INFLUENCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE ON

THE SOCITY AND CULTURE OF CALICUT

A dissertation submitted to the Central University of Tamil Nadu in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF HISTORY

Submitted By,

SHOAN K MANESH
Register No: P192306
Under the Supervision
of

Dr.K.THANGAPANDIAN

Designation

Department of History

Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur

Department of History

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF TAMIL

NADU 2020-2021
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled ‘ Influence Of

International Trade On The Socity And Culture Of Calicut

’ submitted to the Department of History, Central University of

Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur in partial fulfillments of the requirements for the

award of the Master’s Degree in History by Shoan K Manesh

during the academic year 2020-2021, is under my supervision and

guidance and that the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any

Degree/ Diploma/ Associate ship/ fellowship or any other similar titles

before.

Head of the Department Research Supervisor

Department of History Department of History
Central University of Central University of
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu
 DECLARATION

I, Shoan K Manesh , hereby declare that the dissertation

entitled ‘ Influence Of International Trade On The Socity And Culture Of
Calicut ’ submitted to the Department
of History, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, in partial
fulfillments of the requirements for the award of the Master’s Degree in
History is independent and original research work done during the academic
year 2019-2020, and the research has not formed the basis for the award of
Degree/ Diploma/ Associate ship/ fellowship or other similar titles to any
candidate in any University. I am solely responsible for the data and the
information and originality of the research work.

Date: Signature of the Candidate

Place: Thiruvarur
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of this dissertation owes to the inspiration

and constant support that I received from various sources. I avail this
opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all those who helped me
directly or indirectly for the completion of the work. My parents are my
constant support and I thank them for always supporting me. I express my
profound sense of gratitude to my project supervisor
Dr.K.Thangapandian , of Department of
History, Central University of Tamil Nadu, for his heartfelt motivations
and guidance for the completion of my project.

Above all, I am greatly thankful to the grace of God Almighty for the
successful completion of my dissertation.

SHOAN K MANESH
 Table of Contents

Chapter Content Page.no

i. Introduction 7

ii. Review of literature 10

iii. Objectives of the study 12

iv. methodology 13

v. Calicut society 14

vi. Socio-cultural life in Calicut 17

vii. Foreign traveller mentions about Calicut 20

viii. Starting of trade 23

ix. Agriculture in calicut 24

5
 x. Calicut a centripetal force 25

xi. Change in the trade and economy 27

xii. Calicut relation with Chinese 30

xiii. Relation with Arab 35

xiv. Mappila Muslims of Calicut 37

xv. Influence of Europe 39

xvi. Relation with Portuguese 40

xvii. Calicut-Portuguese creole 47

xviii. Culinary culture 49

xix.
Conclusion 51

xx.
Illustration 53

xxi. Bibliography 54

6
Introduction

The Indian Ocean was a complex region with extensive inter-regional economies

and cultural exchanges. It was a place of communication between the four major

civilizations; Perso-Arabic, Southeast Asian, Indian, Chinese. It was the

Europeans who later entered this confluence of civilizations. These civilizations

had deep and inherent cultural and material similarities in areas such as food,

agriculture, clothing, and a plethora of other themes. Cultures that seemed widely

different from each other were in fact in constant contact and exchange with each

other. . During the first millennium BC, pioneers were Greeks, Arabs, Persians,

and South Asians, and began to integrate trade economies across the Middle East,

South, South, and Southeast Asia by land and sea. The vast trade network that

stretches across the Pacific border extends from one end to the Mediterranean,

forming the basis of the Oriental global economy east and west. As Ashin

Dasgupta points out, “The Arabian and Persian in the west, the Chinese and the

Malays in the east formed the ocean, and the Swahili coast and islands contributed

to its prosperity.

Calicut or Calicut, formerly known by the Arabs and the colonial era, was once

one of the most important ports on the Malabar coast of southern India. Due to the

favourable policies of the Zamorins (Kozhikode Rajas) from the 12th century

onwards, people, ideas, goods, and cultures around the world, Persia and Europe

7
Like other Indian Ocean port cities, Kozhikode was a commercial and trading

center between these regions. Trade mainly in pepper and other spices, exposure

to the sea and the development of scholarly traditions at the Zamorin Tali Temple

in terms of language and literature were also factors that shaped the city. Calicut

and the Malabar coast have been mentioned and described in many Arab,

European and Chinese travelogues over the centuries. The most famous of these is

the detailed account of Ibn Battuta, the great traveler and scholar from Morocco

who visited Malabar between 1342 and 1347.He describes Calicut, where it took

three months for a ship to set sail for China, one of the largest ports in the world,

where people from China, Java, Ceylon, the Maldives, Yemen and Persia arrived,

and traders from all over the world met. He meets Zamor, who is also the chief

merchant and port master of Calicut, a native of Bahrain, and mentions the Khasi

(Muslim judge of the city) who represents the Arabs.

M.G.S. Narayanan, a well-known historian of South India at the time, described

Kozhikode in the following words: “The establishment of an international trade

center at Calicut exposed the West Coast community to the latest trends in the

world economy and society. An intelligent religious policy with an open secular

mindset open to all races, religions and languages made Calicut the abode of a

cosmopolitan culture. ” In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut with three

ships. Along with him, "Moors" began a long and bloody struggle to control the

pepper trade from Egypt and to the Arabian Peninsula. His form marked the

8
beginning of the city's long and turbulent history with Europeans (Portuguese,

Dutch and British) that lasted until Indian independence in 1947. Kozhikode

ceased to be “one of the greatest ports of the world”, as Ibn Battuta had put it.

Nevertheless, Kozhikode maintained its character as a centre of trade and

commerce throughout the centuries until today. The communities of merchants

changed, the traded goods changed, the trading routes and networks changed. For

instance, Kozhikode became a major export centre for timber and for tiles from

the middle of the 19th century until late in the 1980s

9
Review of Literature

As secondary sources I majorly depended upon the books, articles and journals.

All in which it shows how international trade had influenced the Calicut society

and how it helped the traders to take part in the growth of the state and changes

socio- cultural traditions which existed in the society.

Calicut the city of truth revisited by M.G.S.Narayanan wrote the detaild

discription about calicut, in which it included the orgin of the

kingdom,development of trade,culture and socity.he had described very

gorgiously about calicut from the orgin to present, remarking every incident and

the changes that happened to the city. From this we could get a glimpse of idea

how much progress calicut got.

The zamorins of calicut-from the earliest times to AD,1806,by Ayyar.k.v.krishna,

it describes mainly about the political structure of Calicut. In this book it clearly

designates the political history of Calicut and the influence of various foreign

trades in the administration, especially the Arab’s and Portuguese. Also give

meticulous details on the international relationship of zamorins, which they kept

close contact with various kingdoms from rome to china. This helps the research

to get more details on administration and also get to know about the kind of

relation between the nations.

10
Society In Medieval Malabar of Mathew,K,S., which helps to understand the the

socio- economic condition of the society by analysising matters in accordence

with survey and structures. He gives the compleate details of the traditions and

culture of the society. He mentions how the society was before the trade and also

the changes happens in the life of people after the international trade floreshed. It

provides a detailed explaination about how the calicut state was, what kind of

progress they were able to brought up in the society and how it helped the people

in socially, economically and educationally.

Due to the epidemic and lockdown I was unable to collect more material for my

study and in which turn couldn’t get more primary sources such as government

documents and interview which would have helped in getting this research work

more complete and more accurate.

11
 Objectives of the Study

Through this subject, major objectives to find out are:

 To find out the development of trade in Calicut

 To find How the country of Calicut emerged as a trading economy

 To find How international trade emerged as a major source of change in

society

 To find How it became a beacon for the cultural transformation of society

 To find How International Trade Affected Religion, caste, and Society

Structure

 To find How international trade contributes to social reform and national

development

 To find To what extent the trade relation contributed to the economy and

the culture.

12
 Methodology

This study is basically Descriptive in nature and based on

Historical and empirical data. Both primary and secondary data has

been used for this research.

Sources Used:

Primary Sources

The researcher has visited the Calicut archives and has

extensively gone through the archives, gazettes on Calicut and has

also used the books which were written by the Travellers and authors

and also interacted with the people of Calicut.

Secondary Sources

Besides this, the researcher has used Secondary sources related to

the development of Calicut and which helped the socio- cultural and

economic development of the state.

13
 Calicut Society

A closer look at the documents reveals that the Calicut community of the

sixteenth century was largely organized on the basis of religion and caste. There

were four major religions in Calicut when it came to foreigners. They were

Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. In all these religions, different sects

were organized on the basis of varna and caste. Although there were many other

sections of society at this time, they were not considered for two reasons - the lack

of adequate resources and the lack of many contacts as some of these cultural

practices were not demonstrated in the documents. In the following sections, we

will discuss the life and culture of the important subculture and cultural practices

of the Calicut community.

The society was organized on the basis of varna and jati, which was the

touchstone of the Hindu community. People were known by the banner of their

varna or jati, which determined the biological genealogy of an individual. There

were specific activities Occupations and customs for each varna and jati. As

understood from various sources, there was an array of varna and jati, and upward

dynamics in this system was almost impossible. The contact between different

varna and jati of the same religion was different.

The people is divided into four races. According to the traditional concept of

India, Brahmins are Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. It is said that Brahmins
14
originated from the head of Brahman. Kshatriyas include kings from the right side

of Brahma, Vaishyas from the belly of Brahma, and Sudras from the feet of

Brahma. The Brahmins of Calicut were considered the highest caste in the range.

It is interesting that we do not see Kshatriyas and Vaishyas in Malabar. Nair was

considered as Shudras. Brahmins were allowed to have intercourse with women of

any varna or jati, from the queen to the last. As for others, if anyone joins any

women of the lower caste, if it is a man he is killed, and if she is a woman he sells

her.

In the palace of the Zamorin was a Bruhminmor (Chief Brahmin). In all matters

the king sought the advice of an old Bruhminmor . As soon as he entered the royal

palace or palace, the king got up and fell at his feet. He lifted him up very

seriously and calmly and put his hand on his head. The king sits after the

Bruhminmor chair. Some Brahmins served in the royal courts. They served the

kings as cooks. For example, the cook of the zamorin in Calicut was a Brahmin.

The Brahmins took the food for the king to the idol and after some rituals they

took it to the king. After the king's meal. The rest were taken to the backyard by

the Brahmins. There he clapped three times. At that sound many crows came and

fed them. There is another reason for the respect they receive; It is none other than

the knowledge they possess. they had a lot of books with them.

After the Brahmins comes the Nair caste. They were a powerful military caste of

the kings of calicut. Although they were indigenous military castes, they did not

15
belong to the Kshatriya caste, but instead were Sudras as they were converted to

Hinduism. But they were considered superior to all other Jats in calicut except the

Brahmins belonging to the caste system. Nairs were always ready to die for their

masters instead of their parents or relatives. But their enmity towards rivals was

purely professional. Even on battle days, the enemy slept on the battlefield

without any fear. But during the day they fought like real enemies. They had been

well trained for war since childhood. From an early age their bodies were

anointed with oil and made them great warriors. They were well trained in

handling weapons. There is a group of them called Amox. They were deadly and

very dangerous.

Tiya was also known as Ezavas, who used to grow palm groves. Collect coconuts,

collect palm wine, carry supplies, and fight battles. They were a kind of slaves

attached to the land of the Nairs, and there was polygamy among the Tiya. Hirava

or Vettuvan was another caste in Calicut. The meaning of the word is hunter.

They planted and collected. Mukuvas were seafarers and fishermen. The

fishermen of Calicut were the lowest caste. They were not allowed to appear in

public, and violating this would result in severe punishment. Pulas are considered

the lowest of all classes in Calicut. 'Pulam' in Malayalam means wide field. Pulas

worked in this field.

There have been Christians in India since the first century AD. They were called

Christians or St. Thomas Christians. There are two groups of Christians, namely

16
Vadukkumbagukur and Trinkumbhukur. Vadukumbagukur is a member of the

local Christian community, which is believed to have been baptized by St.

Thomas, One of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Thekkumbugukar is believed to be

the descendant of Thomas of Cana, a Persian Christian merchant who immigrated

to Malabar in the 4th century AD. By the fifteenth century another group of

Christians had joined the Nazarenes but were now Latinized. St. Thomas

Christians followed the customs of the Brahmins of calicut. The customs and

lifestyles of each section determined the social status. Socio-Cultural Ceremonies

and Rituals Brahmins and Christians of St. Thomas We can see common elements

in Calicut.

Socio-Cultural Life In Calicut

The ashes of the dung were used for purification. They were put on overhead,

hand and chest. They cleaned their roads and as well as houses with cow dung. It

was also applied to the floor. It was practiced every day on the way between the

Zamorin Palace and the temple.

In Calicut, the oath was placed on a cow or on the head of a son. There were

various ways to prove crimes. The first way was to dip the suspect's hands in
17
boiling oil or butter. The first way was to dip the suspect's hands in boiling oil or

butter. Then cover the hand for three days. On the third day after it was unveiled,

he was convicted and sentenced if his hand was in bad condition and acquitted if

his hand was clean. . If the accused is not found guilty, the accused must be paid a

fixed amount. Another mode was to put the defendant's hands in a clay pot filled

with snakes. The person took a ring or lemon and put it inside the bowl to provoke

the snakes. He was guilty if they bit him, otherwise he was released. This was a

method used in Calicut.

For Hindus, fasting was on different days. One of the fasts was called Egadexi.

(Ekadesi) during the first ten days of every lunar month. Another was Giwarseri.

(Shivratri) was usually in February. During this Lent, they did not eat, drink or

sleep around the temple for 24 hours. In addition, there was the 22-day

Thiruvadira in the lunar month. It was for women. On such days they ate only a

few, and after the death of a close relative one they had to avoid eating meat, fish,

wine, eggs and betel leaf for a year. Moreover, there was a monthly fast. Those

who have done this should wash themselves on the last day of October, wear

clean clothes, and visit the temple of Vishnu on the morning of 1st November and

the first ten days of December. They ate only milk and plantains , and these days

they never looked at women or remembered anything but names and things

related to Vishnu. He had to start it from the first of December to the 10th of

18
January next year. He had to do this for 12 years. After 12 years of fasting for 40

days beginning from 1 November like this he was counted as a saint.

The thali tied around a woman's neck was a sign of protection and ownership.

There was a woman in Calicut who took off her thali to attract more men because

of her appetite for luxuries.

Some believed that they had been polluted by the touch of someone from a lower

caste. After bathing, they were cleaned. Some people ate banana leaves to keep

the plates from getting dirty. Some people cooked themselves to avoid

contamination.

There were Palanquins used by kings and nobles. Vasco da Gama was taken to the

Zamorin in a Palanquin. The lower castes carried it. There was a facility to sit or

lie on the couch. On some serious occasions, kings and nobles often rode on

elephants. Another mode of transport used by the people of Calicut was the

'Chengadam', which brought together two boats, long and narrow. There were

many ships in Calicut. There was mention of Very giant ships. Can carry up to

seven elephants.

19
Foreign Travellers Mentions About Calicut

ibin batuta has given extensive comments about calicut in which zamorins

administered. he had noted thanneerppandal (water station), it's an institution that

wielded till 19th century and he states that "At the distance of every half mile

there is a house made of wood in which there are chambers fitted up for the

reception of comers and goers, whether they may be Muslims or infidels”. The

mentions that there is a well to provide drinks and that Hindus have been

commissioned to provide drinks. They serve it to the Hindus on vessels and the

Muslims on hand as they are not allowed to touch their vessels or enter their

apartments. If Muslims happened to eat out of their vessel, they smashed it to

pieces. It is not out of disrespect, it is part of Hindu culture. The Muslim

merchants were welcomed in all districts and were greatly respected. Any Muslim

traveller, rich or poor could stay in any Muslim houses and if there were no

Muslims, the Hindu served food for the traveller on banana leaves. "Everybody

has a garden and his house is placed in the middle of it, and round the whole of

this there is a fence of wood up to which the ground of each inhabitant comes",

He commented that by the middle of the fourteenth century the city was extremely

prosperous and the country had become peaceful and defensive . He strives to

highlight the communal peace and unity between Hindus and Muslims, both of

20
which are interdependent as manufacturers and merchants, the majority of

Muslims being good merchants, who contributed richly to the nations, and they

worked well in naval knowledge, He also mentions the culture of the community,

they are good at welcoming guests, even though he is a foreigner, it is said that

even the people of Calicut today like to welcome guests.

Next, we have the account of a Persian ambassador Abdul Razak who sends by

the Persian emperor Sha-rohk to Calicut in 1442. He mentions that “Calicut is the

perfectly secured harbour, which likes that of omurz, brings together merchants

from every city and every country. In it is to be found an abundance of precious

articles brought from maritime countries and especially from Abyssinia, Zazibar,

Zairbad. From time to time ships arrive from the shore of the house of god and

other parts of Hedjaz and abide at will, for grater or longer peace in harbour.

Security and justice are so firmly established in the city,that the most wealthy

merchants bring thither from maritimr countries considerable cargoes, which they

unload and unhesitatingly send into the markets and bazaars, without thinking in

the meantime of any necessity of checking the account or of the custom house

taken upon themselves the charge of looking after the merchandise over which

they keep watch day and night .When a sale is effected, they levy a duty on the

goods of one-fortieth part; if they are not sold they make no charges on them’’ .

Chinese documents give a description of the currency system in Calicut. The

coins are mainly made of silver and gold. Calicut, the gold coin of the palm, the

21
star was popular. King used 60% of the gold in the mint coins. The coin was 1.17

cm in diameter and weighed 37 grams. Historians suggest that the coin had the

same weight.

“In other ports, a strange things practice is adopted. When a vessel sects sail for a

certain point, and suddenly is driven by a degree of divine providence into another

roadstead, the inhabitants, under the pretext that the wind has driven it there,

plunder the ship. But in Calicut every ship, whatever place it might come from, or

wherever it may be bonded , when it puts into the port, is treated like other vessels

and has trouble of any kind to put up with” he too describe about the common

people “the blacks of this country have the body nearly naked; they bear only

bandages round the middle called lankoutah, which descend from the navel to

above the knee. In one hand they hold an Indian poignard, which has the

brilliance of drop of water and in other hand a buckler of ox-hide, which might be

taken for a piece of mist. This costume is common to king and to the beggar”. His

main focus was on the security provided at the port for cargo and ships. This is the

main feature that has attracted foreign traders and merchants, and it has attracted

many new traders due to its free and diplomatic approach by the rule of Calicut.

He tries to write the community by pay attention to their style of dress.

22
Starting Of Trade

Early the Arabian Sea was considered to be part of the Indian Ocean, and later it

was called the Arabian Sea in the period because of their expansion and the

supremacy of their trade. The main benefit of the traders was the monsoon wind

which provided a free and annual transport system for sailing vessels especially

the great Romans, Persians, and Syrians etc. and after the rise of Islam in Arabia

they also joined, in fact, Kozhikode became the melting pot of religion, culture

and races"

in the time of the roman empire, the main traded goods were pepper, ivory,

sandalwood, scent, and spices. The Malabar had the monopoly of pepper, after the

downfall of the roman empire the Arabs took their position in trade they

overwhelmed the leadership of trade.

by the middle of the 14th century, most of the natural old harbours had become

unsuited for crowded trade, or to hold more vessels, also due to great flood the

sandbanks had choked the movement harbours mainly in the kodugallour regions.

Thus the Arabs were in search of a new opening and so found Calicut and at the

23
beginning of 12 the century the famous long term friendship of Hindu and Muslim

elevate the fortune of Calicut

Agriculture Of Calicut

John Kieenwicks views (12th to 1st - 8th century) Calicut society as "an open,

dynamic and autonomous system rooted in the natural environment, consisting of

a caste system, the division of a caste society, and joint ownership of land and

some other societies." And financial relations. This community is internally

balanced, maintains ecological balance and is self-contained. ”In Calicut,

subsistence and commercial crops were cultivated. In the fifteenth century,

foreign trade with Arabs, Chinese, Jews, and Christians led to the expansion of

the agrarian economy, reflecting the traditional economy, by the Parambu-

Purayidam Sampad Vyavastha , that is, the plot-based economy and the plot

adjoining the house. In addition to Parambu and / or Puraidam produced cash

crops and subsistence crops. The origin of this arrangement can be traced back to

the Perumal period.

Between the twelfth and eighth centuries the importance of the series increased

with the inclusion of forests, shady areas and fields. Non-cultivated trees (teak,

ebony, etc.), fruit trees (mango, jackfruit, tamarind, gooseberry) and harvested

trees (coconut, lobster, pepper) were grown in the range and in the Puraidam.
24
These included fruits, grains, legumes, root crops, and vegetables, while other

crops, such as ginger, tamarind, and pepper, were traded. The Portuguese traded

in coconut oil, copra, rope and arca nuts which were products extracted from the

crops grown in the Parambu and Purayidam. As the foreign demand for certain

horticultural products motivated traders to trade in these commodities, there was a

gradual expansion of the monetary economy in relation to the market. Thus

encouraging the expansion of small-scale farming.

Calicut A Centri-Petal Force

The rise of Calicut is one of the causes and consequences of the rise of the

Zamorins in Kerala. Its trade filled their coffers and enabled them to extend their

power. The development of the country increased its trade. The barren strip of

barren forest was turned into a strong seaport by humanitarian efforts, and the

Arabs and Chinese exchanged Western products with the eastern nations. From

the west came the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, the Jews, the

Romans, the Arabs, the East Africans, the Chinese from the East, and others from

Southeast Asia. The policy of tolerance of the Zamorins, complete freedom of

worship, concessions and protection given to foreign traders gradually made

Calicut more popular than any other port on the west coast. Calicut has the highest

concentration of Muslims. The main part of Zamor's income comes from trade . .

25
He controlled and regulated Calicut's internal and external trade. Gradually, the

port city of Calicut developed into a major center for foreign trade. The Zamorins

devised a special market strategy for trade. The commissioner of the Calicut port

was a Muslim named Shahbandar Koya, appointed by the Zamorin. He was

known as Kozhikode Koya or Harbor Master. As a port official, Shahbandar Koya

will have to collect from the broker at the rate of the fans all the ships that dock at

Calicut, and levy the voting tax on the fans of Pandharkada and the fans of

Beypore. He was assisted by Menon, Menoki and Chettis. Menon checked the

goods and kept the accounts. Menoki worked as a broker. Valankai Chetty was

one of the business operations supervisors. Mahuvan gives details about various

aspects of Kozhikode trade. The growth of Calicut occurred for a number of

reasons. At first it was the capital of a developing country.

Secondly, it commanded waterways, and thirdly, the Muslims chose this port to

carry their cargo more than any other country on the west coast. With the support

of the Muslims, the Zamorin enjoyed the prosperity of Calicut. Calicut owes its

importance to the ability of its ruler, but often to the help they received from

Muslim merchants. Many factors contributed to the development of Calicut as a

maritime trading center. Rich climate and winter terrain are one of the most

important features of agricultural production, forest resources and governance

structure. The availability of minerals such as clay, iron or gold contributed to the

growth of handicraft production and the stability of the handicraft groups in

26
Calicut. The availability of mineral resources such as clay, iron or gold

contributed to the growth of Karaka production shala production and the stability

of Karaka is shala groups in Calicut. Foreign tourists witnessed a lot of freedom

and security in Calicut. ‘Calicut’, a perfectly safe port, brings together traders

from all cities and all countries like Ormus. The last but most important of the

reasons for making Calicut a meeting place of nations was Manavikraman's

religious policy. People enjoyed complete freedom of worship

Changing The Trade And Economy

Historically, trade and commerce were the most important economic activities in

Kozhikode. In the absence of local Hindu and Christian business communities,

Muslims actively participated. Trade and commerce is also relevant to the local

Muslims, who clearly link these activities with the subsequent renewal of the

spread and development of Islam in the region through commercial interactions

with Arab traders and scholars. This long-standing relationship is doubly

significant: few Kozhikode Muslims claim that Hadrami (Yemen) is a direct

descendant of Syed traders who settled throughout the northern coastal state of

27
Kerala. Many others see themselves as the successors of marriages between local

aristocratic women and Arab Muslims. These claims give a discourse on the

inviolability of the common currency and economic practice in Kozhikode.

Throughout its history, Kozhikode has been steeped in the spread of people,

ideas and goods across the Indian Ocean. It was rich in maritime trade from the

tenth to the fifteenth century, and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it

developed rapidly as a trading center between West Asia, Southeast Asia and

South Asia. . Like other Indian Ocean port cities, pre-colonial Kozhikode had a

large number of visitors or resident traders from the East (China, Java, Ceylon)

and the West (Egypt, Yemen and Persia). During Ibn Battuta's visit in 1342, the

chief merchant and port master was an Ibrahim from Bahrain, who suggested a

strong Arab presence and confirmed the presence of a Qazi (Muslim judge) of

Arab origin in both mosques. Nearly a century later, the Chinese Muslim traveler

Ma Huan reported that many of the King's subjects in Kozhikode were Muslims

and that there were twenty or thirty mosques in the country, and the king

appointed two Muslim rulers.

"In the fourteenth century, a Hindu ruler hosted four thousand foreign Muslim

merchants," writes Engsheng Ho. Arriving in 1498, Vasco da Gama launched a

long and bloody struggle to deregulate the pepper trade. Moores, “Muslim traders

from Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula The presence and activities of a significant

Arab-Muslim commercial community are well documented but obscure. What is

28
known, however, is that the resistance against the Portuguese invasion revolved

around the Malayalee Muslim seafarers led by the famous Marakars. The

Portuguese ship was never able to control trade off the Malabar Coast: Arab dows

and Malayalee boats, mainly operated by Muslim workers - constantly defied the

siege and obstructed European trade by piracy whenever the opportunity. In the

early nineteenth century, maritime trade was in British hands, and inter-coastal

trade (in Bombay and Surat / Kach) was Gujarati-owned and man-made boats. As

witnessed by the construction of several mosques in the Arab-sponsored city, the

Kozhikode Muslims and their Arab partners continued to move goods between

Malabar and the Arabian Peninsula, which the British considered to be of no

economic importance.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Malayalee Muslims lived mainly in towns

and villages along the Malabar or river banks, all places where they could trade.

From the nineteenth century to the mid-1980s, the colonial and post-colonial

economies gave a major impetus to local trade: Kozhikode became a global hub

for timber exports and later a commercial hub for copra. Emerging as a major rice

market in the region, the city also saw a revival of trade from the Arabian

Peninsula. But when the Muslims of Kozhikode speak of the rise of trade and

commerce in the city, they constantly refer to the relatively recent period from

1947 to the mid-1980s.

29
The end of the colonial period saw the emergence of a small, affluent, local

Muslim middle class - mostly timber merchants and Gulf merchants - mainly

Anglophile and modern orientation, supporting Islamic and British inspiring

reform initiatives. For example, the introduction of modern and rational methods

in education, business and family life .Colonial trade rules were removed after

independence In addition to the expansion of domestic demand, local businesses

were also fined, Trade in Kozhikode bazaars increased. Luckily, the city the

economy is booming

Calicut Relation With Chinese

The trade relationship between China and India dates back to the last century BC.

This early trade in raw silk, silk thread, and silk fabrics grew from the Chinese

and Central Asian regions to a land route to the eastern part of the Roman Empire.

By the middle of the first century, a portion of Chinese silk was exported through

India. China received many articles from the cultures where silk was obtained.

Various texts from the middle of the first millennium give a long list of articles

brought to China by the Persians. In the past, pepper was one of the various spices

widely known as the products of the hilly regions of Kerala. It is said that during

30
the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) the kings paid special attention to

improving the facilities for maritime trade. Large ships were also built for sea

voyages. During the ninth and tenth centuries, Chinese ships were common on the

coast of Kerala, especially at Kollam and Calicut, in search of spices and articles.

This marks the beginning of a logically long period of Sino-Indian contact for six

centuries. Many aspects of Chinese trade and commerce are described in medieval

travellers and sailors of the 13th to 15th centuries. According to Chinese scholars,

Calicut was known to the Chinese as early as the twelfth century. According to

Ling Deida, the Chinese used to call Calicut Nanpiraj. During this period, Arabian

traders like Haji in Siang may have imported pepper to China from Calicut.

Chinese Foreign Trade Inspector Chou-ju-kua compiled his work Chu-Fan-chi in

1225. It contains valuable information about Chinese relations with Ceylon and

hence the Malabar Coast.

In 1292, Marco Polo recorded that the Chinese dominated trade in Malabar.

Articles such as pepper, ginger, and nutmeg were the main commodities. Marco

Polo saw many ships (Chinese ships for Indian trade) in the ports of Saitun. These

ships traded with Malabar, especially at Calicut, with a crew of 200-300 each.

These ships took home 5000-6000 baskets of pepper. Along with peppers,

Chinese traders also bought ginger, indigo and turmeric from the quilon. There

was a good demand outside for the best fabrics available in Bakran and Calicut.

31
These Chinese ships delivered silk, gold, silver, copper, porcelain, cloves and

spikenard to Calicut.

At present near to the Arabian Sea in the Calicut town, we can see a street named

silk street which reminds us of the ancient maritime spice route between Calicut

and china that flourished between the 2nd-century BC and 15th century AD

uniting traders from India to China, Southeast Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and

Europe.

Calicut has been a great melting pot of genres and we can detect people in this

town has all kinds of complexion and features. This can be attributed to the social

and commercial intercourse of sea traders from far and wide mingling with the

locals. Four centuries between 1125, after the decline of the Perumals and 1498,

before the arrival of Europeans in Kerala. Kozhikode grew into an important

trading port. The Arabs received goods from the West to exchange goods brought

by the Chinese from the Far East. There is a reference in the history of Kerala to

this trade between Kerala and China.Historical accounts go far beyond navigators

such as Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama, referring to Cheng Ho (Zheng

He), a prominent Admiral and explorer of the early Ming Dynasty in China in the

early fifteenth century.

32
Historical records state that he visited Calicut seven times with more than 20,000

men in 1403 AD and was tagged in 60 treasure ships, ten times larger than his

contemporaries. It is said that he fell ill and was buried at sea off the coast of

Calicut during a naval expedition in the Indian Ocean. Ma Huan, the Chinese

sailor of this Imperial Chinese ship, praises Calicut as a great trading emporium of

trade between Kerala and China, which is regularly visited by traders from all

over the world. "He mentions in Calicut much pepper is grown on the hills.

Coconut is extensively cultivated; many farmers owning a thousand trees; those

having a plantation of three hundred are looked upon as wealthy proprietors. The

king belongs to the Nayar class his overseer, being a Mahomedan, does not eat

pork. Thus led it is said in times past, to a compact being made between the king

and hid overseer to the fact that if the king would give up eating pork, the

overseer will give up eating beef. This compact has most scrupulously observed

by the successors of both parties up to the present day.many of the kings subjects

are mahomedans, and there are twenty or thirty mosques in the kingdom, to which

the people resort every seventh day for worship. On this day, during the morning,

the people being at the mosques, no business is transacted; and the after part of

the day the services being over, business is resumed.”

We can easily trace Chinese influence in Calicut society for that should not be an

anthropologist; it is very clear and striking. The main attraction of Kozhikode is

the Chinese fishing net called Cheena vala which is widely seen on the beaches,

33
we all must have seen its gorgeous photo which exhibits the beauty of Calicut, its

heritage. The net was first introduced in the 14th century. They also contribute

some of the culinary deities that are integral to Kerala cuisine, such as Chinese

pots (cheena chatti) a deep, thick and round cooking utensils. Chinese influence

on Malayalee cuisine from the Middle Kingdom

it is believed to have introduced by Chinese marner and diplomat Zeng He in the

area. they also left some culinary cult, the cheena chatti , its the deep thick and

circular cooking pot that is integral to Kerala cuisine, Cheena Bharani (Chinese

Jars) etc.The Chinese influence on the dishes found in the Malayalee cuisine, the

kozhikatta a dumplings that are similar to dim sum , nool puttu is another which is

similar to nodules and even porridge is similar to the cantonese congee etc

Cheenam Palli – a mosque in Panthalayani, Calicut all this shows how much the

Chinese had influenced the life of Calicut .At Kappad, 20 km from the city and a

former Trading Mart has a large joint venture called Chinnacheri which means

Chinese Settlement

34
Relation With Arab

The rise of the Zamorins and the growth of Calicut as a major trading center It

took place around 1200-150. From the ninth century, the Arabs began to play a

major role in trade between the East and the West. The first Muslim occupation of

India was carried out by Sindh in 711 under the leadership of Qasim from Basra. .

With the advent of Islam came great inspiration for travel, trade, and adventure,

which lasted until the fourteenth century, when the Muslims retreated into the

background and lost their hegemony.

In the 10th and 11th centuries, trade from India to the west was controlled by

the Arabs of Tunisia, Morocco and Tripoli. Their main trading center in the

Middle East was Ayidhab on the shores of the Red Sea. From there the Arabs

established trade relations with Kerala, especially with Calicut. They established

their own settlement in Calicut. After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, which

35
overthrew Halagu in 1258, the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt assumed political

control. Thus the Arab merchants of Cairo, known as the Kareem merchants,

began to board a new ship from the revived port of Aden to the newly established

Calicut. The Arabs made Calicut their home, and they helped Zamorin’s for

expansion of his territory helped support the expansion of trade. The rise and

prosperity of Calicut was due to the support of Muslim traders. Under Zamorin's

patronage they settled largely under his domination, increasing wealth and power

through trade.

Calicut has become one of the major ports in Malabar and one of the largest

ports in the world. It was visited by people from China, Sumatra, Ceylon,

Maldives, Yemen and the Fars and gathered traders from all over. The prosperity

of Calicut meant many other things, including the victory of the Cairo traders over

their rivals from southern China, and the eruption of trade animosity between

China and the Arabs. The Zamorins sympathize with the Arabs more than the

Chinese. Pepper, ginger, cardamom, spices, some balm, achilles and sandalwood

were exported to Arab ships. Of these, pepper has gained prominence in the world

market. Arab traders shipped with spices, incense, ivory, sandal and cotton and

silk, which were in great demand in the Western world. Chinese silk and ceramics

were taken to the Western and Arab worlds through Calicut and Pantalayani

Kollam. Until the expulsion of the Portuguese in the 1st century, all sea barns

between the East and the West were monopolized by the Arabs.

36
 Calicut had an important place in the history of medieval Calicut as a major

center of trade. The port of Calicut was started from Kalai during the reign of the

Zamorins. In the south, it extended to Beypore and in the north to Korapuzha. It

was a well-built port. Thus the port of Calicut became an important trading center

during the reign of the Zamorins of Calicut. The most important emporia of trade

on the Malabar Coast is the trade between the Arabs and the Chinese in the Indian

Ocean and Calicut. Calicut has a special significance as a center of exports and re-

exports in the middle Ages. The port was open and had a safe environment for

good commercial and administrative planning and stable government trade.

Mappila Muslims Of Calicut

Mappila Muslim culture is a mixture of Indian and Arabian traditions and its

origin can be traced back to pre-Islamic Arabia. It is believed that Arab traders

used to travel to calicut regularly even before the rise of Islam in Arabia. Their

historical significance gave them a unique language, culture, religion and social

life. The genesis and development of Islamic society in kerala especially in

Calicut is quite different from the process of expansion of islam in northern and

central india. in Calicut the muslime community did not spring up in the wake of

muslime conquest but developed peacefully as an accompaniment to muslime

commercial expansion.

during the 8th century the early settlers of malabar came from the red sea coast

,south Arabia and the gulf region Again in contrast to the Muslims of North India
37
they speak Malayalam, the language everybody speaks in Kerala. They faced a

severe crisis of Arab and Malayalam identities. When they faced a crisis to reach

out to the community and the greater Malabar, Mappila found a new way to

express and share identity. It was the Arabic-Malayalam language that was the

religious need of Mappila.When Islam was introduced on the coast of Kerala, the

people known as Mappila did not change completely, did not accept Arabic as

their mother tongue and did not want to abandon Malayalam. The rich heritage of

this community written language reflects the rich history of cultural interactions

as it is a sensitive barometer of the social and historical conditions of the Maple

community. Instead, they invented a new language, Arabic-Malayalam, into the

community. This new language played an important role in shaping and

discussing the Mappila identity.

Apart from the language, Mappila Muslims have absorbed elements of the

surrounding Hindu culture in many areas of social life such as dress and food

habits, marriage practices like the tying of the tali and paying dowry to the

bridegroom, but also the stratification of Muslim society. A striking example for

the assimilation of the Mappila Muslims is the architectural style of the ancient

mosques, which resembles very much the style of the typical Malabar Hindu

temples. Parts of the Muslim community also have adapted the matrilineal family

system typical of some Kerala Hindu communities. At the same time Mappila

Muslims have stayed a distinct community of their own, with specific cultural

38
features of their own. Let me just mention some of them: their beliefs, the Arabic

and Urdu fragments in their language, their food, parts of their dress code, their

songs, epics, and dances, their music and their own characteristic varieties of

matriliny.

The history of the Muslims of Calicut is strongly intertwined with the general

history of Malabar and Calicut. Before the Portuguese came, the Muslims were a

well-recognized, wealthy and accepted minority, which supported the politics of

the Zamorins, and which made its living mainly by trade across the Indian Ocean,

contributing strongly to the cosmopolitan atmosphere in the city.After the advent

of the Portuguese, and in the periods which followed, their significance and their

status in society declined steadily. Already the beginning of the relationship

between the Portuguese and the Mappila Muslims was set by mutual

misunderstandings and distrust due to the ongoing hostilities between Christians

and Muslims since the crusades. This was the starting point of a fierce struggle for

trade dominance in this region which lasted nearly 100 years. In the end, the

Mappila Muslims lost their leading role in trade and society. Cultural assimilation

was one of the most significant aspects of Mappila history. The marriage of Hindu

women to Arabs has historically helped to shape a new generation of Mappilas.

39
Influence Of Europe

The foreigners not only the trade relationships with Kozhikode but also there were

many factories and warehouse near to the sea of several foreign firms especially

the French, European, and Chinese. The French was having a loge on 6 acres near

to the seashore, as well as many English and Scottish companies. Particularly the

French were having the commercial privilege, there landed property and houses

were untaxed also they extended to exercise fiscal and judicial authority. in the

middle of the 19th, century many Europeans had decided to establish their career

in India, so many Europeans companies like Volkart Brothers, Harrison and

Crossfield, William Goodacre company etc. started there office and warehouse in

Kozhikode. It’s their pioneering efforts and initiative to open up the impassable

forest and set bases for flourishing wealthy tea, coffee, and rubber plantation

which are having a high influence even on today's economy of Kozhikode, they

had played an important part in the history of trade and had influenced the

economic and cultural life of Kozhikode

Relation with Portuguese

40
The contact between India and Portugal, which opened with the first voyage of

Vasco da Gama, was a unique event in the history of Portugal and India. For the

Portuguese, it was the culmination of their national effort, which began decades

ago. 'It was the success of a journey in search of Christians and spices.On May 20,

1498, Vasco-Dama landed at Calicut, creating a storm in the calm waters of

Indian politics. For India, it was the beginning of the Vasco da Gama era in Indian

history. It was the beginning of regular contact with a Western European country

that lasted in Malabar for more than a century and a half. Thus the Calicut Empire,

with its good ruler, honest people, the greatest Mart, Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, Ma

Juan, Abdurazak, and Pirard de Lovell, described very clearly this landing of

Vasco-Dagama on May 20, 1498. Some knew that the 'discovery' of the Good

Hope Cape was a bad day for the Maple, from which they 'recovered wealth and

glory'. According to Frederick Dale, "The arrival of the Portuguese was

devastating to Malayalam society as the destruction of the Mughal Empire was

devastating to the Muslims of North India."

Portuguese entry into the Indian Ocean was not motivated by the idea of

commercial gain. The Portuguese first came in contact with the Zamorin, the ruler

of Calicut. During his first visit, the Zamorin received Vasco da Gama with

respect, but he later proved to be "the biggest problem of the Portuguese in

41
Malabar". In fact, his first mission to promote Portuguese trade in Calicut was a

diplomatic failure. Pedro Alvarez Cabral succeeded in obtaining a trade permit

and building a factory in Calicut from Zamorin. But when the Portuguese failed to

stockpile spices in the market, they became hostile to the Arab traders. The

ensuing battle repulsed the entire Portuguese population.

In his second meeting with the Zamorin, Vasco da Gama demanded that Muslims

be deported from the city and that no Muslim be allowed to enter any of his ports

or engage in any form of trade. Zamorin refused and declared; "The port of

Calicut will always be open to the public, and it is impossible to forbid anyone

from trading with Calicut, whether a Muslim or not, as well as expelling and

expelling Muslims from Calicut. . On November 2, 1498, his ship began to attack

the city. It was stopped when the captain pointed out that the ships were being

damaged. Revenge of the Zamorin's guns was not effective, and Barrows

commented that "their shots are like bowls". The attack continued to be "the most

brutal act of Indo-Portuguese relations."

As Vasco da Gama exits Calicut, a float of 24 Calicut boats appears. The boats

were seized along with 800 crew members who behaved very brutally. The

Brahmin messenger of Zamorin, who had his arms and ears cut off, was sent to

the king in a small bowl with a palm leaf letter, instructing him to make curry to
42
eat what his Brahmin had brought. Vasco da Gama's anger was appropriately

reflected in the message sent by the Zamorin. Successive Portuguese captains

brutally tried to compete with the Mappilas and other locals. Sanjay Subramaniam

notes the differences in Vasco-de-Gama's policy in the Atlantic and West India

regarding the Portuguese aggression in the western Indian Ocean. He ignores the

same fact when he says, "The violence before Vasco da Gama was confined to the

land."

Some historians in Kerala seem to have ignored Populis' national policy, and in

King's letters to the Papal Bulls and neighboring rulers, the Portuguese sought to

reduce the burden of cruelty. K.M. Panicker observes that "the Portuguese king

could not have chosen a bad official to establish peaceful relations and trade with

the Indian rulers." Cabral had no strategy or foresight. He was proud to suspect

humiliation in all innocent movements. If the goal of Portuguese entry into Indian

waters was "economic power, regulation of the spice trade and acquisition of

property related to the Orient",

On the one hand, there was war between Zamor and his Mappila allies, and

between the Portuguese and her allies, the Malabar princes, who were divided.

The Maples also sought outside help. They had the advantage of various foreign

Muslim communities and they became traders in Calicut. . These were Indian

Muslim traders and seafarers from Gujarat, the Coromandel and Bengal. They are

Hindu-caste converts from Gujarat, Malabar, Coromandel and Bengal. They

43
converted in the 14th century. Showed an active interest in joining hands with the

Zamorins in Egypt. Among the Muslim rulers, the sultans of Bijapur and the

Pasha of Egypt showed an active interest in joining hands with the Zamorins. The

Tuhfat-al-Mujahideen of Zainuddin was dedicated to Sultan Ali Adil Shaikh of

Bijapur. A.D. In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa. The Portuguese intervention

and Cartas' involvement in the coastal trade affected the economy of Gujarat. In

1508, the Zamorin's naval alliance, the Afro-Asian Front, was formed with Sultan

Kansavul Gouri of Egypt and Sultan Muhammad Begra of Gujarat to fight the

Portuguese and expel them from the Indian Ocean. In January 1508, Egyptian and

Indian ships, led by Amir Hussein, the Kurdish governor of Jeddah, and Malik

Ayas, the governor of Diu, defeated the Portuguese ship under Dom Lorenko at

Chaul. The Portuguese suffered great losses. Capt. Dom Lorenko, the son of

Governor Almeida, himself was killed in Chaul. KS "The first trade war in India

was a heavy blow to the Portuguese," explains Mathew. Almeida himself marched

for revenge, and the two armies met at Du, however, but on February 3, 1509 AD,

the Agro-Asian Front was defeated. This led to the defeat of the Indo-Egyptian

forces and Almeida's secret alliance with Malik Ayas.

The service of the Marakkar family and their encounter with the Portuguese in

building an efficient navy under the Zamorin is commendable. This pioneering

effort of the Kunhali Marakkars along with the Zamorin delayed the ‘European

expansion process on the Malabar coast’. Instead of a direct fight in the

44
‘Coverpad’ (Suicide Squad) tradition, the Kunchies used ‘hit and run’ tactics.

They used cruisers and small boats to navigate both the deep and the shallow

waters. However, the redefinition of the struggle of the Mappilas under Kunchalis

reveals how the dreams of the Portuguese were established with the constant

support of the Zamorins in Calicut. 'Estado da India Portuguese' collapsed It also

explains why the Portuguese had to satisfy their ‘coastal empire’.

The Portuguese were never concerned with the caste or jati distinctions They

associated freely with all classes of people. There were no missionaries on

Gamma's first voyage, as there was no missionary activity in the original plan of

the Portuguese on their voyage to India. The names of the two priests may have

been included in the ship's roll book to serve as chaplains on the ship are

Recorded. The second ship to reach Malabar under Pedro Alvarez Cabril was

carrying 1300 men and 8 Franciscan monks who arrived in Calicut as Portuguese

missionaries. These missionaries assisted the Portuguese soldiers as chaplains and

assisted in missionary work. In India. As soon as the Portuguese arrived in Calicut

under Cabril, a Portuguese flag was hoisted and an altar was erected for the Holy

Mass in the house provided by the Zamorin for the Portuguese to stay. The two

blessings that Cabral requested of zamorin were permission for free trade and the

Christian faith. Zamorin gave permission for this. Moores was against it. .

The first missionary sermon was delivered by commentators, whose idea was the

uniqueness of Christianity and the need for conversion. A few of them converted,

45
and one yogi received the name Miguel Miguel Baptism. In the beginning, people

did not have much interest in converting to Christianity. But later, various needs

arising from their social life forced people to convert. In Quilon, Few people are

interested in converting to Christianity. These few lived in extreme poverty. Many

Hindu women came for conversion, due to the ongoing wars in India very few

Portuguese women traveled to India, rarely more than a dozen women on a ship,

including six hundred and eighty men. Under such circumstances, Portuguese

men were able to interact freely with Malabar women. During the Viceroyalty of

Almeida, many Portuguese men were found to have befriended indigenous Hindu

and Muslim women. Mothers would go to Portugal with their virgin daughters to

earn money. In such a context, the Viceroy forbade the Portuguese to sleep with

non-Christian women with severe punishment. So many women came for

baptism. It was later found that baptism was motivated by financial gain rather

than conviction in matters of faith. The missionaries were asked if the conversion

was motivated by pure faith in Jesus Christ. However, a new mixed community of

Portuguese and natives began to grow around the forts. Since people did not

receive good instruction on the faith before baptism, there were catechism classes

that gave advice related to the Catholic faith and the life of the saints and the

Catholic life. Usually, on Sundays men and on Saturdays women were called to

various places for these religious instructions. Thus slowly the lies of Hinduism

were poured out on them.

46
People used to live together in Calicut. Sometimes many relatives lived together

on the same roof. People lived together with their relatives after their conversion

to Christianity, many of whom were non-Christians. They even shared a house

with Muslims. Afonso de Albuquerque. . Arriving in calicut, he discovered this

strange way of life of the new Christians. He asked the Christians to stay away

from the influence of Hindu elements and live in separate areas. Thus the newly

baptized were separated from the society and culture in which they had lived for

centuries. This shows a definite rift in social relations with the change in the

customs of the land on which they have lived for centuries.Their social customs

changed with the transformations. Wedding ceremonies are completely different.

The Portuguese demanded legal priests and witnesses for the marriage. When it

comes to marriage, there should be no barriers like previous marriage or family.

People without church interruptions can only get married.

After the conversion to Christianity some of the lower castes were able to touch

the Nair and 'walk freely through the streets of the king', a major change which

affected a traditional society like Malabar was the high mobility in the caste

system was not possible

Calicut -Portuguese Creole

47
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, Portuguese colonial involvement with

Calicut introduced the Portuguese language to the region. The main channels for

the expansion of the Portuguese across the continent were political domination,

trade, and missionary activity. Later, colonial and evangelical agendas had to add

to the immigration movements of the Luso-Asian communities, which were

independent of the Portuguese. This has been documented before, because

Portuguese (or its derivatives), the first European colonial language to have a

stable presence in the East, gained widespread currency in the region and in some

cases served as a lingua franca.

The above considerations are to illustrate the close relationship between research

on Creole languages and the social history of their loci. For the purposes of this

article, special emphasis will be given to the Portuguese-Lecified Creole of

Calicut (taken here to include the whole of present-day Kerala, i.e. the

Malayalam-speaking region of India). In this area, at least in Kannur, Tellicherry,

Wayanad, Mahe, Calicut, Kranganur, Vypin, Kochi, Alleppey, Kayamkulam,

Quilon and Anjenko, there are scattered references to the speaking of such creole

to the hinterland. Malayalam is the main language in sixteenth century Calicut as

it is today. There is no doubt that Portuguese and Malayalam are the most

important sources of grammatical structures identified in modern Calicut Creole.

In fact, if anything, Calicut Creole, developed from a contact equation that

includes only two languages - is different from the Creole formed in slave-

48
dependent gardens. However, this would simplify the case, given the evidence

that Portuguese overseas expansion is a very mass (and, therefore, multilingual)

enterprise. On the one hand, the Calicut trading ports, first inhabited by the

Portuguese, were, at that time, already inhabited by a large population. In

addition, multilingual Asians soon became involved in shipping, trade, and

military service in the service of the Portuguese. For example, it can be gleaned

from information about the structure of ships that sailed for the Portuguese in

sixteenth-century Asia.

Culinary Culture

Culinary culture has always been an important indicator that reflects the history

experienced by an area, and also plays a large role in defining who we are. There

is not a single parable to describe the Malabar cuisine, the communities of

Calicut, their culture, ethnicity and history. Food is an indispensable part of the

49
lifestyle and culture of the calicut Coast. The diversity of the malabar cuisine is

the result of numerous interactions with the cultures that traded and settled in

calicut. Malabar cuisine also gained culinary knowledge from local cuisine, with

major influences from Arabs, Portuguese, Chinese, etc., who lived with the

religion and established their culture. It has so far focused on the political

economy, laws, and traditions. Their contributions to culture and society are

welcome. The location of Calicut is a factor that transcends the rich culinary

history of the region. The region served as a channel connecting the trade routes

of the various empires. It was in Calicut that the Portuguese explorer Vasco da

Gama became the first European to reach India by the Atlantic Ocean. Malabar

hosted all immigrants and their culture without any panic and in the process

adapted and evolved itself, Malabar culinary culture underwent a paradigm shift,

incorporating various dishes and cultures of the world.Rice was the staple food of

the people. But paddy was not cultivated in abundance. There was a shortage of

food in Calicut. Rice was brought from bhatical to Calicut. Calicut had a major

moor called the Marmar, with 70 ships, which carried food to Calicut. Calicut did

not have enough rice as it was full of palm trees and coconut trees all the time.

Although the people had some paddy cultivation, it was not enough for the

family's livelihood. The people of Malabar ate a lot of rice, vegetables and dried

fish. Paddy was widely cultivated in the areas between Mount Eli and Goa .They

served as the source of paddy in Calicut. A lot of rice was imported to Calicut

from the Coromandel Coast. Some of the Hindus ate fish and meat, but they don’t
50
eat beef. There were fruits like jackfruit, Figs (Bananas), Mangoes etc. An

important example of this cultural spread can be seen in the making of pattiri (a

bread made from rice flour) because the Arabs love bread, while the Keralites

(natives of Kerala) have a strong attachment to rice, hence the dish called pathiri.

A variety of pastries and breads are a must in this area for dipping, scooping and

filling. The Arab influence can also be seen in some of the techniques used to

prepare food. For example, ghee is widely used in Malabar cuisine and the rest of

the state is heavily dependent on coconut oil. Ghee made from cattle raised by the

Arabs is also used. Malabar's appetite for stuffed meat comes from the Middle

East. As with a variety of stuffed dishes in Arabic cuisine, Malabar cuisine

includes chicken talayana (baked chicken stuffed with boiled eggs from whole

dough), arikaduka (mussels stuffed with fragrant rice and coconut paste), red

chillies and pazhappam with pazhamparuppam Ghee fried)

Conclusion

In the opening chapter of this research, the question arises as to how permanently

the interaction with foreign society and culture affected calicut. In subsequent

chapters, an attempt was made to show how the intervention of foreign trade

affected the various communities in Calicut through their responses. Acquisition

played a very important role in the transformation of Calicut society. Local

51
response to the intervention of foreign traders varies depending on the attitude of

foreigners and the response of indigenous religious communities.

Calicut society and culture were completely different from the trading countries.

The society of Calicut was divided into different sub-cultures based on religion.

The major religions of Calicut during this period were Hinduism, Christianity,

Islam and Judaism. The socio-cultural relationship of each religion is determined

by the traditions that existed in the society. . The authority of the Zamorin

associated with the legend of Cheraman Perumal and the immense wealth brought

by Muslims and other merchants from all over the world were widely

acknowledged. The Malabar community was culturally integrated and had a way

of life of their own.

During the boom in international trade, two new divisions emerged in Calicut. As

a result of mixed marriages and new conversions, they were mixed races, and the

mixed races had a different way of life from the local way of life. Many of them

imitated the Western way of life. The arrival of the Jesuits on the Calicut coast

was a stimulus to missionary activity at a dormant stage. With the establishment

of schools, hospitals, and charities, many changes took place in the community

and culture in the field of social welfare. according to the needs of the time The

way of life of each culture changed by foreign influence. Thus the culture that

started in Calicut as a result of contact with foreign traders brought about many

changes in the framework of society and culture. It is a manifestation of society.

52
In this process of integration, the influence of kings, religious and trade ties

served as a means of socio-cultural change. The impact of this change was felt

more in the coastal communities due to the intense intervention of the traders in

the coastal areas.

The peoples of Calicut were not having any ethnocentrism. . As a result of the

meeting between the two cultures, division and social integration took place. That

underwent acculturation. Although the involvement of foreigners in Calicut came

to an end, the socio-cultural characteristics they abandoned in Calicut affected

society and culture for centuries to come. The socio-cultural changes that have

taken place in Calicut as a result of the intervention of traders show that socio-

cultural changes are taking place in "host cultures" due to the power, and by

“guest cultures".

Illustrations

53
Figure 1: Calicut- City along the Indian Ocean (source: https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/the-
indian-spice-trade-in-search-for-knowledge-and-riches%C2%A0/eQLii3aIo8xmKA)

Figure 2: Cheenam palli (source: https://apwhcities.weebly.com/calicut.html)

Figure 3: silk street

Bibliography

54
PUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES

 M.G.S.Narayanan, calicut,the city of truth revisited, Calicut, 2006

 Baldaeus, Philip, A True and exact Description of the Most Celebrated

East-India

 Ayyar.k.v.krishna, The zamorins of calicut-from the earliest times to

AD,1806, Calicut, 1938

 P.P.Mammad, the history of Muslims of Kozhikode.

 Mathew,K,S., Society In Medieval Malabar , kottayam,1997.

 Nambiar,O.K,The Kunjalis – Admiral Of Calicut, Bombay,1942

 Menon.A.Sreedhran, a survey of Kerala history,kottayam,1967

SECONDARY SOURCES

 Ahmad, Afzal. Portuguese Trade and Socio-economic changes on the

Western Coast of india (16110- 1663). Delhi. 2000

 Correia, Jose Manuel. 01.7 Portuguese no malabar(1498-1580), Lisboa,

1997

 Dale, islamic Society on the South Asian ,frontier, the mapilas of malabar

1498- 1922, Oxford, 1980

 John, James, The portuguese and the socio-cultural changes in Malabar:

1498-1663 Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses

55
 T.Sandeep ,Acquiring the Power of Natives: The Socio-Economic

Transition of Malabar into the Colonial Economy, 1792-1812. October

2014,International Journal of Social Sciences and Management

 M.H. Ilias, Mappila Muslims and the Cultural Content of Trading Arab
Diaspora on the Malabar Coast, Asian Journal of Social Science,2007

56
,

57