Key Steps and Methods in the
Development of Low Noise Engines
Christian V. Beidl, Alfred Rust and Michael Rasser, AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria
The next generation of automotive engines will have to meet
Euro 4 or similar exhaust emission limits, ideally with im-
proved fuel economy and with noise emission which is at least
3 dBA below current levels. Using both simulation and experi-
mental analysis, these challenging requirements can only be
fulfilled by clearly defining all key steps in NVH development
and by applying suitable technological methods. This article
describes those phases of the entire development process
which are decisive for engine NVH: the concept and design
phase, the combustion and mechanical development phase
and the NVH development and refinement phase. Related me-
thodical approaches are discussed such as the close interac-
tion between simulation and test bed work or the enhanced
consideration of noise quality aspects using appropriate noise
annoyance descriptors.
The boundary conditions of engine NVH (Noise, Vibration
and Harshness) development work are as simple as they are dif-
ficult to achieve. Relevant data must be available at the right
time with an accuracy which is sufficient for making reliable
design decisions. An important aspect in improving this pro-
cess is a thorough integration of simulation and experimental
analysis. This does not necessarily mean the use of a highly
integrated analysis system, it is far more important to use con-
sistent evaluation schemes and effective model updating pro-
cedures instead of unidirectional verification processes.
A major characteristic of NVH development work is the con-
tinuous change of critical aspects and the balance of influenc-
ing factors with each modification or step of improvement. The
risk of spending effort on ineffective measures is high and
therefore simultaneous engineering is definitely required. Or-
ganization structures can help a lot by defining NVH teams
with full responsibility throughout the development process.
Examples for the continuous interaction of worksteps are given
in the following paragraphs.
The Development Plan
A schematic diagram which outlines the appropriate steps
and methods for a total NVH development plan up to the start
of production (SOP) of the total vehicle or related machinery
is shown in Figure 1. Even if one is only concerned with a
single automotive component, consideration of the final ve-
hicle application from the very beginning of the development
process is a must. Noise quality targets, packaging and instal-
lation considerations form the basis for numerous specifica-
tions. In view of pass-by noise regulations, a reliable predic-
tion of noise radiation patterns in the final vehicle is very
helpful.
Concept and Design Phase
Concept design decisions must be based on compiling and
prioritizing all target specifications. Knowledge about expected
noise characteristics is essential for this work task and also for
the specification of appropriate noise and vibration targets for
subsystems. This is especially true when several system sup-
pliers are involved and are responsible for the target specs.
Decision making can only be based on experience and pre-
diction. This becomes especially challenging when future con-
Based on paper number 1999-01-1745 © 1999 Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc. presented at the SAE 1999 Noise & Vibration Confer-
ence & Exposition, Traverse City, MI, May 1999.
SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001
cepts have to be developed and when only a very small em-
pirical database is available. Such circumstances support all
efforts to develop methods for early prediction.
Objective of Noise and Vibration Simulations. The current
development trend for automotive engines is directed towards
increased specific output. Additionally, reduced engine
weight, manufacturing cost and, last but not least, reduced en-
gine noise are important requirements. These requirements can
be most effectively balanced by applying extensive simulation
techniques in the early design stages. Performing structural vi-
bration calculations in parallel with design studies offers sub-
stantial advantages. On the one hand, conceptual decisions can
be supported by creating the structural prerequisites for low
noise engines. On the other hand, the noise behavior of an
engine structure can be optimized early in the design stage
through vibration simulation. Taking this approach ensures
that first generation engine hardware is already structurally
optimized for noise.
Simulation Approach. Finite Element Methods (FEM) are
utilized for simulation of structural vibrations. Natural frequen-
cies and vibration modes may serve for verification purposes.
The focus, however, is on forced vibrations of the engine struc-
ture with loads and boundary conditions as realistic as pos-
sible.
Simulation to Assist Conceptual Decisions. The design con-
cept of an engine is influenced by many parameters. Perfor-
mance and emission requirements lead to peak firing pressure
(PFP) levels of 160 bar or higher. Stringent pass-by noise regu-
lations as well as interior noise considerations call for reduced
engine noise. The achievable engine noise level is largely de-
pendent on the design concept. The purpose of calculations in
this stage is to check the effect of different design concepts on
engine structural vibrations. For example, Figure 2 shows a
comparison of calculated vibration levels between a bedplate
and a conventional bearing cap engine design.
For vibration simulation within the concept phase, simpli-
fied models based on conceptual drawings may be used. These
simplified models are suitable for determining the influence
of different designs on structural vibrations. However, it is im-
portant to accept that only trend predictions are possible in this
stage and careful cross-checking with empirical data is re-
quired.
Simulation During Layout and Detail Design. Once the de-
sign concept of an engine is fixed, layout design adds further
detail to the CAD (Computer Aided Design) models. In this
stage the complete engine is modeled, comprising all engine
components which are relevant for engine structure dynamics.
Evaluation of forced vibration calculation results clearly shows
critical areas where high noise radiation is to be expected.
Design modifications are then proposed to locally reinforce the
structure and reduce vibration levels. The target of the simu-
lation is to finally arrive at a structure showing evenly distrib-
uted vibration levels over the outer surface.
The use of automeshing methods will be standard operating
procedure in the future. Together with 3-dimensional CAD
data, it permits simulations to be performed in parallel with
the design. In the generation of full-size engine structure acous-
tic models, however, automeshing typically results in very fine
meshes, with high demands on the computer hardware and
certain limitations in necessary modelling of modifications. In
current methodology it may therefore be more effective to ap-
ply automeshing only to certain subsystems of the structure
1
 Start of Production
Engine and
Drivetrain
Concept
Engine Design and
Acoustic Simulation
Drivetrain Dynamics
Simulation
Performance and
Combustion with NVH Support
Engine Generation 1
Acoustic Development

Concept Release
Engine Generation 2 (Test Cell Validation)
Passby Noise Development
Interior Noise Development
Design Freeze for Medium Lead Items

Sound Quality Engineering

First Engines from Production Tooling
Vehicle Testing (Pilot Production Fleet)

Time

Figure 1. Overall vehicle NVH development plan.

Figure 3. Surface vibration levels of a 4 cylinder engine in octave bands

6 through 8 (335-2840 Hz).

extensive structural changes to achieve noise targets.

Figure 2. Surface vibration levels of a bedplate (top) vs. design with
single main bearing caps.
such as crankshaft or brackets. In any case, the quality of the
model is primarily determined by the definition of boundary
conditions, parameters and load cases.
The result of this concurrent engineering approach is an
engine structure that is already optimized for noise at the end
of the layout design stage. Accordingly, first generation engine
prototypes going into noise development should not require
Simulation Models. The model used for vibration simulation
consists of the vibration relevant components of the engine,
that is:
a Crankcase
a Cranktrain
a Cylinder head
a Oilpan, covers, manifolds
a Brackets and relevant ancillaries.
Excitation Mechanisms and Input Data. Nonlinear forced vi-
brations are calculated considering structural responses to gas
pressure as well as mass forces of the cranktrain. Piston sec-
ondary movement is simulated based on the crankcase and
piston structure and calculated impact forces are then intro-
duced into the forced vibration calculation. 5
Additional excitations resulting from gear train and valve
train forces are also considered, ideally based on specialized
software tools. 4,6 Note that these tools are not discussed in this
article. However, it is essential for the reliability of the results
to ensure consistent operating and boundary conditions for all
models.
The simulation is performed in the time domain. Therefore,
special attention has to be paid to the fact that the input data
must represent realistic energy distribution over the whole
frequency range of interest (e.g., requiring signal enhancement
of cylinder pressure). Otherwise, there is a high risk of draw-
ing wrong conclusions.
Simulation Results. Calculation results are available as vi-
bration accelerations, surface velocities as well as averaged lev-
els for certain engine surface areas. Typically the surface vi-
bration velocity levels are evaluated in octave or third octave

2 SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001

bands. Figure 3 shows summarized velocity levels for octave
bands 6 to 8 corresponding to a frequency range from 335 to Perfor-
mance / Performance and Emission Development
2840 Hz. Emission (Including Combustion Noise Development)
From these results, critical areas can clearly be detected and Engine
recommended design modifications may be derived. The op-

Hardware
timized structure then offers the possibility to start engine Transfer of Combustion and Mechanical Development Status
noise development at a level where no extensive casting
changes are necessary. Therefore, costly pattern modifications
Update by
are also avoided – ideally one whole engine generation can be Noise Modifications Noise
skipped in the development process. For this phase, evalua- Engine Based on FEM Development
tion of the vibration pattern is usually sufficient for the speci- Optimization

fication of design modifications. It should be noted, however,

Test Bed
Analysis
that sound radiation prediction will be an important step in a
Analysis
later phase.
It should also be mentioned that acoustic post processing
closely tied to test data processing is absolutely essential for

Test Bed
Develop.

Refine-
ment
several reasons: Testing
a Direct comparability of results supporting the same conclu-
sions among all involved engineers;
a Combined conclusions for deeper insight into the structure

Procure-
ment
Procure-
dynamics. ment

Development Phase
Due to the high level and reliability of the design support- Figure 4. Noise control scheme for series 100 engines.
ing simulation work, the noise development phase can be
started with acoustically preoptimized hardware. However, in
110
spite of this fact, the noise development phase is still consid- A

Critical
ered a one loop process. Modification and refinement of the

Vibration Velocity Level, dB re 5 × 10−8 m/sec

hardware are based on experimental analysis of engine NVH.
Using preoptimized hardware for the development phase short- 100
ens the entire process.

Good
In view of the short overall development schedules of en- Bed Plate
gines, it is a must to run the different parts of an experimental 90 Cylinder Block
engine development process simultaneously on several engines
resulting, for instance, in a “performance/emission engine,”
“noise engine,” “mechanical engine,” etc. Basically, noise de-
velopment runs parallel to the performance and emission 80 Crankcase
development of the combustion system as shown in Figure 4.
The actual start of the noise development program, however,
is shifted by a few months for two reasons. First, it is impor- 70
tant to start the noise development with an advanced combus- 0.5 1 2 5 10
tion development status. This ensures that the noise excitation Frequency, kHz
from cylinder pressure remains substantially the same from the B 110
beginning of the noise development. After completion of com-
Noise Level, dBA (Mean Free Field Response)

bustion development, the combustion system of the noise en-

Critical
gine has to be updated in order to represent the final status in
100
view of performance, emission and noise excitation. Secondly,
Threshold Range
a late beginning of the noise development phase extends the
procurement phase between end of design and beginning of
Good
25%
noise development. This allows implementation of the finite 90
element-derived modifications to the hardware of the noise en-
gine providing a more authentic situation for the engine struc-
50%
ture response and mechanical noise excitation. 80 75%
In fact, the experimental part of the noise development and
optimization work do not only start with the noise engine but 100%
begin on the performance/emission engine with combustion 0% Load
development. As one of the key steps, the control of combus- 70
800 1200 1600 2000
tion noise can only be done in the context of performance,
Engine Speed, RPM
emission and economy requirements. Therefore, combustion
noise meters1 have become an indispensable tool for combus-
Figure 5. Development criteria for vibration and combustion noise lev-
tion development. A typical criterion for combustion noise is els: A) block vibration at full load, 2000 RPM; B) combustion noise.
shown in Figure 5. In addition, it shows an example of a crite-
rion for structural vibration to be applied to the rated condi- sider combustion noise excitation under transient engine op-
tion of an engine. Such criteria provide essential guides for erations, the main task of noise specialists is to provide advi-
development engineers. sory support to the combustion development engineers. Any
Note that the combustion noise level of Figure 5 is in terms potential for combustion noise control not achieved during the
of the Mean Free Field Response (MFFR). This represents the combustion development is difficult to compensate for after-
use of a weighting function applied to the cylinder pressure wards since it considerably worsens the initial status of the
measurements to obtain the equivalent combustion excitation NVH development work on the ‘noise’ engine.
in the cylinder and its transfer to a microphone position at a The utmost significance of low-noise combustion on overall
distance of 1 m from the engine.13 engine NVH can be seen in the example of Figure 6. The re-
In this phase of combustion development which has to con- duction of combustion noise as a first development step yielded

SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001 3

 Deviation from
A B C Mean Sound Intensity, dBA Sound Power Contribution, %
Combustion Noise Level, dBA (MFFR)
100 100 35
−5 0 +5 0 10 20 30 40
∆ = 3.4
98 98 34
Oil Pan Bottom
∆ = 6,3
Oil Pan Front Side
96 96 33
Oil Pan
∆ = 3.5
5 ∆ = 1.9 Oil Pan LHS
94 94 32 Oil Pan RHS
∆ = 1.0 Valve Cover
92 92 31 Cylinder Head
Cylinder Head RHS/Rear

90 90 30 Grear Train Housing RHS

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Gear Train Housing LHS Gear Train Housing
Development Steps: 1 -- Baseline Gear Train Housing Rear
2 -- Combustion Noise Reduction
3 -- Final Condition (Sum of Five Steps) Alternator
Auxiliary Units
Injection Pump
Figure 6. Effect of combustion noise reduction on noise level and noise Front Engine Mount LHS
quality 2 of a DI Diesel engine at rated operation: A) combustion noise
Rear Engine Mount LHS
level; B) engine noise level; C) engine noise quality.
Front Engine Mount RHS Bracketrs
a decrease of engine noise level by 3.5 dBA. The gain in noise Water Pump Bracket
quality is two thirds of the overall quality improvement. Rear Engine Mount RHS
As previously mentioned, typical noise development work Exhaust Manifold
is a one loop process consisting of the four phases: analysis, Intake Manifold
Intake + Exhaust System
testing and development of modifications, procurement of
Engine Block RHS
modified hardware, final testing and refinement. The essen-
Engine Block LHS Rear Engine Block
tial NVH target parameters to be considered are the 1 m engine
Engine Block LHS Front
noise level, the noise quality (e.g., expressed by the noise an-
noyance index as described in Ref. 2) and the low and mid fre- Water Outlet

quency vibration behavior at the engine mount positions (up Oil Cooler Others
to 800 Hz). The most significant operating conditions which Balancer Shaft Cover
have to be taken into account are: rated condition; full and low Crankshaft Pulley
load conditions at mid speed (e.g., speed of maximum torque); Water Pump Pulley Pulleys

low idle; and transient operation (pass-by test). For transient

operations, it is important to consider not only a certain speed −5 0 +5 0 10 20 30 40
increase but to include a sudden change of load (to full load)
Figure 7. Noise source ranking in terms of sound intensity and sound
at the beginning of the acceleration.8,9 power.
Experimental Noise Analysis. Experimental analysis is a key
element in the development due to two aspects. First, measure- results as shown in Figure 9. For this evaluation, the measured
ments of the target parameters define the amount of noise re- vibration data are directly assigned to the FE-geometry via a
duction required to meet target specifications. Secondly, de- specific data interface in order to allow identical post-process-
tailed analysis of the noise source and radiation pattern of the ing. The graphs show very good correlation even in terms of
engine allows the appropriate noise reduction strategy to be absolute levels. Differences arise from the fact that the laser-
established. scanned engine surface includes corresponding surface areas
For the first part, precise measurements of the 1 m engine of parts which are attached to the engine block structure such
noise (according to test procedures DIN 45635 or SAE J1074 as oil filter, fuel filter, oil cooler, etc. On the other hand, the
under anechoic conditions) and other target parameters are simulation results describe the engine block surface which can
needed. The more challenging task is the second part, the de- partly be hidden behind such attached parts. In Figure 9 this
tailed analysis. First, the noise radiation pattern has to be de- case occurs in the right upper quarter of the engine block lead-
termined for critical operating conditions. An appropriate ing to discrepancies between calculated and measured results.
method is the well-known nearfield sound intensity analysis Such comparisons between simulation and experimental
which identifies the engine surface and subsurface parts of analysis results are indispensable for the tuning or validation
highest noise radiation ranked as shown in Figure 7. In a re- of simulation work and beyond. This helps targeting of a closed
cent development, the identification of noise sources has be- loop gain and regain of reliable results, experience and empiri-
come more efficient through 3D color visualization.11 This of- cal data. For example, the closed loop procedure allows struc-
fers the advantage of a spatial resolution much finer than the tural and system damping factors to be well matched over the
subsurfaces that are conventionally averaged. significant frequency range. Correct assumptions are very im-
The results of the sound intensity analysis have the advan- portant for the identification of critical frequency ranges and
tage that they are based on spatial averages, hence they are related noise sources. After several integration loops, an em-
highly representative and not local in occurrence. On the other pirical data base can be built which again enhances the qual-
hand, since sound intensity is measured at a certain distance ity of concept decisions, subsystem specifications and so on,
from the engine surface, the results cannot always be clearly even on different engine types.
assigned to a certain engine component. Therefore, the inter- The analysis of the noise radiation pattern of an engine must
pretation and understanding of sound intensity results need not only be confined to objective noise and vibration levels but
to be supported by the results of surface vibration analysis has to include noise quality aspects. Noise quality indicators
which are directly related to engine surface parts and their like the AVL noise annoyance index 2 can be used to describe
locations. the quality of the radiated engine noise.
Conventional point-by-point measurement of surface vibra- The AVL Annoyance Index allows quantification of noise
tion (e.g., by accelerometers) and the use of a scanning laser quality on the basis of the four psychoacoustic parameters:
vibrometer system allow quick analysis of whole engine sides loudness, sharpness, periodicity and impulsiveness. These
providing a good overview of global vibration behavior as parameters as well as the overall annoyance index can be used
shown in Figure 8. In addition, results obtained from a scan- for comparison with another engine, with typical ranges as
ning analysis are very suitable for comparison with simulation derived from a wide data base or for comparison during differ-

4 SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001


Figure 8. Scanning laser diagram of the surface vibration distribution
of a 6 cylinder Diesel engine including ancillaries.
Figure 9. Comparison of the calculated and measured vibration levels
at the side faces of a 6 cylinder engine (vibration levels in dB for 800
Hz third octave band).
ent steps of the noise development.7
The next step after the determination of the noise radiation
pattern is the analysis of the main noise sources generating this
radiation pattern. Methods for the analysis of cylinder pressure
and the separation of combustion and mechanical noise are
well known.1 With the trend towards increased injection pres-
sure and peak firing pressure, the relevance of mechanical
noise contributions increases too. Therefore, the investigation
of major mechanical noise sources like injection system, gear
SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001
100
Average Engine Noise at 1 m
Noise Level, dBA
95
90
85
Noise Level, dBA (Mean Free Field Response)
85
Combustion Noise
80
75
70
800 1200 1600 2000
Engine Speed, RPM
Standard Timing 1˚ Crank Angle Advance 1˚ Crank Angle Retardation
Figure 10. Sensitivity analysis of noise as a function of timing tolerances.
train, piston slap, valve train, crank train, etc., have become a
key step in noise development. A pure experimental approach
to the analysis of the different mechanical noise sources is very
difficult in spite of advanced methods.3 Direct analysis of noise
generating processes such as piston slap, gear impacts, crank-
shaft dynamics or valve impacts is an arduous task requiring
large efforts, even if it is possible. Therefore, a combined ap-
proach is generally preferred which joins experimental meth-
ods with analytical simulation. This, of course, requires well
matched and validated simulation models and tools. Important
examples are gear train and piston slap.4,5,6,10
The simulation approach offers the possibility of develop-
ing noise reduction modifications like an appropriate distri-
bution of gear moments of inertia within complex gear train
systems or piston pin offset to minimize excitation of the cyl-
inder liner. Of course, optimum piston pin offset has to be
checked with experimental tests to account for wear and to as-
sess the influence of combustion on piston temperature distri-
bution.
Testbed Development and Procurement. The conclusion of
the analysis phase is the noise reduction strategy represented
by a set of noise reduction measures which are derived from
the analysis results. If the effectiveness of the recommended
measures has to be proven, it can be done by simulation or by
experimental testing. Therefore, the aim of experimental de-
velopment is to ensure that the effectiveness of the modifica-
tions recommended is sufficiently high to achieve the targets.
If the optimum version of a modification cannot yet be de-
fined, it may be worthwhile to procure several versions of a
modification varying a critical parameter in order to save time
in the refinement phase. A typical example is the elastomer
components of a decoupling system which can be procured in
two or three different steps of rubber hardness. Also, variants
of more expensive prototype parts can pay off in this phase,
since reaching the development target is absolutely time-criti-
cal for the whole project. It is understood that the modifica-
tions need to be commonly accepted by the production special-
ists and, if necessary, by subsuppliers.
Refinement and Final Testing. This last step of the prototype
NVH development aims at several objectives:
5
a Determination of the effectiveness of procured hardware
a Refinement of modifications
a Approval of target achievement
a Documentation of final development condition
a NVH sensitivity analysis in view of production tolerances.
Besides the fulfillment of development targets, the consid-
eration of production tolerances is an essential task. Therefore,
sensitivity analysis determines the effect of parameter varia-
tions within the expected production tolerances on engine
NVH. Typical parameters are: clearances in the main and con-
necting rod bearings, piston-to-liner clearance, backlashes in
the gear train and injection timing. As an example, Figure 10
shows the negligible effect of injection timing variation by ±1°
crank angle on the engine noise level. If the effect on noise is
significant and jeopardizes the achievement of the target level,
additional refinement work or a redefinition of production tol-
erances might be necessary.
Conclusions
By carefully analyzing the engine NVH development process,
time and quality critical steps can be determined. In order to
effectively support the concept design phase, early availabil-
ity of simulation results is required. Together with empirical
data, a reliable prediction of engine noise characteristics can
be achieved and also allow for evaluation of future concepts.
Consequently, this leads to a two-stage simulation process.
Whereas in the first stage the focus is on trend prediction, the
second stage during the design phase means simulation with
the consideration of all significant noise excitation mecha-
nisms. This becomes more important the lower the target noise
levels and requires a closed loop interaction of simulation and
test bed work with comparable boundary conditions and evalu-
ation schemes.
6 SOUND AND VIBRATION/APRIL 2001
References
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von Verbrennungsmotoren (Indicating Technology as Part of the
Noise Analysis of Combustion Engines),” 1st Darmstaedter
Indiziersymposium, Darmstadt, May 17-18, 1994.
2. Beidl , C. and Stuecklschwaiger, W., “Application of the AVL An-
noyance Index for Engine Noise Quality Development,” Acta
Acustica, Vol. 83 (1997), No. 5, pp. 789-795, Sept./Oct. 1997.
3. Spessert, B. and Ponsa, R., “Investigation in the Noise from Main
Running Gear, Timing Gears and Injection Pump of DI Diesel En-
gines,” SAE 900012, Detroit, Feb. 26-March 2, 1990.
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to Calculate Gear Transmission Noise,” SAE 971965, Traverse City,
MI, May 20-22, 1997.
5. AVL GLIDE Training Guide, Graz, 1998.
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ture Borne Noise of Engines – A Combined Technique of FEM and
Multi Body Dynamics,” 16th CAD-FEM Users’ Meeting, Bad
Neuenahr (Germany), Oct. 7-9, 1998.
7. Beidl, C. and Rust, A., “Meeting Future Demands for Quieter Com-
mercial Powertrain Systems,” SAE 972042, Detroit, May 20-22, 1997.
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bustion Noise of NA-DI Diesel Engines,” SAE 870989, Traverse City,
MI, April 1987.
9. Crocker, M. J., Zockel, M., McGary, M. and Reinhart, T., “Noise
Source Identification Under Steady and Accelerating Conditions on
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The author can be contacted at: alfred.rust@avl.com.