The Journal of Nursing Research h VOL. 23, NO.
3, SEPTEMBER 2015
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Job Satisfaction of Nurses in a Regional
Hospital in Oman: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Mohammed Abdullah Al Maqbali
MSc, RN, Senior Staff Nurse, Department of Nursing, Al-Buraimi Hospital, Buraimi, Oman.
ABSTRACT
Background: Job satisfaction has become a critical issue for
healthcare organizations, particularly in nursing, because of the
shortage of nursing labor, the effect on patient care, and the
associated costs. This study explores the factors that influence
the level of job satisfaction of nurses working in one regional
hospital in Oman.
Purpose: This study aims to measure the job satisfaction of
nurses working at a regional hospital in Oman and to determine
the factors that most significantly influence this satisfaction.
Job satisfaction is measured using the McCloskey/Mueller
Satisfaction Scale. In addition, the demographic characteristics
of participants (age, gender, level of education, years of experi-
ence, marital status, work shift, work unit, and nationality) are
obtained to assess potential correlations.
Methods: A questionnaire survey was used to collect the data,
and stratified random sampling was used to recruit potential
participants. A cross-sectional survey was used to collect data
from 155 participants who worked at one regional hospital in
Oman, with survey data analyzed using SPSS version 19. One
hundred forty-three valid responses were received (response
rate: 92%). The study used descriptive data analysis to address
the first research question and used analysis methods such as
multiregression analyses, and one-way analysis of variance to
identify the relationships between the other variables.
Results: The overall mean score for satisfaction was 3.49,
indicating that participants had a moderate level of job satisfaction.
‘‘Interaction with coworkers’’ and ‘‘extrinsic reward’’ earned,
respectively, the highest and lowest job satisfaction ratings on
the subscale of McCloskey/Mueller Satisfaction Scale. The results
showed that age, work shift, and nationality each had a sta-
tistically significant effect on overall job satisfaction. A multiple
regression analysis indicated that 21.8% of the total variance in
the dependent variables was explained by being non-Omani in
nationality, indicating that that overall job satisfaction was higher
in non-Omani nurses than in Omani nurses.
Conclusions: The result suggests that professional opportunity
and extrinsic reward are two important factors that affect the job
satisfaction of nurses in Oman. Addressing these two factors
effectively may help improve the quality of nursing care in Oman.
Furthermore, this study may be conducted more widely in
government hospitals in Oman to validate the identified factors
and to identify additional factors that may affect job satisfaction.
206
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KEY WORDS:
job satisfaction, nurses, work environment, cross-sectional
survey.
Introduction
Job satisfaction has become a critical issue for healthcare
organizations in Oman. This issue is particularly acute in
nursing, because of the shortage of nursing labor, the effect
on patient care, and the associated costs. Work satisfaction
is a major factor of influence on quality of care. The rapid
changes in the healthcare service have increased the demands
on nurses, which further highlights the importance for or-
ganizations to keep their employees happy and satisfied. Dis-
satisfaction on the part of nurses may result in higher staff
turnover, which may further exacerbate the workload of nurses
and lower the quality of patient care, all of which may increase
the cost of health services (Sellgren, Kajermo, Ekvall, & Tomson,
2009; Wells, Manuel, & Cunning, 2011). In particular, nurses
play a pivotal role in the sustainability of healthcare systems
by determining their efficiency and effectiveness. Thus, it is
important for the organization to keep nurses motivated
and satisfied.
Much nursing research has been carried out in the last de-
cade to identify the phenomenon of job satisfaction and to un-
derstand the factors that contribute to improved overall working
conditions. Bowling, Eschleman, and Wang (2010) sug-
gest that an individual’s well-being relates strongly to his or her
job satisfaction. Because nursing is a very stressful occupa-
tion, this may lead to job dissatisfaction (Utriainen & Kyngas,
2009). Investigating job satisfaction generally facilitates the
Accepted for publication: June 3, 2014
*Address correspondence to: Mohammed Abdullah Al Maqbali,
Al Buraimi, P.O. Box 629, 512, Sultanate of Oman.
Tel: +968 (25) 650855; Fax: +968 (25) 654141;
E-mail: mhamedan@hotmail.com
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Cite this article as:
Al Maqbali, M. A. (2015). Job satisfaction of nurses in a regional
hospital in Oman: A cross-sectional survey. The Journal of Nursing
Research, 23(3), 206Y216. doi:10.1097/jnr.0000000000000081
Job Satisfaction of Nurses in an Omani Hospital
understanding of factors that increase job satisfaction and
may ultimately increase productivity and profit for the
organization.
Therefore, it is important to assess the situation of nurses
within an organization to identify the sources of dissatisfac-
tion. Job satisfaction is a vital issue in nursing and deserves
to be studied further. However, the organization under con-
sideration must explore the reason for job dissatisfaction as a
means of improving the working environment. The role of
nurse managers is to understand the job satisfaction factors
to reduce both turnover and costs.
Historical Background
The Sultanate of Oman is a Muslim Arab country situated
in the southeastern Arabian Peninsula and is the second largest
of the Gulf countries in terms of area, around 309,500 square
kilometers. The population of Oman in 2010 was 2,773,479,
including 29.4% non-Omani citizens (National Center for
Statistics and Information, 2014). In 2010, the number of
registered nurses working for the Ministry of Health was
around 9,612 (Ministry of Health, 2011; Figure 1). An addi-
tional 3,254 nurses were registered at other government
hospitals and in the private sector. Therefore, the total number
of nurses registered in Oman at the end of 2010 was 12,865.
Figure 2 shows the growth in the nursing workforce in Oman
from 1970 to 2010 (Ministry of Health, 2011). According
to the World Health Organization (2011) statistics, the ratio
of nurses per 10,000 of total population in Oman has risen
to 41.1.
Purpose
The purpose of the study is to examine factors that may
contribute to job satisfaction among nurses working at a
Ministry of Health regional hospital in Oman. Different fac-
tors are investigated to gain an understanding of the possible
impacts of these factors on nurse satisfaction. Besides iden-
tifying the demographic variables and their effect on the level
of satisfaction, measuring the levels of satisfaction and the
relationship between different factors may help to improve
the working conditions of nurses in Omani hospitals.
Figure 1. Total nurses working in Ministry of Health institution.
Copyright © 2015 Taiwan Nurses Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
VOL. 23, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2015
Figure 2. Total number of nurses registered in Oman.
The primary and secondary research questions must be
developed at the beginning of the study planning stage. The
primary research questions for this study are the following:
1. What is the level of the job satisfaction of nurses
working at one regional hospital in Oman?
2. What are the relationships between the demographic
variables and the overall job satisfaction?
Significance of the Study
This study works to understand the current situation re-
garding job satisfaction and compare the results with studies
carried out in other countries. The study may be useful in
minimizing high attrition levels, which may be caused by low
levels of job satisfaction in the Omani healthcare system.
Literature Review
The concept of job satisfaction is a very interesting and
widely researched topic in the field of psychology and social
and organizational behavior because of several reasons.
First, job satisfaction may be key to the subjective evaluation
of the characteristics of work conditions (Schjoedt, 2009;
Vinopal, 2012). Second, job satisfaction is very important
for managers and researchers in relation to organizational
outcomes such as organizational commitment (De Gieter,
Hofmans, & Pepermans, 2011; Rutherford, Boles, Hamwi,
Madupalli, & Rutherford, 2009), conscientiousness in extra-
role behavior (Bowling, 2010; Huang, You, & Tsai, 2012),
turnover intent (Flinkman, Leino-Kilpi, & Salanterä, 2010;
Zeinabadi & Salehi, 2011), absenteeism (Farquharson et al.,
2012; Ybema, Smulders, & Bongers, 2010), and sabotage
(Penney & Spector, 2005). Third, job satisfaction has multi-
disciplinary and lasting implications for professions, jobs,
and work in similar contexts. In addition, job satisfaction is
a key influencer of productivity in the workplace (Meeusen,
van Dam, Brown-Mahoney, Van Zundert, & Knape, 2011;
Thompson & Phua, 2012).
Several studies recognize the relevance of job satisfaction
to an individual’s overall attitude toward life and to an
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The Journal of Nursing Research
individual’s life as a whole (Ilies, Wilson, & Wagner, 2009;
Mazerolle, Bruening, Casa, & Burton, 2008). Weiss (2002)
states that the concept of job satisfaction is a broad construct
in terms of job characteristics and of the work environment,
the latter of which employees may find fulfilling in terms of
being satisfying or unsatisfying.
Job satisfaction, particularly in nursing, is a complex
concept that has been related to performance within the
work setting (Farquharson et al., 2012). Although measur-
ing job satisfaction is very difficult, many researchers have
tried to verify the different components of job satisfaction
among nurses. For the purpose of the research, personal
factors, job-related factors, and organizational factors will
be discussed.
Personal Factors
Many research studies have attempted to identify the factors
that influence an individual’s like or dislike of his or her job.
Gruneberg (1979) suggested that job satisfaction should be
examined in relation to individual employee variables. Dif-
ferent studies have explored the association between job sat-
isfaction and personal characteristics such as gender, age,
and education.
Curtis (2008) investigated the effect of demographic var-
iables on job satisfaction among nurses working in Dublin,
Ireland. The results showed a statistically significant differ-
ence (p = .05) in terms of age group. The level of job sat-
isfaction was highest among nurses in the 36Y45 and 46Y55
age groups and lowest among younger nurses in the 18Y25
and 26Y35 age groups. Similarly Lu, While, and Barriball
(2007) reported a negative relationship between job satis-
faction and age among nurses in the 19- to 25-year-old category.
In another study, Penz, Stewart, D’Arcy, and Morgan (2008)
indicated that women are more satisfied than men in their
current job.
Klaus, Ekerdt, and Gajewski (2012) studied individual char-
acteristics to predict the job satisfaction of 53,851 registered
nurses. The study shows that nurses without a Bachelor of Sci-
ence in Nursing (BSN) or higher nursing degree were significantly
less satisfied. Similarly, Zurmehly (2008) found a strong correla-
tion between the level of education and job satisfaction, with
holders of BSN and master’s degrees more satisfied than di-
ploma holders. Bachelor degree holders had a lower organiza-
tional commitment with a great level of role conflict (p 9 .05),
compared with those holding diplomas or associate degrees. These
findings suggest that education is an important factor related
to professional commitment and the role of conflict for nurses.
Gurková et al. (2012) found a positive relationship be-
tween nurses aged 36Y40 years and job satisfaction (p 9 .01)
as well as nurses with less than 5 years of experience and
job satisfaction. Other studies provide details about the rela-
tionship between personal variables and job satisfaction. Choi,
Cheung, and Pang (2013) found age and years of experiences
in the unit to be related to job satisfaction. In particular,
Kanai-Pak, Aiken, Sloane, and Poghosyan (2008) stated that
inexperienced Japanese nurses with less than 10 years’
208
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Mohammed Abdullah Al Maqbali
experience exhibited job dissatisfaction and high levels of
emotional exhaustion.
Most studies have reported finding no correlation be-
tween gender and level of satisfaction among nurses, with
the exception of one study that found women to be more
satisfied than men. Some of the studies supported the view
that the age affected the level of job satisfaction of nurses.
Educational preparation was found to influence job satisfac-
tion. The studies report that nurses holding a diploma, BSN,
or master’s degree may exhibit a high or low level of job satis-
faction, based on the country under investigation and other
relevant variables affecting job satisfaction. Years of experience
may also contribute to job satisfaction, with those with more
than 5 years’ experience typically more likely to be satisfied
than those with less experience. Finally, the working unit at
the hospital often affects job satisfaction in nurses.
Organizational and Job-Related Factors
Organizational and job-related factors have been discussed
by different researchers with the aim of identifying a cor-
relation between the various components of job satisfaction.
A very large cross-sectional survey was carried out that in-
cluded 33,659 nurses from 488 hospitals across Europe and
27,509 nurses from 617 hospitals in the United States (Aiken
et al., 2012). The study reported that job dissatisfaction was
high among nurses working in Greece (56%), followed by
Ireland (42%), England (39%), Spain (38%), and Germany
(37%). In contrast, the lowest level of dissatisfaction was
reported by the Netherlands (11%), followed by Switzerland
(21%). Government hospitals in Greece and Spain face se-
vere economic difficulties. The study reports that the average
patient-to-nurse ratio in Greece, Belgium, Germany, and Spain
exceeded 10:1, whereas in England, it was 8.6. A good working
environment in the hospital and good staffing levels have been
linked to job satisfaction and better quality and safety of care.
Choi et al. (2013) examined the work environment in
terms of job satisfaction and intentions of resigning among
1,271 registered nurses working in 10 hospitals in Hong Kong.
The results identified five dimensions: professionalism, man-
agement, coworker relationship, staffing and resources, and
ward practice. The findings found professionalism, manage-
ment, staffing and resources, and ward practice to be signif-
icant factors in terms of predicating nurse job satisfaction.
Kwak, Chung, Xu, and Eun-Jung (2010) reported that nursing
professionalism was the strongest predictor of job satisfac-
tion (p = .001), as was the opportunity for promotion (p =
.05). Both were significant predictors of job satisfaction. In
contrast, Duffield, Roche, Blay, and Stasa (2010) studied
1,559 randomly selected registered nurses in Australia and
found that around 67% were satisfied with their job and
72.1% were satisfied with nursing as a profession. The study
concluded that an effective nurse unit manager or a highly
skilled leader could increase nurses’ job satisfaction.
A survey conducted in 19 Japanese hospitals that included
5,956 nurses reported that 60% were dissatisfied (Kanai-Pak
et al., 2008). Fifty-nine percent of nurses reported that the
Job Satisfaction of Nurses in an Omani Hospital
poor or fair quality of care in their units was because of in-
adequate staff resources. The second major reason for dis-
satisfaction was the relationship and the collaboration between
nurses and physicians. Cortese (2007) used an interview ap-
proach to determine the factors that influenced job satisfac-
tion and dissatisfaction among 64 Italian nurses. The result
was that 54.3% of nurses were satisfied and 45.7% of them
felt dissatisfied. The job satisfaction factors were ranked as
job content (36.7%), professional relationship (20.8%), inde-
pendence and professional growth (18.4%), relationship with
patients and their families (13%), and relationships with
coordinators (11.1%). The job dissatisfaction factors were
ranked as coordinator’s management style (43.1%), activity
programming and organization (26.4%), relationship with
doctors (21.3%), and relationship with patients (9.2%).
Morgan and Lynn (2009) showed that the autonomy of
nurses is a strong contributing factor for job satisfaction and
that low pay and benefits were not. The study only inter-
viewed 20 nurses. Therefore, results are difficult to generalize
to other settings. In another study, Zurmehly (2008) asso-
ciated job satisfaction with autonomy and critical thinking.
Similarly, Bjork, Samdal, Hansen, Torstad, and Hamilton
(2007) found that interaction, pay, and autonomy corre-
lated strongly with nurses’ job satisfaction. The nurses who
expressed the greatest dissatisfaction with pay were in Norway.
In addition, using the Mueller and McCloskey (1990) sat-
isfaction scale, Gurková et al. (2012) reported that control
and responsibility, scheduling, coworkers, and interactional
opportunities were key predictors of job satisfaction. AbuAlRub,
Omari, and Al-Zaru (2009) indicated that social support from
a supervisor and coworkers correlated with job satisfaction,
which was significant in private hospitals but not as sig-
nificant in government hospitals.
Lu, Barriball, Zhang, and While (2012) undertook a very
large systematic review involving 100 articles published be-
tween 1966 and 2011, which worked to identify the cor-
relates of nursing job satisfaction despite the wide variance in
reporting on job satisfaction in the reviewed studies. The
review acknowledged that the sources and effects of job
satisfaction were similar. The result of the review indicated
that nurses’ job satisfaction had a close relationship with
working conditions, organizational and professional com-
mitment, job stress, role perception and role content, role of
conflict and ambiguity, and organizational environment.
Studies Conducted in Gulf Countries
In Islamic countries, it is important to address the cultural
challenges that may affect nurses in terms of job satisfaction.
As in many Gulf countries, Omani society has important
norms and values based on an Islamic way of life that may
affect nursing professionals. Taking into consideration the
fact that the nursing profession works around the clock,
El-Haddad (2006) suggested that there are negative public
attitudes toward nursing in Gulf countries because of gender
mixing and long working hours. Most of the studies on job
Copyright © 2015 Taiwan Nurses Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
VOL. 23, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2015
satisfaction in nurses were carried out in Western countries.
Therefore, this may lead to different results in terms of job
satisfaction because of the cultural differences between Western
and Islamic countries.
The Gulf countries are relatively homogenous in terms of
ethnicity, culture, and language. Despite organizational dif-
ferences, the nursing workforce and experiences of this work-
force are likely to be similar throughout the Gulf countries.
Al-Dossary, Vail, and MacFarlane (2012) studied 50 Saudi
nurses and 167 non-Saudi nurses working in one teaching
hospital in Saudi Arabia. The results indicated that most of
the personnel-related factors did not influence nurses’ job
satisfaction. However, the number of years of nursing ex-
perience was statistically significant (p = .006) with regard
to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was positively and sig-
nificantly correlated with pay, contingent rewards, coworkers,
supervision, nature of work, and communication. Fringe ben-
efits, promotion, and operating conditions had a moderate
association with job satisfaction. The most satisfying factor
for nurses was the leadership style of their direct supervisor.
Al-Enezi, Chowdhury, Shah, and Al-Otabi (2009) studied
436 registered nurses in five Kuwaiti government hospitals.
The participants were of different nationalities. The study
found that nationality, educational level, and marital status
were significantly related to job satisfaction. Scheduling, praise
and opportunities for recognition, and control and respon-
sibility were positively and significantly correlated with job
satisfaction. The only factors associated with dissatisfaction
were professional opportunities and extrinsic rewards.
The literature highlights several issues that may influence
nurses’ job satisfaction in Gulf countries. The studies suggest
that job dissatisfaction results from problems in either the
job or the person. Different factors have greater significance
between countries, and this is mainly because of the cultural
and social contexts of each. These studies reinforce the view
that job satisfaction is a complex phenomenon with multi-
causal factors. The literature indicates that the different dimen-
sions of satisfaction may be conceptualized in two categories.
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Over the past 40 years, job satisfaction research has been
carried out, and a variety of instruments have been de-
veloped. The instruments were designed to measure the
multidimensionality of job satisfaction, and some of them
have been developed specifically for nurses. In nursing, many
different types of instruments have been used to identify the
level of satisfaction and related factors. The most common
instruments used in nursing are the Nursing Work Index
(Kramer & Hafner, 1989), Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector,
1997), the Index of Work Satisfaction (Stamps, 1997), the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis,
England, & Lofquist, 1967), and the McCloskey/Mueller
Satisfaction Scale (MMSS; Mueller & McCloskey, 1990).
In addition, several researchers developed new instruments
designed specifically for their current research.
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The Journal of Nursing Research
One of the instruments is the MMSS, which has been
used specifically to measure nurses’ job satisfaction. Mueller
and McCloskey (1990) state that the aim of an instrument
is to produce a job satisfaction measurement specifically for
nursing that is reliable and valid and that is simple to ex-
ecute. McCloskey’s (1974) study was revised by Mueller
and McCloskey in 1990 with the intention of developing a
valid, reliable, and easy-to-use measure of nurses’ job sat-
isfaction. The revised instrument consisted of 33 items ap-
plicable to measuring job satisfaction in three dimensions:
safety, social, and psychological (Mueller & McCloskey,
1990). The safety dimension was conceived to consider satis-
faction with regard to schedule flexibility, balance of family and
work, salary, and benefits. The social dimension represented
satisfaction with supervisor support and coworker relation-
ships and interactions. The psychological dimension related
to satisfaction with control/responsibility, professional oppor-
tunities, and praise/recognition (Mueller & McCloskey, 1990).
Each of the items was measured on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied).
Cronbach’s alphas reported a reliability for each of the eight
subscales between .52 and .82. The alpha of the overall scale
was .89. Misener, Haddock, Gleaton, and AbuAjamieh
(1996) examined the validity of the MMSS and suggested
that the instrument is reliable and applicable to different cul-
tures as an international measurement of job satisfaction.
Overall, the 31 MMSS items showed an adequate internal
consistency and reliability as well as being criterion related
and having construct validity (Mueller & McCloskey, 1990).
Although the MMSS was developed in the United States,
many studies conducted in Arab countries have supported
the validity of MMSS for use in these countries. For example,
Abu Ajamieh, Misener, Haddock, and Gleaton (1996) con-
ducted a study measuring job satisfaction among Palestinian
nurses. The MMSS used in this study was modified for use in
the specific cultural setting. Another study included in the
literature review used the MMSS to study nurses working in
Kuwait (Al-Enezi et al., 2009), which has a cultural setting
similar to Oman.
Methods
Study Design
A cross-sectional survey was used to determine the factors
that influence job satisfaction among nurses working at one
regional hospital in Oman.
Sample and Data Collection Procedures
The targeted study population was 227 nurses working in
one regional hospital. The process of selecting a sample for
this research used proportional stratified random sampling.
The study was conducted in May 2013. The stratification
variable used was nationality, with Omani nurses as one stra-
tum and non-Omanis as the other stratum. Inclusion criteria
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Copyright © 2015 Taiwan Nurses Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Mohammed Abdullah Al Maqbali
to participate in the study were registration with the Ministry
of Health in Oman; at least 1 year of work experience; and
currently working in an outpatient department, critical care
unit, or medical/surgical ward. Exclusion criteria included
newly graduated nurses and nurses working in an adminis-
trative capacity. After calculation, a sample size based on a
confidence level of 95%, a confidence interval of 5, and a
sample population of 227 showed the sample size of 143 was
needed for the study. The target sample size was increased to
155 to ensure a sufficient response rate.
The data collection method for this study was a self-
administered questionnaire with closed-ended questions. A
self-report, paper-and-pencil approach was used for data
collection. Web-based or e-mail surveys are low cost, with an
ability to reach a large number of participants who can re-
spond at their leisure (Keough & Tanabe, 2011). However,
because of the fact that some of the nurses do not have access
to the Internet, the paper-and-pencil method was adopted.
Edwards (2010) suggested that the length of a questionnaire
affects the response rate and the reliability of the data. Other
studies have found that shorter questionnaires significantly
increase response rates (Galesic & Bosnjak, 2009; Sahlqvist
et al., 2011).
For the purpose of this study, each participant was con-
tacted through the director of the nursing department in the
hospital. The invitation letter explained the aim and ob-
jective of the study and provided an informed consent form.
All of the data were collected within 1 week, and there were
four boxes within the hospital for nurses to deposit their
completed questionnaires.
Instrument
This study used the MMSS tool to measure the level of
satisfaction. The tool has eight subscales with 31 items.
However, only 27 items were selected as being applicable to
Oman. The eight MMSS subscales are extrinsic reward items
(1, 2, and 3), scheduling items (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10),
balance and family work items (7, 11, and 12), interaction
opportunities items (16, 17, 18, and 19), interaction with
coworkers items (14 and 15), professional opportunities
items (20, 21, 27, and 28); praise and recognition items (13,
24, 25, and 26), and control and responsibility items (22, 23,
29, 30, and 31; Mueller & McCloskey, 1990). The balance
and family items (7, 11, and 12) were excluded because they
are not applicable to nurses’ work in Oman. The benefits
packages, maternity leave times, childcare facility, and part-
time work in the healthcare system are the same throughout
the institutions operated by the Ministry of Health. In terms
of benefits packages, the Ministry of Health in Oman offers
free medical care. Maternity leave is standard for all em-
ployees, with 55 days of leave. Facilities for childcare are not
offered by the Ministry of Health in Oman. All nurses work
full time for the Ministry of Health. All 27 items in the scale
were included in the questionnaire used in the study.
Each of the items was measured using a score that mea-
sured degree of satisfaction. The Likert-type response scale
Job Satisfaction of Nurses in an Omani Hospital VOL. 23, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2015

values were 1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = moderately dissatisfied,
3 = neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4 = moderately
satisfied, and 5 = very satisfied (Mueller & McCloskey,
1990). The Likert-type scale is a tool that may be used to
identify information on social attitudes (Likert, Roslow, &
Murphy, 1993). For the purposes of this study, a score higher
than 3.0 was interpreted as ‘‘satisfied,’’ and a score less than
3.0 was interpreted as ‘‘dissatisfied.’’
The demographic section contained eight questions in a
multiple-choice format with information on age, gender,
shifts worked, working unit, marital status, qualification,
years of experience, and nationality (Omani or non-Omani).
The demographic datasheet was designed especially for the
Omani healthcare context, with the questionnaire in English
because it is the language used at all Ministry of Health
institutions and is the language used in nursing education.
(25.2%, n = 36). Most of the participants were married
(79.0%, n = 113), with single participants accounting for
21.0% (n = 30). Moreover, 16.1% (n = 23) of participants
self-reported as holding a bachelor’s degree with post-basic
diploma as their highest level of education, and the larger
number of nurses reported holding a general nursing diploma
in nursing (62.2%, n = 89), followed by post-basic-diploma
holders (21.7%, n = 31). Most nurses who participated in
the study were working in critical care units (53.8%, n = 77)
followed by nurses working in wards (31.5%, n = 45). Only
14.7% (n = 21) worked in outpatient departments. Nearly
three quarters (74.8%, n = 107) reported having worked all
shifts, with nearly all from the critical area and wards having
done so. Omani nurses in this study accounted for 65.0%
(n = 93) of participants, with non-Omanis accounting for
35.0% (n = 50).

Level of Job Satisfaction

Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Ministry of Health
in Oman, and informed consent was obtained from partic-
ipants after providing information about the study’s aims
and objectives.
The identity of study participants was kept anonymous to
protect their privacy and confidentiality. The stratified ran-
domization method was not accessed except by the researcher
and only for the purpose of research.
Data Analysis
After completing the data collection process, the question-
naires were checked for accuracy and completeness. Nurses
choosing not to answer completed questions or to leave one
or more questions blank were excluded from the valid data
set because of missing or incomplete data. The nonresponse
rate is explained in the Results section. Data were exported
to SPSS version 19.0 for analysis. Data analysis methods
were specifically chosen to fit the research questions in this
study. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the job
satisfaction of nurses, including means, standard deviations,
and medians. The relationship between the variables was
analyzed through correlation and regression. Cronbach’s
coefficient (!) was used to measure the internal consistency
of each of the items of the subscales. The alpha range was
between j1.00 and +1.00.
In this study, the mean for job satisfaction was 3.49, in-
dicating that participants had a moderate level of job
satisfaction. The highest job satisfaction rating was for Item
no. 10, ‘‘your nursing peers’’ (M = 4.16). The second highest
item was No. 25, ‘‘your amount of responsibility’’ (M =
4.13), followed by Item no. 26, ‘‘your control over work
conditions’’ (M = 4.04). Item no. 1, ‘‘salary,’’ earned the
lowest score for job satisfaction (M = 2.58), followed by
Item no. 24, ‘‘opportunities to write and publish’’ (M =
2.81), and Item no. 23, ‘‘opportunities to participate in
nursing research’’ (M = 2.86; see Table 1).
The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for each of the items of
the subscales ranged from r = .479 to r = .845, with a
median alpha of r = .928 (see Table 1). The coworkers scale
(r = .479) displayed an adequate level of internal reliability.
The mean and standard deviations for each of the seven
subscales of the MMSS were calculated to identify the job
satisfaction scale for the entire sample. The mean job sat-
isfaction in each subscale was as follows: extrinsic reward
items (M = 3.01), scheduling items (M = 3.53), praise and
recognition items (M = 3.55), interaction with coworkers
TABLE 1.
Reliability Coefficients for McCloskey/
Mueller Satisfaction Scales
Cronbach’s
Variable Item Mean SD Alpha

Extrinsic reward 2 3.01 1.08 .717

Results Scheduling 6 3.53 0.84 .845

Questionnaire packages were distributed to 155 nurses cur- Praise and recognition 4 3.55 0.82 .746
rently working at a regional hospital in Oman. One hundred Interaction with coworkers 2 3.87 0.74 .479
forty-three nurses completed and returned valid question- Interaction opportunities 4 3.63 0.66 .724
naire packets, giving a valid response rate of 92%. In terms Professional opportunities 4 3.03 0.87 .792
of gender, 12.6% of respondents (n = 18) were male, and Control and responsibility 5 3.72 0.73 .804
87.4% (n = 125) were female. The largest age group was
Total score 27 3.49 1.10 .928
25Y34 years (62.9%, n = 90), followed by 935 years

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The Journal of Nursing Research Mohammed Abdullah Al Maqbali

items (M = 3.87), interaction opportunities items (M = 3.63),
professional opportunities items (M = 3.03), and control and
responsibility items (M = 3.72). Overall, nurses reported
being moderately satisfied in all seven subscales.
As shown in Table 2, the four demographic variables of
gender, marital status, level of education, and work unit
did not show statistical differences in job satisfaction level
between the groups. The three variables of age, working
shift, and nationality showed statistical differences in terms
of p value. There were statistically significant differences in
level of job satisfaction among age groups (F = 5.529, p =
.005). Post hoc results revealed that nurses in the age groups
of 25Y34 and over 35 years had higher rates of job satisfaction
than nurses in the age group of less than 24 years. Significant
differences were found in working shifts (F = 4.076, p =
.019). In addition, nationality was associated with significant
differences in level of job satisfaction (F = 40.542, p = .000).
A multiple regression analysis was used to predict the overall
job satisfaction of participants (see Table 3). Multiple regres-
sion was run with 11 candidate variables (seven demographic
with dummy coding) to predict the extrinsic reward of par-
ticipants. This variable explained 21.8% of the total var-
TABLE 2.
Descriptive Statistics With Overall Level-of-Satisfaction Score in Relation to the
Demographic Variable (One-Way ANOVA)
Variable
iance in the dependent variables. The final one-variable model
was significant (p = .000, ! = .617).
The multiple regressions of the seven demographic vari-
ables predicted the overall job satisfaction subscale score for
nurses working in a regional hospital. In the answer to the
second research question, overall job satisfaction had a
significant effect on the non-Omani participants. This result
supports that non-Omani nurses are more satisfied than
Omani nurses.
Discussion
Job satisfaction, particularly in nursing, is a complex concept
that has been found to relate with performance within the
work setting (Farquharson et al., 2012). Although measur-
ing job satisfaction is very difficult, many researchers have
tried to verify the different components of job satisfaction
among nurses. Several studies from different countries refer
to the level of job satisfaction as one of the major con-
tributions toward nursing burnout, sickness, absenteeism,
turnover, and intention to leave (Liu et al., 2012; Van der
Dofe, Mbazzi, & Verhoeven, 2012; Verhaeghe, Vlerick,
Gemmel, Van Maele, & De Backer, 2006). Consequently, it
n Mean SD F p

Gender 0.060 .807

Male 18 3.46 0.648
Female 125 3.50 0.623
Age (years) 5.529 .005*
Below 24 0.615
Between 25 and 34 0.597
Over 35 36 3.78 0.621
Marital status 0.092 .762
Single 0.629
Ever married (married, divorced, or widowed) 113 3.49 0.626
Highest degree 1.022 .363
Diploma in Nursing 0.648
post-basic-diploma administration, critical care (adult, pediatric, 0.543
and neonatology), new natal, midwifery, nephrology
Bachelor’s with or without post-basic diploma 23 3.51 0.631
Working area 0.892 .412
Outpatient department 0.707
Critical care unit 0.587
Ward 45 3.51 0.647
Working shift 4.076 .019*
Morning only 0.684
Morning and afternoon 0.469
All shifts 109 3.58 0.609
Nationality 40.542 .000*
Omani 0.588
Non-Omani 50 3.90 0.477

Note. ANOVA = analysis of variance.

*Not married.

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Job Satisfaction of Nurses in an Omani Hospital VOL. 23, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2015

TABLE 3.
Multiple Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Overall Job Satisfaction
(N = 143)
Unstandardized Coefficient Standardized Coefficient
Variable B SE " t p

Constant 3.036 .392 7.750 .000

1 Female .038 .151 .020 0.251 .802
2 Age 25Y34 years j.008 .157 j.006 j0.051 .960
3 Age above 35 years .169 .186 .118 0.908 .366
4 Married j.112 .131 j.073 j0.851 .396
5 Postdiploma j.027 .137 j.018 j0.195 .846
6 Bachelor with diploma j.208 .149 j.123 j1.401 .164
7 Area: OPD .299 .337 .170 0.886 .377
8 Area: ward j.030 .112 j.023 j0.272 .786
9 Shifts M and A .192 .378 .086 0.509 .612
10 All shifts .358 .336 .245 1.066 .289
11 Non-Omani .563 .124 .431 4.532 .000

Note. OPD = outpatient department. Final model: F(1,141) = 40.542, p = .000, R2 = .218.

is important to define and explore the factors related to
nurses’ job satisfaction to develop strategies to ameliorate
the level of dissatisfaction among nurses.
In this study, the mean score was 3.49, which indicates
that participants had a moderate level of job satisfaction.
Several studies have reported a similar finding, including two
conducted by AbuAlRub et al. (2009) and Al-Enezi et al.
(2009), respectively, in the culturally similar countries of
Jordan and Kuwait. Studies carried out in different countries
have also reported similar findings, including those by Choi
et al. (2013); Cortese (2007); Golbasi, Kelleci, and Dogan
(2008); and Kwak et al. (2010).
Reducing the factors that cause dissatisfaction among
nursing professionals may have a beneficial impact on nurse
retention as well as improve the quality of healthcare. Of the
27 items in the study, nurses working in a regional hospital
were particularly dissatisfied with three items: salary, oppor-
tunities to participate in nursing research, and opportunities
to write and publish. Job satisfaction is important because
of its relationship with performance and nurse retention
(Ellenbecker, Porell, Samia, Byleckie, & Milburn, 2008;
Grissom, 2009), with job dissatisfaction as the main reason
for high nurse turnover rates (Coomber & Barriball, 2007;
Estryn-Behar, Van Der Heijden, Fry, & Hasselhorn, 2010)
and increased absenteeism (Albion, Fogarty, Machin, &
Patrick, 2008; Cohen & Golan, 2007). These may result
in reduced productivity and may reflect on patient satisfac-
tion, which can eventually increase the costs of care. Job
dissatisfaction may threaten healthcare organizations be-
cause of the implications on system stability. Satisfaction in
the workplace is vital in ensuring a high quality of care.
Gurková et al. (2012) reported that Czech nurses were
primarily dissatisfied with their salary. Bjork et al. (2007)
found that salary was a main source of dissatisfaction.
Al-Dossary et al. (2012) found that pay was a factor that
caused dissatisfaction among non-Saudi nurses in Saudi
Arabia. The findings of this study may be used by decision
makers in the Ministry of Health to develop alternative prac-
tices aimed at improving the working conditions of nurses.
This study found that dissatisfaction with opportunities to
participate in nursing research may be considered a profes-
sional opportunity. Many studies have addressed the issue of
professional opportunity (Al-Enezi et al., 2009; Cortese, 2007;
Hayes & Bonner, 2010; Lu et al., 2007). The findings of the
current study support the importance of improving opportu-
nities for nurses to participate in research studies.
The multiple analyses used concur that nationality is sig-
nificantly correlated with job satisfaction, with non-Omani
nurses more satisfied than Omani nurses. This result dis-
agrees with Al-Enezi et al. (2009).
Recommendations
On the basis of the finding of this study, the following rec-
ommendations may be implemented to improve nurses’ sat-
isfaction. The Ministry of Health may apply new policies to
prevent staff turnover and intention to leave. Furthermore,
policy decision makers should consider how to use existing
budgets to modify a particular facet of nurses’ job dissatis-
faction. This suggests that further research should investigate
the association between nurses’ job satisfaction and the eco-
nomic situation of the studied country. The Ministry of Health
has recently issued new guidance to improve the salary and
promotion opportunities of nurses. It may be beneficial to
repeat this study to assess the impact of the implementation
of this new guidance.

213

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The Journal of Nursing Research
Although nurses seem to be moderately satisfied, there is
scope to evaluate their professional development. More op-
portunities must be made available for nurses to attend work-
shops, conferences, and training courses. More opportunities
may be given to involve nurses in the research studies and to
improve their aptitude in nursing research.
It is recommended that a similar study be carried out every
5 years to track the development of nurses’ job satisfaction.
Furthermore, a part of this study may be conducted in the
future in all government hospitals in Oman. The longitudinal
method may be used to measure job satisfaction at different
periods. In addition, different Ministry of Health institutions
such as hospitals, primary healthcare facilities, and private
hospitals should be involved. Further studies may use mixed
methods involving quantitative and qualitative research to
assess and examine other factors that may contribute to job
satisfaction.
Several validated instruments have already been used to
assess nurses’ job satisfaction in Western countries. Those
scales require further testing and development in terms of
their applicability in measuring a range of healthcare set-
tings. Nonetheless, there is no instrument specifically de-
signed for use in Gulf countries. It would be worth developing
a relevant scale for this purpose with special emphasis on
clarity, language (Arabic), and homogeneity of content.
Conclusions
Factors including demographics, age, gender, level of edu-
cation, and experience in the workplace affect job satisfac-
tion. In addition, organizational and work-related factors,
such as opportunities to continue education, relationship
with colleagues/managers, autonomy, pay, benefits, and
responsibility in the work units, are also involved. Low job
satisfaction levels exacerbate job stress, turnover rates, and
quality-of-care problems.
Furthermore, job satisfaction affects the performance and
productivity of hospitals. Job satisfaction has been studied
widely yet remains a challenge for health organizations glob-
ally. This suggests that there is a need to better understand
the factors and effectiveness of interventions that increase
job satisfaction among nurses. This study addressed the fac-
tors associated with job satisfaction for the reference of
decision makers in the Ministry of Health to develop effec-
tive strategies for improving the satisfaction of nurses work-
ing in Oman.
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