics, have associated health benefits. Prebi-
otics have been studied for their role in reducing the risks of
cancer, acute gastroenteritis, osteoporosis, cholesterol, and
hyperlipidaemia; as well as for their bifidus-stimulating ability
and immuno-modulatory effects.
Production of Short Chain Fatty Acids
The fermentative end products (short chain fatty acids) of pre-
biotic oligosaccharides produced by probiotic microorganisms
are in the order of acetate > propionate> butyrate in the ratio of
3:1:1 (Figure 3). Probiotic microorganisms use fermentation as
their energy source. Production of short chain fatty acids results
in a decreased pH, which leads to the reduced levels of patho-
genic bacteria, decreases bile acid solubility, and reduces ammo-
nia absorption. Short chain fatty acids are water soluble and are
readily absorbed into the blood stream by diffusion or through
anion exchange. They also influence intestinal motility. Only
5–10% of short chain fatty acids are eliminated in the feces.
Short chain fatty acids contribute to the growth and physiology
of intestinal tissues and systemic metabolism. Table 1 represents
the function of various short chain fatty acids.
Acute Gastroenteritis
Acute gastroenteritis is a disease state that occurs when food or
water that is contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms
(such as Clostridium perfringens, Vibrio cholera, E. coli,) or their
toxins is consumed. Some of its symptoms are nausea, vomit-
ing, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Prebiotics help in overcom-
ing this problem by stimulating the growth of bifidobacteria
and lactobacilli, which act as a barrier against the invasion of
food pathogenic microorganisms. The probiotic bacteria com-
pete for nutrition and colonization sites, produce short chain
fatty acids, lower the pH, and secrete antimicrobial agents
against the pathogenic bacteria, thereby reducing their inva-
sion in the gut.
Cancer Risk
Colorectal cancer has been reported mostly in people having a
family history of colon cancer, high smoking rate, high body
weight, greater consumption of alcohol and meat, lower phys-
ical workload, and lower intake of fruits and vegetables. Pre-
biotics have been reported to enhance detoxification, reduce
toxic metabolite production, and provide protection against
tumor development in the colon. Prebiotics, along with pro-
biotics (bifidobacteria), have been studied to reduce a signifi-
cant number of colonic aberrant crypt foci and inhibit the
propagation phase of the carcinogen. The activity of colon
cancer causing bacterial enzymes such as b-glucuronidase,
b-glucosidase, and nitroreductase (which convert pre-
carcinogens to proximal carcinogens) was observed to be
reduced by prebiotics by way of reducing the pH of the
colon. Prebiotics also reduce indole and isovaleric acids levels,
which are markers of putrefaction.
 Prebiotics 469

Fructans Xylans
Starch Pectins
Cellulose
Galactomannans

Arabinogalactan

Pentose
Glycolytic phosphate
pathway pathway

PEP-phosphoenolpyruvate

NADH NADPH

NAD+ NADP+

Formate

Succinate Pyruvate Lactate

CO2 H2
CO2

Acetyl-Co-A Ethanol SO42−

Propionate Acetate Butyrate CH4 H2S

Figure 3 The basic pathway for production of short chain fatty acid metabolites by bacterial fermentation in the colonic lumen. Reproduced
from Macfarlane, G. T. and Gibson, G. R. (1997). Carbohydrate fermentation, energy transduction and gas metabolism in the human large intestine.
In: Mackie, R. I. and White, B. A. (eds.) Ecology and physiology of gastrointestinal microbes: gastrointestinal fermentations and ecosystems,
pp. 269–318. New York: Chapman and Hall, with permission.

Table 1 Functions of short chain fatty acids minerals by modifying the electrolyte exchange, thus lowering
the risk of osteoporosis. Their effect on bones is further depen-
Short chain dent on the time, dose administered, and age of the host.
fatty acid Function

Acetate Energy source for body; metabolized by skeletal Reduction in Constipation

muscle, heart, kidney, and brain
Propionate Reduces hepatic glucose output and cholesterol
biosynthesis, regulates adipose tissue deposition;
metabolized by liver
Butyrate Energy source for colonocytes; modules colonocyte
differentiation and proliferation, regulates gene
expression and transcriptional protein
Mineral Absorption
Prebiotics stimulate the absorption of minerals, such as cal-
cium, magnesium, zinc, and iron, which improves bone min-
eralization. Prebiotic oligosaccharides (3–6 sugar moieties)
can bind minerals in the small intestine and release them in
the large intestine, where they are absorbed in a much better
way. Short chain fatty acids, which are formed in the intestine
due to fermentation, can also assist the absorption of these
Elderly people, pregnant and nursing women, travelers, and
people on weight loss diets commonly face the problem of
constipation (or irritable bowel disease). Prebiotics play a
significant role in overcoming the problem of constipation by
increasing the fecal biomass which, in turn, increases the fecal
microbial mass, thereby further reducing the transit time of
stool. This results in the reduction of colonic water resorption
which, in turn, results in a softer and heavier stool with
increased frequency. Prebiotics, like oligofructose, inulin,
xylo-oligosaccharide, and lactulose, have significant roles in
reducing constipation.
Lipid Regulation
Prebiotics lower total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglyc-
eride levels, thus showing hypolipidaemic and
470 Prebiotics
hypotriacylglycerolaemic effects. The increased production of
short chain fatty acids through fermentation of prebiotics
decreases, as well as inhibits, liver lipogenesis in hepatocytes.
This may be due to modified gene regulation, which further
leads to down regulation of all hepatic lipogenic enzymes.
Prebiotics, like GOS, xylo-oligosaccharide, and isomalto-
oligosaccharide, have been reported to have a significant role
in reducing serum cholesterol and triglycerides.
Immune Modulation
Fermentative end products of prebiotics (i.e., short chain fatty
acids) have been reported to contribute to boosting the
immune response by selective stimulation of specific mem-
branes of probiotic microflora. The G protein coupled receptors
of immune cells contain receptors that interact with short chain
fatty acids. These short chain fatty acids also play a significant
role in cytokine production, up regulation of gut-associated
lymphoid tissue expression of secretory IgA, anti-inflammatory
profile, and increased chemotactic response of neutrophiles,
thereby modulating the immune system of the host.
Effect on Dental Caries
The nondigestible oligosaccharide cannot be fermented by
Streptococcus mutans, which is a causative agent of dental caries
and plaque formation in humans and animals. Thus, prebiotic-
s such as nystose have been reported to show low cariogenic
properties and may serve as alternative sweeteners with
reduced dental problems.
Global Status
Due to increasing awareness in consumers, and the wide applica-
tions of prebiotics in various fields (including health drinks, dairy
products, beverages, bakery and pet food), demand for these
products is increasing globally. According to Multi-Sponsor Sur-
veys’ 2012 Gallup Study of Probiotic & Prebiotic Consumers, 31%
of the population is aware of prebiotics (http://www.nutraceutic
alsworld.com/issues/2013-03/view_trendsense/getting-ahead-of-
the-curve-prebiotics/#sthash.PoGUV4Zw.dpuf). The number of
new prebiotic products has increased almost threefold from
2009 to 2013. The prebiotics market value (Nutraceuticals) in
Europe and North America has been estimated at $355.69 million
USD and $321.18 million USD, respectively, for the year 2018 –
as per the reports of Micromarket Monitor (http://www.micro.
marketmonitor.com/). In Asia, the market of prebiotics was esti-
mated to be $2.3 billion in 2012, and is likely to grow at CAGR of
11.4% and reach $4.5 billion by 2018 (http://www.nutraceu
ticalsworld.com/issues/2014-04/view_features/flourishing-flora-
probiotics-prebiotics-market-update/#sthash.2zJ6hHlH.dpuf).
Conclusions
Prebiotics are potent agents that contribute to the nutritional,
physiological, and digestive functions of the host. Prebiotics
improve and maintain the balance of beneficial intestinal
microflora in the gut of animals and humans. Because of
their properties, prebiotics (along with probiotics) can be
helpful in the treatment of various diseases such as acute
gastroenteritis and osteoporosis. They can also reduce the risk
of cancer, and help to lower cholesterol and hyperlipidaemia.
Prebiotics also possess the characteristics of having bifidus-
stimulating ability, immuno-modulatory effects, and low car-
iogenicity. These properties of prebiotics, along with their
safety aspects, have created countless new opportunities in
both the food industry, and in academia. With their low cost
of production, the future is open for designing new prebiotic,
functional food products, as well as studying their structure,
function, relationship, and their mode of action. Also, the
increasing awareness of consumers is making prebiotics a
promising market in the coming times.
See also: Bifidobacteria in Foods: Health Effects; Colon: Structure and
Function; Dahi; Dairy Products: Dietary and Medical Importance; Fatty
Acids: Metabolism; Functional Foods; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Lactose;
Probiotics; Soy Beans: Dietary Importance.
Further Reading
Bali V, Panesar PS, and Bera MB (2015) Fructo-oligosaccharides: production,
purification and potential applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and
Nutrition 55(11): 1475–11490.
Bucke C and Rastall RA (1990) Synthesizing sugars by enzymes in reverse. Chemistry
in Britain 26: 675–678.
Conway PL (2001) Prebiotics and human health: the state of the art and future
perspectives. Scandinavian Journal of Food and Nutrition 45: 13–21.
Englyst HN and Cummings JH (1987) Digestion of polysaccharides of
potato in the small intestine of man. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
45: 423–431.
FAO Technical meeting on Prebiotics (2007). Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Italy. www.fao.org/ag/agn/agns/index_en.stm.
Gibson GR and Rastall RA (2006) Prebiotics: development and application. England:
Wiley.
Gibson GR and Roberfroid MB (1995) Dietary modulation of the human colonic
microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. Journal of Nutrition
125: 1401–1412.
György P, Norris RF, and Rose CS (1954) Bifidus factor. I. A variant of Lactobacillus
bifidus requiring a special growth factor. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics
48: 193–220.
Hijova E and Chmelarova A (2007) Short chain fatty acids and colonic health.
Bratislavskè Lekárske Listy 108(8): 354–358.
Kok N, Roberfroid M, Robert A, and Delzenne N (1996) Involvement of lipogenesis in
the lower VLDL secretion induced by oligofructose in rats. British Journal of
Nutrition 76: 881–890.
Macfarlane G and Cummings H (1991) The large intestine:
physiology, pathophysiology and disease. In: Phillips SF, Pemberton JH,
Shorter RG, and Talbot IC (eds.) Histopathology, vol. 23, p. 391. New York: Raven
Press.
Macfarlane GT and Gibson GR (1997) Carbohydrate fermentation, energy transduction
and gas metabolism in the human large intestine. In: Mackie RI and White BA (eds.)
Ecology and physiology of gastrointestinal microbes: gastrointestinal fermentations
and ecosystems, pp. 269–318. New York: Chapman and Hall.
Ouwehand AC, Kirjavainen PV, Shortt C, and Salminen S (1999)
Probiotics: mechanisms and established effects. International Dairy Journal
9: 43–52.
Panesar PS and Kumari S (2011) Lactulose: production, purification and potential
applications. Biotechnology Advances 29: 940–948.
Panesar PS, Bali V, Kumari S, Babbar N, and Oberoi HS (2014) Prebiotics. In: Brar SK,
Dhillon GS, and Soccol CR (eds.) Biotransformation of waste biomass into high
value biochemicals, pp. 237–259. New York: Springer.
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Sajilata MG, Singhal RS, and Kulkarni PR (2006) Resistant starch – a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 5: 1–17.
Sako T, Matsumoto K, and Tanaka R (1999) Recent progress on research and
applications of non-digestible galacto-oligosaccharides. International Dairy Journal
9: 69–80.
Stowell J (2007) Caloric control and weight management. In: Mitchell H (ed.)
Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Swennen K, Courtin CM, and Delcour JA (2006) Non digestible oligosaccharides
with prebiotic properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
46: 459–471.
Van Loo J, Coussement P, De Leenheer L, Hoebregs H, and Smits G (1995) Inulin and
oligofructose in the western diets. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
35: 525–552.