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A simplified thermal CFD approach to fins and tube

heat exchanger: Application to maldistributed
airflow on an open display cabinet

A. Rossetti*, S. Minetto, S. Marinetti

Construction Technologies Institute, National Research Council, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy

article info abstract

Article history: Airflow maldistribution in heat exchangers and air channels is a common problem in
Received 22 December 2014 HVAC&R systems. Furthermore, in the refrigeration field, temperature and velocity mal-
Received in revised form distribution downstream the evaporator can reach the discharge air grille, negatively
27 May 2015 influencing the heat removal from the exposed goods. In the present paper, the effect of
Accepted 31 May 2015 the flow maldistribution in the air channel of an open refrigerated display cabinet is
Available online 9 June 2015 studied by means of computational fluid dynamics simulations. An equivalent thermal
approach is presented: in combination with the equivalent resistance approach, it allows a
Keywords: drastic reduction of computational effort. This thermal CFD model allows to evaluate the
Air distribution 3D effects of the maldistribution in terms of temperature, heat transfer coefficients, and
Heat exchanger cooling power in the full channel model. Discussion of the results is reported.
Simulation © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Display cabinet
Computational fluid dynamics
Heat transfer

Une approche de dynamique nume
rique des fluides (CFD)

thermique simplifie
e pour e

changeur thermique a  tube a


coulement d'air mal distribue
ailettes: application sur un e
sur
un meuble de vente ouvert
Mots cl
es : Distribution d'air ; Echangeur thermique ; Simulation ; Meuble de vente ; Dynamique nume

rique des fluides ; Transfert de
chaleur

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 049 829 5731; fax: þ39 049 829 5728.
E-mail address: antonio.rossetti@itc.cnr.it (A. Rossetti).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.05.014
0140-7007/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5
Nomenclature
x, y, z coordinate system (m)
u, v, w velocity component (m s1)
b fin pitch (m)
cp constant pressure heat capacity (J kg1 K1)
dhy hydraulic diameter (m)
h convective heat transfer coeff. (W m2 K1)
k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1)
m mass flow (kg s1)
A area (m2)
L fin length (m)
1. Introduction
Open Refrigerated Display Cabinet (ORDC) design is driven by
the market's need of maximizing the loading volume and the
frontal opening, as well as by cost and technical constraints.
As a result, the number and type of fans are often chosen on
economic criteria and they are positioned in such a way to
reduce the air channel height. This frequently causes an
airflow maldistribution at the evaporator entrance, which af-
fects the overall cabinet performance. Indeed, the maldistri-
bution deteriorates the heat transfer between the evaporator
and the surrounding airflow, consequently affecting the
temperature and speed distribution at the Discharge Air Grille
(DAG). Similar problems of air maldistribution on heat
exchanger can be found in many different fields of refrigera-
tion and HVAC systems.
The prediction of thermo fluid dynamic performance of
these systems can not be developed without procedures
capable of accounting for the effects of these maldistributions
upstream, inside and downstream the evaporator. A widely
used approach in literature is based on correlation models
(such as the ε-NTU method), capable of handling in some
extent the effects of these maldistribution (Koern et al., 2011,
2013; Mao et al., 2013). On the other side, CFD has proved to be
an effective tool able to handle complex 3D flows (Aslam
Bhutta et al., 2012). For example Moukalled et al. (2011) used
3D CFD code to model and optimise the air flow on a rooftop
air conditioning unit. The model included all the main causes
of air maldistribution such as the casing and the fans, and
heat exchange was solved modeling all the fins of both
evaporator and condenser units.
One of the main drawback of the former approach is the
lack of flexibility in the description of complex 3D fields, while
the latter relies on huge computational efforts, requiring long
time and expensive hardware to get results.
For these reasons other approaches has been proposed.
Singh et al. (2011) suggested a mixed method, were the flow
field obtained by a CFD model was used to provide the mass
flow to algebraic discrete model of the heat exchanger.
The use of fluid dynamic equivalent resistance can be used
to reduce the complexity of 3D CFD models. In this way the
physical description of the fins is avoided, drastically reducing
209
Nu Nusselt number ()
Q heat (W)
T temperature ( C)
V velocity (m s1)
V free stream velocity (m s1)
Vol volume (m3)
Subscript
ev evaporation
in inlet
out outlet
the discretization requirements in the evaporator region. On
the same time, in order to account for the fins effects on the
flows appropriate directional losses are set. This approach has
been successfully validated by PIV measurements (Yashar
et al., 2011; Marinetti et al., 2013) when isothermal flow was
concerned. Marinetti et al. (2013) also proposed the use of PIV
experimental data to avoid the inclusion of the fans into the
model, preserving on the same time the information neces-
sary to reproduce the experimental maldistribution on the
evaporator inlet inside the numerical model.
In the present paper, this methodology is further devel-
oped to include the heat exchange process. First, a 3D CFD
validated isothermal model of the evaporator channel is
briefly presented. The paper then focuses on the detailed
study of heat transfer on a single fin model in order to assess
the relationship between heat exchange coefficients, and air
velocity for the case study geometry. An equivalent energy
source term was then defined on the basis of the collected
data in order to obtain a numerical model not relying on the
physical description of the fins, as previously done for the
fluid dynamic resistance. The thermal equivalent approach
was validated by comparison with detailed conjugate heat
transfer CFD model of the single fin.
When applied to the evaporator channel model this
approach allows to evaluate the effects of the air maldistri-
bution in terms of temperature, heat transfer coefficients, and
cooling power in a finned heat exchanger. It is worth saying
that in this analysis only sensible heat transfer is addressed.
2. Case study
The case study reproduces the cooling duct of a horizontal
open type cabinet, with the evaporator located in the bottom
of the chest. The evaporator is a fin-and-tube heat exchanger,
with 10 tube rows and 2 tubes for each row.
The duct was built so to allow the optical access for laser
and cameras. PIV measures in isothermal conditions were
performed on three different planes, corresponding to the
mid-plane of the channel and the half-plane of the tubes rows.
Experiments were conducted at room temperature. More
210 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5

details on the experimental set up and results are reported in

Marinetti et al. (2012).
The air flow field was found to be highly non uniform. This
maldistribution was related to a complex interaction between:
the nearly horizontal positioning of the fans; their rotational
speed, the swirling components transferred to the flow and
the distortions due to the small height of the suction channel.

3. Isothermal numerical model

A fluid-dynamic isothermal model of the channel was set up

and validated. Since the detailed description of this model is
beyond the scope of this paper, just the main features will be
presented below in order to provide the information needed to
ensure a good understanding of the following analysis.
Exhaustive description and discussion of this model can be
found in Rossetti et al. (2015).
The cooling duct was divided into three different numeri-
cal domains: the volume occupied by the evaporator and the
volumes before and after it. Fans were not included into the
computational domain and their outlet plane was assumed as
inlet for the fluid model. While the evaporator fins were not
described in the model, the tubes were modeled to reproduce
correctly their obstruction and wakes (see Fig. 1).
Structured grids were employed for all the domains. Proper
inflations were set near the walls obtaining a grid of 3 178 680
nodes (2 996 572 hexahedral elements), 1 234 284 of them in
the evaporator domain.
As explained in Marinetti et al. (2013), the use of experi-
mental data as inlet boundary condition is essential to
correctly reproduce the uneven flow caused by the fan rota-
tion. Accordingly, in this paper stereo PIV measures on the fan
outlet surfaces (Fig. 2a) were used on the numerical model.
The effect of fins was considered defining an equivalent
resistance inside the evaporator domain. The equivalent
resistance value was obtained by best fitting the results of a
single fin CFD model under different velocity magnitude and
incidence angles. Directional losses depending on linear and
quadratic resistance coefficients were then set according to
the value reported in Table 1.
Turbulence was modeled using a standard two equation
SST model on the free flow domains. As the preliminary in-
formation obtained highlighted the development of laminar
flow between evaporator fins, the turbulent viscosity were
ignored inside the evaporator allowing to take into account
the turbulent to laminar transition. Air was modeled as an
incompressible isothermal fluid.
Fig. 2 e Numerical model: a) domains and boundary
conditions; b) grid detail around the evaporator tubes; c)
grid detail of the fans outlet surface according to their
encumbrance.
The isothermal flow resulting from this model was then
validated thought comparison with Stereo PIV experimental
data. Results are reported in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Figs. 3b and 4d show how the numerical model is able to
reproduce the uneven flow downstream the evaporator
documented by the experimental data (Fig. 3a). Furthermore,
numerical data clearly duplicate many of the most charac-
teristic features of the flow, such as the complex 3D flow
before the evaporator (Fig. 4aec). The main discrepancies
between the numerical model and the experimental data are
located before the evaporator, on the components orthogonal
to the main flows (Fig. 4b and c), where experimental data
shows a more irregular trend than the numerical model.
These errors can be probably related to the approximation of
the physical model to a stationary one. The nearly horizontal
orientation of the fans and the small height of the channel
lead to a strong and unstable mixing structure before the
evaporator. Steady state assumption acts in this condition
similarly to a low-pass filter, and only some of the turbulent
velocity peaks are reproduced by the model. Nevertheless
these local discrepancies, the CFD model predicts reasonably
well the main features of the air flow field.
4. Single fin model

In order to develop a 3D CFD thermal model of the whole

evaporator, in depth analysis of a single fin was carried out.

Table 1 e Evaporator equivalent resistance coefficient.

Linear resistance coefficient Quadratic resistance
[kg m3 s1] coefficient [kg m4]
X 0.36 3.25
Fig. 1 e Cooling duct geometry: a) the cooling duct; b) the Y 61.40 3.20
Z 0.36 3.25
laser measurement planes.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5
Fig. 3 e U velocity component contour plot on plane 2: a) experimental results; b) numerical results.
Firstly, a detailed model of the fin, accounting for heat con-
vection and conduction was set up. Afterwards, an equivalent
thermal model of the fin was developed and validated by
comparison with the full fin model.
The use of CFD simulation to derive the equivalent model
allows the entire procedure, once validated, to be used to test
non-standard, or complex fins geometry. The proposed pro-
cedure can then be easily generalized without the need of any
previous information on the fin performance.
4.1. Detailed single fin model
The volume considered by the single fin model is sketched in
Fig. 5, and consists in half fin thickness and half-fin pitch air
channel, assuming symmetry conditions on both sides. The
height of the volume corresponds to the tube-pitch. Tubes
Fig. 4 e Velocity profiles validation; a) u component at
X ¼ 200 [mm]; b) v component at X ¼ 200 [mm]; c) w
component at X ¼ 200 [mm]; d) u component at X ¼ ¡800
[mm].
211
external surface was modeled as a model boundary. A struc-
tured hexahedral grid with proper inflation layer was used,
counting 650,000 nodes.
The air velocity and temperature are input conditions to
the model. The inlet temperature of 4  C was assumed ac-
cording to the typical average temperature of the Return Air
Grille (RAG) of an ORDC. Relative pressure was set at the outlet
of the model.
SST turbulence model coupled to the two equation tran-
sition model (Menter et al., 2004) was used, in order to describe
the turbulentelaminar transition induced by the fins.
Constant temperature Tev ¼ 10  C (corresponding to the
evaporation temperature of the refrigerant) was imposed on
the surface corresponding to tube wall. Phase changes inside
the tubes are not considered at this analysis stage. No thermal
resistance was assumed between the fin and the tubes, thus
modeling an ideal continuous surface including both fin and
tubes. Conduction was solved on the solid domain of the fin.
Results are presented in Fig. 6, were the temperature of the
fin and the flow streamlines are showed. The fin temperature
increases close to the leading edge, thanks to the convective
exchange with the hot air, while in the rest of the surface the
temperature is very close to the evaporation temperature. The
air flow is divided by the presence of the tube rows, and a low
speed volume develops in the wake of each tube. This model
will be used as a reference to discuss the accuracy of the
equivalent model developed in the next sections.
Fig. 5 e Single fin model domain (shaded volume): a) side
view and b) top view.
212 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5
Fig. 6 e Temperature distribution on the fin surface and
flow streamlines, V ¼ 0.5 [ms¡1].
4.2. Thermal equivalence of the fin model
The heat transfer between the air and the evaporator can be
divided in two contributions: the first is the convection on the
fin surfaces; the second is the convection on the tubes. While
the tubes can be easily described in the numerical model of
the full channel, the detailed description of the fins would lead
to a huge increase in the computational power required to run
the model.
Fin thermal effect was modeled using an equivalence
approach, as previously done for the hydraulic losses induced
by the fin in the isothermal model. Initially, the heat transfer
coefficient on a plain fin was obtained from a parametric 2D
model, in order to get a complete description of the heat
transfer in the range of air temperature and velocity corre-
sponding to the actual working conditions. The obtained data
were then processed to define an equivalent volumetric heat
flux function. The adopted 2D fin corresponds to the dotted
area in the top view of Fig. 5a. Boundary conditions were set as
for the detailed single fin model, except that conduction was
neglected and the evaporation temperature of 10  C was
imposed to the entire fin surface.
Different velocities in the range 0.1e1.1 m s1, i.e.
compatible with the measured flow field, were assumed at the
inlet. Results for inlet velocity of 1.1 m s1 are reported in
Fig. 7.
For post processing the domain was then divided along the
fin length into12 elements. The heat flux in each element was
computed from the air side through the energy balance
equation: Q_ ¼ mc _ p ðTout  Tin Þ, were Tin and Tout are the mass
flow weighted average temperature at the inlet and outlet of
each element. The average temperature of the fluid T ¼ ðTin þ
Tout Þ=2 and the fin temperature Tev and the fin surface enclosed
into the element A were used to compute the average heat
transfer coefficient for each element:
Q_
h¼
(1)
A T  Tev
The trend of the heat transfer coefficient as a function of x
coordinate is reported in Fig. 8 by means of the Nusselt
Number Nu ¼ ðh dhy Þ=k.
All the analyses show a common trend: the heat transfer
coefficient has initially very high values, then suddenly de-
creases in the first 5 cm of the fin, and finally assumes a quite
Fig. 7 e 2D CFD model results Vinlet ¼ 1:1 ms¡1: a) Non
dimensional velocity; b) Temperature; c) Intermittency. (Y-
direction magnified 5 times in respect of the X-direction).
constant trend. This can be related to two main causes. The
first is the development of the boundary layer on the fin sur-
face, which is thin at the fin leading edge, then grows quickly
approaching the fully developed height just after some cen-
timeters, increasing then the thermal resistance between the
fin surface and the free flow. The development of the flow field
can be appreciated in Fig. 7a: the deceleration induced by the
fin surface lead to an increase of the maximum velocity in the
center of the fin passage; equilibrium is reached after
approximately 50 mm, where the boundary flow is fully
developed. Secondly, the fin passage, thanks to its reduced
hydraulic diameter, induce the transition between the tur-
bulent free flow to laminar flow. Nevertheless in the first
centimeters of the passage some turbulence survive in the
center of the passage, concurring to a local increase of h. The
area interested by turbulence is reported in Fig. 7c by means of
the intermittency variable, which account for the transition:
values of 1 means fully developed turbulent flow, while values
of 0 are related to laminar flow. As visible turbulence is quickly
damped, and eventually cancelled, by the development of the
boundary layer.
Both the reduction of turbulence and the development of
the boundary layer can be related to entrance length of the
fins passage. In laminar flows, entrance length is linearly
dependent of the Reynolds number. So the entrance time, i.e.
Fig. 8 e Nusselt Number as obtained from the 2D model for
different velocity.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5 213

Fig. 9 e Nusselt Number as a function of time (a) and of the average fluid temperature (b).

the time the fluid takes to reach the entrance length is not
2
dependent on the velocity. Taking advantage of this relation, _
qðV; TÞ ¼ hðTÞ ðT  Tev Þ (5)
b
entrance-related phenomena can be easily normalized using
time instead of length. When the permanence time inside the
4.3. Validation of the thermal equivalence
evaporator t ¼ x=V is used as reference, the heat exchanger
coefficients for different velocities collapse on a single curve,
A new model was built to validate the thermal equivalence.
as reported in Fig. 9a.
This model was defined using the same volume showed in
As a consequence, the convective exchange coefficient can
Fig. 5a, except for the fin, whose thermal effect was described
be expressed as function of the time h ¼ hðtÞ, not depending
adding Eq. (5) as a source term into the energy equation, while
directly upon velocity or position.
the fluid dynamic resistance was reproduced using the
Despite its apparent simplicity, the use of the permanence
directional losses of Table 1. The high value of the resistance
time in a CFD run is quite complex as it belong to a Lagrangian
along the y direction will assure the removal of the transversal
description, while CFD software is inherently Eulerian.
component of the velocity, deflecting the flow in the first
In order to bypass this problem, an available CFD variable,
millimeters of the fin, as in the actual geometry.
monotonically related to time, could be used instead. The fluid
As the tubes were described in the model their contribution
average temperature T was found to be eligible for this as it is
to the overall heat transfer was accounted by the CFD model
related to time by the power equilibrium equation, being the
relying on the boundary temperature Tev on the corresponding
heat flux always leaving the fluid. Heat exchange coefficient as
surfaces.
a function of the average temperature of the fluid is reported
Results are reported in Fig. 10, where the data obtained by
in Fig. 9b, where the interpolating curve h ¼ hðTÞ is reported by
the simplified model are compared with those of the 3D fin
a dashed line.
model presented in Section 4.1.
Based on this interpolation the heat exchange inside each
Results are in good agreement, especially for low velocities.
control volume can be described as:
The maximum error, defined as e ¼ Tsymplified  T for velocities



lower than 1.1 ms1 is 0.25 C corresponding to 3% of the
Q V; T ¼ h T A T  Tev (2)
minimum and is located in the first point of the highest ve-
Equation (2) should be then rearranged to obtain a locity curves. The average error is instead 0.12  C.
distributed model of the heat exchange. This term will be used The error derives from simplifications introduced in the
a source in the energy equation, accounting for the heat flux distributed equivalent method: the simplified model does not
induced by the fins. The expression of this term can be ob- account for fin conduction, for the boundary layers develop-
tained dividing Eq. (2) by the reference volume between the ment towards the fin length and for the interaction between
fins Vol, obtaining: the tubes and the fins.
Nevertheless, the performance of the proposed equiva-


A

q_ V; T ¼ h T T  Tev (3) lence was satisfactory for the present study, considering
Vol
which can be simplified in

2

q_ V; T ¼ h T T  Tev (4)
b
as A ¼ dL dz and Vol ¼ 0:5b dL dz,where dz is a fictional
thickness of the 2D model and dL is the considered element
length.
When Eq. (4) is used in the full channel model the average
temperature T of the detailed model can be replaced by the
local temperature T, as no significant gradient on the length
scale of b should reasonably arise, obtaining the punctual
relation: Fig. 10 e Validation of the thermal equivalence model.
214 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5
Fig. 11 e Velocity (a) and Temperature (b) distribution on Plane 2.
the relevant simplification introduced for the evaporator
model.
5. Channel thermo-fluidynamic model
The isothermal model previously presented was used as
reference to develop the thermo-fluid dynamic model. Air was
modeled as a dry ideal gas. The heat source expressed in Eq. (5)
was applied to the evaporator domain. Uniform temperature
(4  C) was imposed at the fans outlet surface.
The temperature and the velocity distribution on Plane 2
resulting from the analysis are reported in Fig. 11. The com-
parison between the two plots highlight a strong relationship
between temperature and velocity patterns. In details, higher
velocities lead to higher outlet temperature, while the
Fig. 12 e Temperature distribution on cross section; a)
evaporator outlet; b) 200 mm downstream the evaporator;
c) 400 mm downstream the evaporator; d) 600 mm
downstream the evaporator; e) outlet section; f) velocity
distribution on the outlet section.
opposite is true for low velocity areas. It is worth reminding
that the heat transfer coefficient, as described in Section 5, for
the specific design is not very much dependent on velocity,
due to the fact that laminar flow takes place.
The effect of the maldistribution can be clearly seen on the
cross sections of the channel downstream the evaporator. On
the evaporator outlet section (Fig. 12a) the temperature map
allows to clearly define three different areas: the tubes wakes,
characterized by the lower temperature; the low speed area,
on the left side of the channel; and the high speed areas, be-
tween the tubes and between the tubes and the walls. Mal-
distribution causes a temperature difference up to 2  C at the
evaporator exit. Then mixing process between the high tem-
perature jet and the tube wakes at lower temperature reduces
this difference as the channel outlet is approached. The
average difference in temperature between the two sides of
the channel is approximately of 1  C at the outlet of the
channel.
The effect of the uneven air flow distribution on local heat
flux is illustrated in Fig. 13. The heat flux over the whole
evaporator length reflects velocity distribution as represented
in Fig. 11a, with higher velocity corresponding to higher
thermal fluxes.
Fig. 13 e Volumetric Heat flux maps; a) evaporator middle
plane; b) cross sections.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 5 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 2 0 8 e2 1 5
The detailed description of the heat flux inside the evap-
orator allows to quantify the effect of the inlet flow maldis-
tribution on the evaporator performance. The overall heat
transfer was integrated over the entire coil. The half of the
evaporator characterized by higher velocity, which is the top
half in Fig. 13, was responsible for the 55% of the overall
cooling power, while the remaining 45% was exchanged by the
lower velocity side.
6. Conclusions
A thermo fluid dynamic model of an open refrigerated display
cabinet evaporator channel was proposed, in order to study
the effects of the air mal distribution inside and downstream
the evaporator. A thermal equivalence model of the evapo-
rator fins were proposed, in order to reduce the computational
cost of the model, preserving the overall accuracy. The pro-
posed approach allowed to use just 1.2 million nodes to
describe the evaporator, saving at least a factor 10 in term of
nodes in respect to similar models where the complete ge-
ometry is detailed (Moukalled et al., 2011).
The model highlighted the consequences of the uneven
airflow at the evaporator inlet, in terms of air temperature and
heat flux inside the evaporator. In particular the air maldis-
tribution was responsible for a 10% difference in terms of
thermal load between the right and left side of the evaporator.
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