1.

Fundamental Properties of Moist Air

DRY AND ATMOSPHERIC AIR
• Atmospheric air: Air in the atmosphere containing
some water vapor (or moisture).
• Dry air: Air that contains no water vapor.
• Water vapor in the air plays a major role in human
comfort. Therefore, it is an important
consideration in air-conditioning applications.
• For air-conditioning applications, air pressure is
nominally 1 atmosphere and air temperature
varies in the range −10oC To 500C. Under these
conditions, dry air and atmospheric air are treated
as ideal gases.
2
• Atmospheric air normally contains some water
vapor (moisture).
• The dry-air contains no water.
• Although the amount of water vapor in the air is
small, it plays a major role in human comfort and
thus in air-conditioning applications.
• The temperature of air in air-conditioning
applications ranges from about -10 to 50°C. In
that range both dry air and atmospheric air
(including water-vapor) can be treated as ideal
gas, with negligible error. Thus the ideal-gas
relation PV = RT can be applied.

3
Ideal Gas Properties of Atmospheric Air

4
 Enthalpy of Atmospheric Air
• Note that since air is considered as an ideal-gas,
the enthalpy of air (both water-vapor and dry air)
is only a function of temperature, at the
temperature range of interest, i.e., -10 to 50°C.
• Taking 0°C as the reference temperature; with the
constant-pressure specific for dry-air (in the
range of interest) cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.°C; one obtains:

5
• The enthalpy of water vapor at 0°C is
2500.9 kJ/kg. The average cp value
of water vapor in the temperature
range -10 to 50°C can be taken to be
1.82 kJ/kg.°C. Then the enthalpy of
water vapor can be determined
from:

6
Absolute humidity or Specific humidity or humidity ratio (ω):

7
 Relative Humidity φ
• Relative humidity is a measure of humidity
content relative to the maximum attainable
moisture content at a given temperature, i.e.
saturation. For a given sample of moist air

•Saturation: condition where no more vapor can

be added without condensation.
•Saturated air is moist air with the maximum
concentration of water vapor at that temperature.
8
9
• The relative humidity ranges from 0 to 1 and it is
a function of air temperature.
• Relative humidity can change with temperature
even when specific humidity remains constant.
• Total enthalpy of atmospheric air is the sum of
the enthalpies of dry air and the water vapor:

10
• Dry Bulb Temperature Tdb: the temperature measured
by a thermometer placed in a mixture of air and water-
vapor.
• Dew Point Temperature Tdp: is the temperature at
which condensation begins when the air is cooled at
constant pressure. Tdp is the saturation temperature of
water corresponding to the vapor pressure:
Tdp = Tsat@ Pv
• Wet Bulb Temperature Twb: thermometer surrounded
by a saturated wick if air/water vapor mixture is not
saturated, some water in the wick evaporates and
diffuses into the air and results in cooling the water in
the wick.
11
• As the temperature of the water drops, heat is transferred
to the water from both the air and the thermometer; the
steady state temperature is the wet-bulb temperature. The
wet bulb temperature is always smaller (or at the limit)
equal to the dry bulb temperature

12
2. Psychrometrics of Air Conditioning
systems
• Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning
• Psychrometric process,
• Sensible cooling and heating,
• Heating with Humidification
• Cooling with dehumidification,
• Mixing of air streams

13
 Human Comfort & Air Conditioning
• Today, modern air-conditioning systems can heat, cool, humidify,
dehumidify, clean, and even deodorize the air–in other words,
condition the air to peoples’ desires.
• Human body can be viewed as a heat engine which generates waste
heat that must be rejected to the environment. The rate of heat
generation depends on the level of activity.
• A body feels comfortable when it can freely dissipate its waste
heat, and no more.
• The rate of heat generation by human body depends on the level of
the activity. For an average adult male, it is about 87 W when
sleeping, 115 W when resting or doing office work, and 440 W when
doing heavy physical work.
• When doing light work or walking slowly, about half of the rejected
body heat is dissipated through perspiration as latent heat while the
other half is dissipated through convection and radiation as sensible
14
heat.
• The comfort of human body depends on three factors:
 Temperature: most important index of comfort, most
people feel comfortable when temperature is between
22 and 27°C
 Relative humidity: it affects the amount of heat that
body can dissipate through evaporation. Relative
humidity is a measure of air’s ability to absorb moisture.
Most people prefer relative humidity of 40 to 60%.
 Air motion: it removes the warm, moist air that builds
up around body and replaces it with fresh air. Most
people feel comfortable at an airspeed of 15 m/min.
• Other important factors in air-conditioning include:
noise, filtration, air-distribution, fresh air supply, supply
air temperature, etc. 15
 Psychrometric Chart
• The state of the atmospheric air at a
specified pressure is completely specified
by two independent intensive properties.
• Psychrometric charts present the moist air
properties; they are used extensively in air-
conditioning applications.
• The psychrometric charts serves as a
valuable aid in visualizing the air-
conditioning processes. Simple heating and
cooling appear as horizontal lines on the
psychrometric chart (constant specific-
humidity process).
16
17
 Basic features of psychrometric chart are:
 The dry bulb temperatures are shown on the horizontal axis.
 The specific humidity ω is shown on the vertical axis.
 The curved line at the left end of the chart is the saturation line. All
the saturated air states are located on this curve. Thus, it also
represents the curve of relative humidity 100%. Other constant relative
humidity curves have the same general shape.
 Lines of constant wet-bulb temperature have a downhill appearance to
the right.
 Lines of specific volume also have downhill appearance to the right
with steeper slopes.
 Lines of constant enthalpy lie very near to the constant wet-bulb
temperature, thus (in some charts) lines of constant wet-bulbs are
used as constant-enthalpies.
 For saturated air, the dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dew-point temperatures
are identical. Thus the dew-point temperature of atmospheric air can
be determined by drawing a horizontal line to the saturated curve.
18
 Psychrometric Process
• We cannot change the weather, but we can change
the climate in a confined space by air-conditioning.
• Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at
the desired temperature and humidity requires
some processes called air-conditioning processes
(Psychrometric Processes)
• These processes include simple heating (raising the
temperature), simple cooling (lowering the
temperature), humidifying (adding moisture), and
dehumidifying (removing moisture).
• Sometimes two or more of these processes are
needed to bring the air to a desired temperature
and humidity level.

19
 Simple Heating and Cooling (ω = Constant)
• The amount of moisture in the air remains constant during this
process since no moisture is added or removed to or from the air.
• Notice that the relative humidity of air decreases during a
heating process and increases in a cooling process. This is
because the relative humidity is the ratio of the moisture
capacity of the air and it increases with increasing the air
temperature.
• Many residential heating systems consist of a stove, a heat
pump, or an electric resistance heater. The air in these systems is
heated by circulating it through a duct that contains the tubing
for the hot gases or the electric resistance wires.
• Cooling can be accomplished by passing the air over some coils
through which a refrigerant or chilled water flows.
• Heating and cooling appear as a horizontal line since no moisture
is added to or removed from the air. 20
During simple cooling, specific humidity remains constant, but
relative humidity increases.
During simple heating, specific humidity remains constant, but
relative humidity decreases.
21
Energy balance & Schematic diagram of simple heating and
cooling

22
 Heating with Humidification
• Problems with the low relative humidity resulting from
simple heating can be eliminated by humidifying the
heated air. This is accomplished by passing the air first
through a heating section and then through a
humidifying section. If steam is used in the humidifier,
we will have additional heating; thus T3 > T2.
• If water is sprayed in the humidifier section, part of the
latent heat of vaporization comes from the air which
results in the cooling of the air; thus T3 < T2.

23
24
 Cooling with Dehumidification
• The specific humidity of air remains constant during a
simple cooling process, but its relative humidity
increases. If the relative humidity reaches undesirably
high levels, it may be necessary to remove some
moisture from the air, that is, to dehumidify it.
• To remove some moisture from the air, it should be
cooled below its dew-point temperature. Passing
through cooling coil, air temperature decreases and its
relative humidity increases at constant specific
humidity until air temperature reaches its dew point
temperature. Any further cooling results in
condensation of part of the moisture in the air. Note
that air remains saturated during the entire
condensation process.

25
Energy and mass balance, schematic diagram and the process on the
psychrometric chart are as shown below for cooling with dehumidification

26
Mixing of air streams

27
28
 EXERCISES
1. A house contains air at 25°C and 65 percent relative
humidity. Will any moisture condense on the inner surfaces
of the windows when the temperature of the window drops to
10°C?
2. Room contains air at 1 atm, 26°C, and 70 percent relative
humidity. Using the psychrometric chart, determine (a) the
specific humidity, (b) the enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air), (c) the
wet-bulb temperature, (d ) the dew-point temperature, and (e)
the specific volume of the air (in m3/kg dry air).
3. The air in a room has a pressure of 1 atm, a dry-bulb
temperature of 24°C, and a wet-bulb temperature of 17°C.
Using the psychrometric chart, determine (a) the specific
humidity, (b) the enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air), (c) the relative
humidity, (d ) the dew-point temperature, and (e) the specific
volume of the air (in m3/kg dry air).

29
4. Air enters a 40-cm-diameter cooling section at 1 atm, 32°C, and
30 percent relative humidity at 18 m/s. Heat is removed from the
air at a rate of 1200 kJ/min. Determine (a) the exit temperature,
(b) the exit relative humidity of the air, and (c) the exit velocity.
5. Air enters a heating section at 1atm, 12°C, and 30 percent relative
humidity at a rate of 6 m3/min, and it leaves at 25°C. Determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer in the heating section and (b) the
relative humidity of the air at the exit
6. Air at 1 atm, 15°C, and 55 percent relative humidity is first heated
to 22°C in a heating section and then humidified by introducing
water vapor. The air leaves the humidifying section at 27°C and
65 percent relative humidity. Draw schematic diagram of the
process, show the process on psychrometric chart and Determine
(a) the amount of steam added to the air, and (b) the amount of
heat transfer to the air in the heating section.

30
7. An air-conditioning system is to take in air at 1
atm, 34°C, and 70 percent relative humidity and
deliver it at 22°C and 50 percent relative
humidity. The air flows first over the cooling coils,
where it is cooled and dehumidified, and then
over the resistance heating wires, where it is
heated to the desired temperature. Assuming
that the condensate is removed from the cooling
section at 10°C, Show the process on the
psychrometric chart and determine (a) the
temperature of air before it enters the heating
section, (b) the amount of heat removed in the
cooling section, and (c) the amount of heat
transferred in the heating section, both in kJ/kg
dry air.
31
8. Atmospheric air from the inside of an automobile
enters the evaporator section of the air conditioner at
1 atm, 27°C and 50 percent relative humidity. The air
returns to the automobile at 10°C and 90 percent
relative humidity. The passenger compartment has a
volume of 2 m3 and 5 air changes per minute are
required to maintain the inside of the automobile at
the desired comfort level. Sketch the psychrometric
diagram for the atmospheric air flowing through the air
conditioning process. Determine the dew point and
wet bulb temperatures at the inlet to the evaporator
section, in °C. Determine the required heat transfer
rate from the atmospheric air to the evaporator fluid,
in kW. Determine the rate of condensation of water
vapor in the evaporator section, in kg/min.

32
9. Two airstreams are mixed steadily and adiabatically.
The first stream enters at 32°C and 40 percent relative
humidity at a rate of 20 m3/min, while the second
stream enters at 12°C and 90 percent relative humidity
at a rate of 25 m3/min. Assuming that the mixing
process occurs at a pressure of 1 atm, determine the
specific humidity, the relative humidity, the dry-bulb
temperature, and the volume flow rate of the mixture.
10. A stream of warm air with a dry-bulb temperature of
40°C and a wet-bulb temperature of 32°C is mixed
adiabatically with a stream of saturated cool air at
18°C. The dry air mass flow rates of the warm and cool
airstreams are 8 and 6 kg/s, respectively. Assuming a
total pressure of 1 atm, determine (a) the temperature,
(b) the specific humidity, and (c) the relative humidity
of the mixture.

33
3. Outside and inside
design conditions

34
 Introduction:
• Design and analysis of air conditioning systems
involves selection of suitable inside and outside
design conditions, estimation of the required
capacity of cooling or heating equipment,
selection of suitable cooling/heating system,
selecting supply conditions, design of air
transmission and distribution systems etc.
• The building heat gains depend on the type of the
building, outside conditions and the required
inside conditions. Hence selection of suitable
inside and outside design conditions is an
important step in the design and analysis of air
conditioning systems.
35
 Selection of inside design conditions:
• The required inside design conditions depend on the intended use of
the building. Air conditioning is required either for providing suitable
comfort conditions for the occupants (e.g. comfort air conditioning),
or for providing suitable conditions for storage of perishable products
(e.g. in cold storages) or conditions for a process to take place or for
products to be manufactured (e.g. industrial air conditioning).
• The required inside conditions for cold storage and industrial air
conditioning applications vary widely depending on the specific
requirement. However, the required inside conditions for comfort air
conditioning systems remain practically same irrespective of the size,
type, location, use of the air conditioning building etc., as this is
related to the thermal comfort of the human beings.
• For comfort applications, the required indoor conditions are fixed by
the criterion of thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial
applications the required indoor conditions are fixed by the particular
processes being performed or the products being stored. The design
outdoor conditions are chosen based on design dry bulb and
coincident wet bulb temperatures for peak summer or winter months
for cooling and heating load calculations, respectively.
36
 Thermal comfort:
• Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind
which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment”. This condition is also some times called
as “neutral condition”, though in a strict sense, they
are not necessarily same.
• A living human body may be likened to a heat engine in
which the chemical energy contained in the food it
consumes is continuously converted into work and
heat. The process of conversion of chemical energy
contained in food into heat and work is called as
“metabolism”.
• The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into
heat and work is called as “metabolic rate”. Knowledge
of metabolic rate of the occupants is required as this
forms a part of the cooling load of the air conditioned
building.
37
• A human body continuously generates heat at a rate
varying from about 100 W (e.g. for a sedentary person)
to as high as 2000 W (e.g. a person doing strenuous
exercise). Continuous heat generation is essential, as
the temperature of the human body has to be
maintained within a narrow range of temperature,
irrespective of the external surroundings.
• A human body is very sensitive to temperature. The
body temperature must be maintained within a narrow
range to avoid discomfort, and within a somewhat
wider range, to avoid danger from heat or cold stress.
Studies show that at neutral condition, the
temperatures should be:

38
• Since the body temperature depends on the heat balance,
which in turn depends on the conditions in the
surroundings, it is important that the surrounding
conditions should be such that the body is able to maintain
the thermal equilibrium with minimum regulatory effort.
• Depending upon the surroundings and factors such as
activity level etc., the heat stored is either positive or
negative.
• For comfort, the rate of heat stored in the body should be
zero (neutral condition)
• When the environment is colder than the neutral zone,
then body loses more heat than is generated.
• When the environment is hotter than the neutral zone,
then body loses less heat than is generated.
• The purpose of a comfort air conditioning system is to
provide suitable conditions in the occupied space so that it
is thermally comfortable to the occupants.
39
 Factors affecting thermal comfort:
• Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are:
1. Physiological factors such as age, activity, sex and
health. These factors influence the metabolic rate. It is
observed that of these factors, the most important is
activity. Other factors are found to have negligible effect
on thermal comfort.
2. Insulating factor due to clothing. The type of clothing
has strong influence on the rate of heat transfer from the
human body. The unit for measuring the resistance
offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is equal to a
resistance of about 0.155 m2.K/W. Typical clo values for
different types of clothing have been estimated and are
available in the form of tables. For example, a typical
business suit has a clo value of 1.0, while a pair of shorts
has a clo value of about 0.05.
40
• 3. Environmental factors. Important factors are the dry
bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion and
surrounding surface temperature. Of these the dry bulb
temperature affects heat transfer by convection and
evaporation, the relative humidity affects heat loss by
evaporation, air velocity influences both convective and
evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface
temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.
• Apart from the above, other factors such as drafts,
asymmetrical cooling or heating, cold or hot floors etc.
also affect the thermal comfort. The objective of a
comfort air conditioning system is to control the
environmental factors so that comfort conditions
prevail in the occupied space. It has no control on the
physiological and insulating factors. However, wearing
suitable clothing may help in reducing the cost of the
air conditioning system.
41
 Selection of suitable inside design
conditions
• For a person to feel comfortable it appears that the
following conditions are desirable:
(1) The air temperature should be higher than the
mean radiant temperature in summer, but lower in
winter. (22-27oC in summer and 20-25oC in winter)
(2) The average air velocity in the room should
probably not exceed 0.15 m s -1 in an air conditioned
room but higher velocities may be acceptable with
air temperatures greater than 260C
(3) Relative humidity should desirably lie between
about 45 per cent and 60 per cent.
(4) Relative humidity should never exceed 70 per cent.
42
(5) The dew point should never be less than 20C
(6) The temperature difference between the feet and
the head should be as small as possible, normally
not exceeding 1.50C and never more than 30C
(7) Floor temperatures should not be greater than
260C when people are standing and probably not
less than 170C
(8) The radiant temperature asymmetry should not
be more than 50C vertically or 100C horizontally.
(9) The carbon dioxide content should not exceed
about 0.1 per cent.
43
 Selection of suitable outside conditions for cooling
load calculation
• The ambient temperature and moisture content vary from hour-to-
hour and from day-to-day and from place-to-place. For example, in
summer the ambient temperature increases from sunrise, reaches a
maximum in the afternoon and again decreases towards the
evening. On a given day, the relative humidity also varies with
temperature and generally reaches a minimum value when the
ambient temperature is maximum.
• For most of the major locations of the world, meteorological data is
available in the form of mean daily or monthly maximum and
minimum temperatures and corresponding relative humidity or wet
bulb temperature.
• As mentioned before, to estimate the required cooling capacity of
an air conditioning plant, it is essential to fix the outside design
conditions in addition to the inside conditions. It is obvious that the
selected design conditions may prevail only for a short a duration,
and most of the time the actual outside conditions will be different
from the design values. As a result, for most of the time the plant
will be running at off-design conditions.
44
The outside design conditions also depend on
the following factors:
a) Type of the structure, i.e., whether it is of
heavy construction, medium or light
b) Insulation characteristics of the building
c) Area of glass or other transparent surfaces
d) Type of usage
e) Nature of occupancy
f) Daily range (difference between maximum
and minimum temperatures in a given day)
45
• Selection of maximum dry and wet bulb
temperatures at a particular location leads to
excessively large cooling capacities as the maximum
temperature generally persists for only a few hours in
a year. Hence it is recommended that the outdoor
design conditions for summer be chosen based on
the values of dry bulb and mean coincident wet bulb
temperature that is equaled or exceeded 0.4, 1.0 or
2.0 % of total hours in an year.
• These values for major locations in the world are
available in data books, such as ASHRAE handbooks.
Whether to choose the 0.4 % value or 1.0 % value or
2.0 % value depends on specific requirements. In the
absence of any special requirements, the 1.0% or 2%
value may be considered for summer outdoor design
conditions.

46
• Similar to summer, it is not economical to design
a winter air conditioning for the worst condition
on record as this would give rise to very high
heating capacities. Hence it is recommended that
the outdoor design conditions for winter be
chosen based on the values of dry bulb
temperature that is equaled or exceeded 99.6 or
99.0 % of total hours in an year.
• Similar to summer design conditions, these
values for major locations in the world are
available in data books, such as ASHRAE
handbooks. Generally the 99.0% value is
adequate, but if the building is made of light-
weight materials, poorly insulated or has
considerable glass or space temperature is
critical, then the 99.6% value is recommended.
47
4. Heating and Cooling
load calculations

48
 Introduction
• The primary function of an air conditioning system is to
maintain the conditioned space at required temperature,
moisture content with due attention towards the air
motion, air quality and noise.
• The required conditions are decided by the end use of the
conditioned space, e.g. for providing thermal comfort to
the occupants as in comfort air conditioning applications,
for providing suitable conditions for a process or for
manufacturing a product as in industrial air conditioning
applications etc. The reason behind carrying out cooling
and heating load calculations is to ensure that the cooling
and heating equipment designed or selected serves the
intended purpose of maintaining the required conditions in
the conditioned space.
49
• Design and/or selection of cooling and heating systems
involve decisions regarding the required capacity of the
equipment selected, type of the equipment etc. By
carrying out cooling and heating load calculations one
can estimate the capacity that will be required for
various air conditioning equipment.
• For carrying out load calculations it is essential to have
knowledge of various energy transfers that take place
across the conditioned space, which will influence the
required capacity of the air conditioning equipment.
Cooling and heating load calculations involve a
systematic step-wise procedure by following which one
can estimate the various individual energy flows and
finally the total energy flow across an air conditioned
building.
50
• The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must be
removed from a space in order to maintain the desired
conditions in the space, generally a dry-bulb temperature
and relative humidity. The cooling load for a space can be
made up of many components, including:
 Conduction heat gain from outdoors through the roof,
exterior walls, skylights, and windows. (This includes the
effects of the sun shining on these exterior surfaces.)
 Solar radiation heat gain through skylights and windows.
 Conduction heat gain from adjoining spaces through the
ceiling, interior partition walls, and floor.
 Internal heat gains due to people, lights, appliances, and
equipment in the space.
 Heat gain due to hot, humid air infiltrating into the space
from outdoors through doors, windows, and small cracks
in the building envelope.
51
 Heating and Cooling Load Estimation
• Heating and cooling load calculations are carried out to estimate the
required capacity of heating and cooling systems, which can maintain
the required conditions in the conditioned space. To estimate the
required cooling or heating capacities, one has to have information
regarding the design indoor and outdoor conditions, specifications of
the building, specifications of the conditioned space (such as the
occupancy, activity level, various appliances and equipment used etc.)
and any special requirements of the particular application.
• For comfort applications, the required indoor conditions are fixed by
the criterion of thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial
applications the required indoor conditions are fixed by the particular
processes being performed or the products being stored. The design
outdoor conditions are chosen based on design dry bulb and
coincident wet bulb temperatures for peak summer or winter months
for cooling and heating load calculations, respectively.
52
 Cooling Load Calculations
• The cooling load experienced by a building varies in
magnitude from zero (no cooling required) to a maximum
value. The design cooling load is a load near the
maximum magnitude, but is not normally the maximum.
• Design cooling load takes into account all the loads
experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed
conditions.
• The assumptions behind design cooling load are as
follows:
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term
statistical database. The conditions will not necessarily
represent any actual year, but are representative of the
location of the building. Design data for outside
conditions for various locations of the world have been
collected and are available in tabular form in various
handbooks.
53
2. The load on the building due to solar
radiation is estimated for clear sky conditions.
3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at
full design capacity.
4. All building equipment and appliances are
considered to be operating at a reasonably
representative capacity.

54
• The total building cooling load consists of heat
transferred through the building envelope (walls,
roof, floor, windows, doors etc.) and heat
generated by occupants, equipment, and lights.
The load due to heat transfer through the
envelope is called as external load, while all
other loads are called as internal loads.
• The percentage of external versus internal load
varies with building type, site climate, and
building design.
• The total cooling load on any building consists of
both sensible as well as latent load components.
The sensible load affects dry bulb temperature,
while the latent load affects the moisture content
of the conditioned space.
55
• As mentioned before, the total cooling load on a
building consists of external as well as internal loads.
The external loads consist of heat transfer by
conduction through the building walls, roof, floor,
doors etc, heat transfer by radiation through
fenestration such as windows and skylights. All these
are sensible heat transfers.
• In addition to these the external load also consists of
heat transfer due to infiltration, which consists of both
sensible as well as latent components. The heat
transfer due to ventilation is not a load on the building
but a load on the system. The various internal loads
consist of sensible and latent heat transfer due to
occupants, products, processes and appliances,
sensible heat transfer due to lighting and other
equipment. Figure below shows various components
that constitute the cooling load on a building.
56
Fig. Various cooling
load components 57
Fig. Cooling Load Components 58
 Estimation of cooling loads:
• Estimation of cooling load involves estimation of
each of the above components from the given data.
The cooling load calculations are carried out based
on the CLTD/CLF method suggested by ASHRAE.
• A) Heat transfer through opaque
surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer
process. The heat transfer rate through
opaque surfaces such as walls, roof, floor,
doors etc. is given by:

59
• where:
• U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
• A is the heat transfer area of the surface on the side of the
conditioned space.
• CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference.
• For sunlit surfaces, CLTD has to be obtained from the CLTD
tables.
• Adjustment to the values obtained from the table is needed if
actual conditions are different from those based on which the
CLTD tables are prepared.
• For surfaces which are not sunlit or which have negligible
thermal mass (such as doors), the CLTD value is simply equal
to the temperature difference across the wall or roof. For
example, for external doors the CLTD value is simply equal to
the difference between the design outdoor and indoor dry
bulb temperatures, Tout-Tin.

60
B) Heat transfer through fenestration:
• Fenestration refers to any glazed (transparent)
space in a building, such as glass doors,
windows, skylights etc. Fenestration is
required in a building as it provides:
a) Daylight, heat and outside air
b) Visual communication to the outside world
c) Aesthetics, and
d) Escape route in case of fires in low-rise
buildings

61
• Because of their transparency, fenestrations transmit solar radiation
into the building. Heat transfer through transparent surfaces is
distinctly different from heat transfer through opaque surfaces.
When solar radiation is incident on an opaque building wall, a part
of it is absorbed while the remaining part is reflected back. As will
be shown later, only a fraction of the radiation absorbed by the
opaque surface is transferred to the interiors of the building.
• However, in case of transparent surfaces, a major portion of the
solar radiation is transmitted directly to the interiors of the building,
while the remaining small fraction is absorbed and/or reflected
back. Thus the fenestration or glazed surfaces contribute a major
part of cooling load of a building. The energy transfer due to
fenestration depends on the characteristics of the surface and its
orientation, weather and solar radiation conditions. A careful design
of fenestration can reduce the building energy consumption
considerably.
62
• Heat transfer through transparent surface such as
a window, includes heat transfer by conduction
due to temperature difference across the window
and heat transfer due to solar radiation through
the window. The heat transfer through the
window by convection is calculated using the
above equation, with CLTD being equal to the
temperature difference across the window and A
equal to the total area of the window.
• The heat transfer due to solar radiation through
the window is given by:

63
• Where:
• Aunshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation,
SHGFmax and SC are the maximum Solar Heat Gain
Factor and Shading Coefficient, respectively, and
• CLF is the Cooling Load Factor.
• The unshaded area has to be obtained from the
dimensions of the external shade and solar
geometry.
• SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables
based on the orientation of the window, location,
month of the year and the type of glass and
internal shading device.

64
• The Cooling Load Factor (CLF) accounts for the fact that all
the radiant energy that enters the conditioned space at a
particular time does not become a part of the cooling load
instantly.
• As solar radiation enters the conditioned space, only a
negligible portion of it is absorbed by the air particles in the
conditioned space instantaneously leading to a minute
change in its temperature. Most of the radiation is first
absorbed by the internal surfaces, which include ceiling,
floor, internal walls, furniture etc.
• Due to the large but finite thermal capacity of the roof, floor,
walls etc., their temperature increases slowly due to
absorption of solar radiation. As the surface temperature
increases, heat transfer takes place between these surfaces
and the air in the conditioned space. 65
• Depending upon the thermal capacity of the wall and the
outside temperature, some of the absorbed energy due to
solar radiation may be conducted to the outer surface and
may be lost to the outdoors. Only that fraction of the solar
radiation that is transferred to the air in the conditioned
space becomes a load on the building, the heat transferred
to the outside is not a part of the cooling load.
• Thus it can be seen that the radiation heat transfer
introduces a time lag and also a decrement factor
depending upon the dynamic characteristics of the surfaces.
Due to the time lag, the effect of radiation will be felt even
when the source of radiation, in this case the sun is
removed. The CLF values for various surfaces have been
calculated as functions of solar time and orientation and are
available in the form of tables in ASHRAE Handbooks.
66
 c) Heat transfer due to infiltration and ventilation:
• Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of
untreated, outdoor air directly into the conditioned
space. Infiltration of outdoor air into the indoors takes
place due to wind and stack effects.
• The wind effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due
to the pressure difference developed across the
building due to winds blowing outside the building.
• The stack effect refers to the entry of outdoor air due
to buoyancy effects caused by temperature difference
between the indoor and outdoors. Though infiltration
brings in outdoor air into the building similar to
ventilation, in many commercial buildings efforts are
made to minimize it, as it is uncontrolled and
uncertain.

67
• Before estimating the heat gain from infiltration, we
must first estimate the amount of air that is leaking
into the space. There are three methods commonly
used to estimate infiltration airflow
• The air change method is the easiest, but may be the
least accurate of these methods. It involves estimating
the number of air changes per hour that can be
expected in spaces of a certain construction quality.
• The crack method is a little more complex and is based
upon the average quantity of air known to enter
through cracks around windows and doors when the
wind velocity is constant.
• The effective leakage-area method takes wind speed,
shielding, and “stack effect” into account, and requires
a very detailed calculation.

68
The infiltration rate by air change method is given by:

• Where
• ACH is the number of air changes per hour and
• V is the gross volume of the conditioned space in m3.
• Normally the ACH value varies from 0.5 ACH for tight
and well-sealed buildings to about 2.0 for loose and
poorly sealed buildings. For modern buildings the ACH
value may be as low as 0.2 ACH.
• Thus depending upon the age and condition of the
building an appropriate ACH value has to be chose,
using which the infiltration rate can be calculated.
69
• One ACH is equal to the airflow rate equal to
the internal volume of the occupied space per
hour. The ACH values are related to the
outside wind velocity and the temperature
difference between the indoor and outdoors.
Infiltration rates are also obtained for different
types of doors and windows and are available
in the form of tables in air conditioning
handbooks.

70
 Ventilation
• The quality of air inside the conditioned space should be such that it
provides a healthy and comfortable indoor environment. Air inside the
conditioned space is polluted by both internal as well as external
sources. The pollutants consist of odor, various gases, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter. The internal sources of
pollution include the occupants (who consume oxygen and release
carbon dioxide and also emit odors), furniture, appliances etc, while
the external sources are due to impure outdoor air. Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ) can be controlled by the removal of the contaminants in the air
or by diluting the air. The purpose of ventilation is to dilute the air
inside the conditioned space.
• Ventilation may be defined as the “supply of fresh air to the
conditioned space either by natural or by mechanical means for the
purpose of maintaining acceptable indoor air quality”. Generally
ventilation air consists of fresh outdoor air plus any re-circulated air
that has been treated. If the outdoor air itself is not pure, then it also
has to be treated before supplying it to the conditioned space.
71
• Though the minimum amount of air required
for breathing purposes is small (about 0.2
liters per second per person), the actual
ventilation air required is much larger as in
addition to supplying oxygen to the
occupants, the ventilation air must:
• a) Dilute the odors inside the occupied space
to a socially acceptable level
• b) Maintain carbon dioxide concentration at a
satisfactory level
• c) Pressurizing the escape routes in the event
of fire
72
• Outdoor air is often used to dilute or remove contaminants from
the indoor air.
• The intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space, through
the use of the building’s HVAC system, is called ventilation. This
outdoor air must often be cooled and dehumidified before it can
be delivered to the space, creating an additional load on the air-
conditioning equipment.
• You should never depend on infiltration to satisfy the ventilation
requirement of a space. On days when the outdoor air is not
moving (due to wind), the amount of infiltration can drop to zero.
Instead, it is common to introduce outdoor air through the HVAC
system, not only to meet the ventilation needs, but also to
maintain a positive pressure (relative to the outdoors) within the
building. This positive pressure reduces, or may even eliminate,
the infiltration of unconditioned air from outdoors.
• The sensible and latent loads from ventilation are calculated
using the same equations as for infiltration:
73
 Heating and cooling loads due to ventilation and
infiltration:

• Due to ventilation and infiltration, buildings

gain energy in summer and loose energy in
winter. The energy gained or lost consists of
both sensible and latent parts, as in general
the temperature and moisture content of
indoor and outdoors are different both in
winter and winter.

74
the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rates of outdoor air due to ventilation
and infiltration, Cp,m is the average specific heat of moist air, hfg is the
latent heat of vaporization of water, To and Ti are the outdoor and indoor dry
bulb temperatures and Wo and Wi are the outdoor and indoor humidity
ratios.
• Thus from known indoor and outdoor conditions and computed or selected
values of ventilation and infiltration rates, one can calculate the cooling and
heating loads on the building. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates as
given by the equations above will be positive during summer (heat gains)
and negative during winter (heat losses).
75
• Heat transfer due to infiltration consists of both
sensible as well as latent components and are given by:

76
 D) Load due to occupants:
The internal cooling load due to occupants consists of both
sensible and latent heat components. The rate at which the
sensible and latent heat transfer take place depends mainly
on the population and activity level of the occupants. Since a
portion of the heat transferred by the occupants is in the form
of radiation, a Cooling Load Factor (CLF) should be used
similar to that used for radiation heat transfer through
fenestration. Thus the sensible heat transfer to the
conditioned space due to the occupants is given by the
equation:

77
• The value of Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for
occupants depends on the hours after the entry of the
occupants into the conditioned space, the total hours
spent in the conditioned space and type of the
building. Values of CLF have been obtained for
different types of buildings and have been tabulated
in ASHRAE handbooks.
• Since the latent heat gain from the occupants is
instantaneous the CLF for latent heat gain is 1.0, thus
the latent heat gain due to occupants is given by:

78
 E) Load due to lighting:
Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned
space. Since the heat transferred from the
lighting system consists of both radiation and
convection, a Cooling Load Factor is used to
account for the time lag. Thus the cooling load
due to lighting system is given by:

79
• The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are
installed but are not switched on at the time at
which load calculations are performed. The
ballast factor takes into account the load imposed
by ballasts used in fluorescent lights.
• A typical ballast factor value of 1.25 is taken for
fluorescent lights, while it is equal to 1.0 for
incandescent lamps.
• The values of CLF as a function of the number of
hours after the lights are turned on, type of
lighting fixtures and the hours of operation of the
lights are available in the form of tables in
ASHRAE handbooks. 80
 F) Internal loads due to equipment and appliances:
• The equipment and appliances used in the
conditioned space may add both sensible as well as
latent loads to the conditioned space. Again, the
sensible load may be in the form of radiation and/or
convection. Thus the internal sensible load due to
equipment and appliances is given by:

81
• For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the
load is in the form of sensible heat transfer and is
estimated based on the rated power consumption.
• The CLF value for these equipment may be taken as 1.0 as
the radiative heat transfer from these equipment is
generally negligible due to smaller operating temperatures.
• When the equipment are run by electric motors which are
also kept inside the conditioned space, then the efficiency
of the electric motor must be taken into account. Though
the estimation of cooling load due to appliance and
equipment appears to be simple as given by the equations,
a large amount of uncertainty is introduced on account of
the usage factor and the difference between rated
(nameplate) power consumption at full loads and actual
power consumption at part loads.
• Estimation using nameplate power input may lead to
overestimation of the loads, if the equipment operates at
part load conditions most of the time.
82
 Heating load Calculation
• Conventionally steady state conditions are assumed for estimating
the building heating loads and the internal heat sources are
neglected. Then the procedure for heating load calculations
becomes fairly simple.
• One has to estimate only the sensible and latent heat losses from
the building walls, roof, ground, windows, doors, due to infiltration
and ventilation. Equations similar to those used for cooling load
calculations are used with the difference that the CLTD values are
simply replaced by the design temperature difference between the
conditioned space and outdoors. Since a steady state is assumed,
the required heating capacity of the system is equal to the total
heat loss from the building.
• As already mentioned, by this method, the calculated heating
system capacity will always be more than the actual required
cooling capacity. However, the difference may not be very high as
long as the internal heat generation is not very large (i.e., when the
building is not internally loaded). 83
84
• The space heating load is the rate at which heat must be added to a
space in order to maintain the desired conditions in the space, generally
a dry-bulb temperature.
• In general, the estimation of heating loads assumes worst-case
conditions for the space. The winter design outdoor temperature is used
for determining the conduction heat loss through exterior surfaces. No
credit is given for heat gain from solar radiation through glass or from
the sun’s rays warming the outside surfaces of the building. Additionally,
no credit is given for internal heat gains due to people, lighting, and
equipment in the space.
• The heating load for a space can be made up of many components,
including:
 Conduction heat loss to the outdoors through the roof, exterior walls,
skylights, and windows
 Conduction heat loss to adjoining spaces through the ceiling, interior
partition walls, and floor
 Heat loss due to cold air infiltrating into the space from outdoors
through doors, windows, and small cracks in the building envelope
85
•
Conduction through Surfaces
When calculating heating loss by conduction through the roof, the exterior walls,
and the windows, no credit is given for the effect of the sun shining on the outside
surfaces. With this assumption, the amount of heat transferred through the
surface is a direct result of the temperature difference between the outdoor and
indoor surfaces (ΔT is used instead of CLTD).
• The amount of heat loss through a roof, an exterior wall, or a window depends on
the area of the surface, the overall heat transfer coefficient of the surface, and the
dry-bulb temperature difference from one side of the surface to the other. The
equation used to predict the heat loss by conduction is:

86
 Infiltration and Ventilation
• The equation used to calculate the sensible heat loads
due to infiltration and ventilation is the same as the
one used above for heating load calculation
• However, when the internal heat generation rate is
large and/or when the building has large thermal
capacity with a possibility of storing solar energy
during day time, then using more rigorous unsteady
approach by taking the internal heat sources into
account yields significantly small heating small
capacities and hence low initial costs. Hence, once
again depending on the specific case one has to select
a suitable and economically justifiable method for
estimating heating loads.

87
 5. Selection of Air conditioning
Systems
Introduction:
• In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned
space, energy has to be either supplied or extracted from the
conditioned space. The energy in the form of sensible as well as
latent heat has to be supplied to the space in winter and extracted
from the conditioned space in case of summer. An air conditioning
system consists of an air conditioning plant and a thermal
distribution system as shown in Fig. below. As shown in the figure,
the air conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (in case
of winter systems) or as a heat sink (in case of summer systems).
• Air, water or refrigerant are used as media for transferring energy
from the air conditioning plant to the conditioned space. A thermal
distribution system is required to circulate the media between the
conditioned space and the A/C plant. Another important function of
the thermal distribution system is to introduce the required amount
of fresh air into the conditioned space so that the required Indoor
Air Quality (IAQ) can be maintained.
88
Fig. Schematic of a summer air conditioning system with the
thermal distribution system

89
 Selection criteria for air conditioning
systems
Selection of a suitable air conditioning system
depends on:
1. Capacity, performance and spatial
requirements
2. Initial and running costs
3. Required system reliability and flexibility
4. Maintainability
5. Architectural constraints
90
• Classification of air conditioning systems:
• Based on the fluid media used in the thermal
distribution system, air conditioning systems
can be classified as:
1. All air systems
2. All water systems
3. Air- water systems
4. Unitary refrigerant based systems

91
 All air systems:
• As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the media that
transports energy from the conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these
systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this processed air is then
conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using blowers and
fans.
• This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of
sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the
conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the
required processing thus completing the cycle. No additional processing of air
is required in the conditioned space. All air systems can be further classified
into:
1. Single duct systems, or
2. Dual duct systems
• The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same
duct, but not both heating and cooling simultaneously.
• The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously.
These systems can be further classified into:
• 1. Constant volume, single zone Systems
• 2. Constant volume, multiple zone Systems
• 3. Variable volume systems Version 92
 1. Constant volume, single zone Systems
• Figure in the next slide shows the classic, all air, single duct, single zone, constant
volume AC system. As shown in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and
recirculated air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions using the dampers
and the mixed air is made to flow through a cooling and dehumidifying coil, a
heating coil and a humidifier using a an insulated ducting and a supply fan. As the
air flows through these coils the temperature and moisture content of the air are
brought to the required values.
• Then this air is supplied to the conditioned space, where it meets the building
cooling or heating requirements. The return air leaves the conditioned space, a
part of it is recirculated and the remaining part is vented to the atmosphere.
• A thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and controls
the amount of cooling or heating provided in the coils so that the supply air
temperature can be controlled as per requirement. A humidistat measures the
humidity ratio in the conditioned space and controls the amount of water vapor
added in the humidifier and hence the supply air humidity ratio as per
requirement.

93
Fig. A constant volume, single
zone system
94
• This system is called as a single duct system as there is
only one supply duct, through which either hot air or
cold air flows, but not both simultaneously. It is called
as a constant volume system as the volumetric flow
rate of supply air is always maintained constant.
• It is a single zone system as the control is based on
temperature and humidity ratio measured at a single
point. Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one
thermostat. However, the single zone may consist of a
single room or one floor or whole of a building
consisting of several rooms.
• The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone,
constant volume systems is regulated by regulating the
supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while
keeping the supply airflow rate constant. A separate
sub-system controls the amount of OD air supplied by
controlling the damper position.
95
• Since a single zone system is controlled by a single thermostat
and humidistat, it is important to locate these sensors in a
proper location, so that they are indicative of zone
conditions. The supply air conditions are controlled by either
coil control or face-and-bypass control.
• In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by
varying the flow rate of cold and hot water in the cooling
and heating coils, respectively. As the cooling season
gradually changes to heating season, the cooling coil valve is
gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened. Though coil
control is simpler, using this type of control it is not possible
to control the zone humidity precisely as the
dehumidification rate in the cooling coil decreases with cold
water flow rate. Thus at low cold water flow rates, the
humidity ratio of the conditioned space is likely to be higher
than required. 96
• In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water
flow rates are maintained constant, but the amount of
air flowing over the coils are decreased or increased by
opening or closing the by-pass dampers, respectively.
By this method it is possible to control the zone
humidity more precisely, however, this type of control
occupies more space physically and is also expensive
compared to coil control.
Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume
systems:
1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas
with small external loads e.g. theatres, auditoria,
departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large
buildings such as factories, office buildings etc.
97
 2. Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone
systems:
• For very large buildings with several zones of different
cooling/heating requirements, it is not economically
feasible to provide separate single zone systems for each
zone. For such cases, multiple zone systems are suitable.
Figure in the next slide shows a single duct, multiple zone
system with terminal reheat coils. In these systems all the
air is cooled and dehumidified (for summer) or heated and
humidified (for winter) to a given minimum or maximum
temperature and humidity ratio.
• A constant volume of this air is supplied to the reheat coil
of each zone. In the reheat coil the supply air temperature
is increased further to a required level depending upon the
load on that particular zone. This is achieved by a zone
thermostat, which controls the amount of reheat, and
hence the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may run
on either electricity or hot water.
98
Fig. Single duct, constant volume system with
multiple zones and reheat coils
99
• Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume
systems with reheat coils:
a) Relatively small space requirement
b) Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of
zone loads
c) Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the
supply air amount is kept constant under all conditions
• Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume
systems with reheat coils:
a) High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a
very low temperature and is then heated in the reheat coils. Thus
energy is required first for cooling and then for reheating. The
energy consumption can partly be reduced by increasing the supply
air temperature, such that at least one reheat coil can be switched-
off all the time. The energy consumption can also be reduced by
using waste heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers) in the
reheat coil.
b) Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.

100
 3. Single duct, variable air volume
(VAV) systems:
• Figure in the net slide shows a single duct, multiple
zone, variable air volume system for summer air
conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems
air is cooled and dehumidified to a required level in the
cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC). A variable volume
of this air is supplied to each zone.
• The amount of air supplied to each zone is controlled
by a zone damper, which in turn is controlled by that
zone thermostat as shown in the figure. Thus the
temperature of supply air to each zone remains
constant, whereas its flow rate varies depending upon
the load on that particular zone.
101
102
Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air
volume systems offer advantages such as:
a) Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is
not cooled to very low temperatures and then reheated as
in constant volume systems.
b) Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan
power input due to lower flow rate, when the load is low.
These systems lead to significantly lower power
consumption, especially in perimeter zones where
variations in solar load and outside temperature allows for
reduced air flow rates.
However, since the flow rate is controlled, there could be
problems with ventilation, IAQ (indoor air quality) and
room air distribution when the zone loads are very low. In
addition it is difficult to control humidity precisely using
VAV systems. Balancing of dampers could be difficult if the
airflow rate varies widely.

103
 Dual duct, constant volume systems:
• Figure in the next slide shows the schematic of a dual
duct, constant volume system. As shown in the figure,
in a dual duct system the supply air fan splits the flow
into two streams. One stream flow through the cooling
coil and gets cooled and dehumidified to about 13oC,
while the other stream flows the heating coil and is
heated to about 35–45oC.
• The cold and hot streams flow through separate ducts.
Before each conditioned space or zone, the cold and
hot air streams are mixed in required proportions using
a mixing box arrangement, which is controlled by the
zone thermostat. The total volume of air supplied to
each zone remains constant, however, the supply air
temperature varies depending upon load.

104
FIG. Dual duct, constant
volume system
105
 Advantages of dual duct systems:
1. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant,
it is possible to maintain proper IAQ (inside air
quality) and room air distribution.
2. Cooling in some zones and heating in other
zones can be achieved simultaneously
3. System is very responsive to variations in the
zone load, thus it is possible to maintain
required conditions precisely.

106
 Disadvantages of dual duct systems:
1. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have
to be sized to handle all the air flow rate, if required.
• 2. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous
cooling and heating of the air streams. However, the energy
efficiency can be improved by completely shutting down the
cooling coil when the outside temperature is low and mixing
supply air from fan with hot air in the mixing box. Similarly,
when the outside weather is hot, the heating coil can be
completely shut down, and the cold air from the cooling coil
can be mixed with supply air from the fan in the mixing box.
Dual duct, variable air volume systems:
• These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume
systems with the only difference that instead of maintaining
constant flow rates to each zone, the mixing boxes reduce
the air flow rate as the load on the zone drops.

107
 Advantages of all air systems:
1. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation
by utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
2. By using high-quality controls it is possible to maintain the
temperature and relative humidity of the conditioned space within
± 0.15oC (DBT) and ± 0.5%, respectively.
3. Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous
cooling and heating. Changeover from summer to winter and vice
versa is relatively simple in all air systems.
4. It is possible to provide good room air distribution and ventilation
under all conditions of load.
5. Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
6. The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and return
air fans can be located away from the conditioned space. Due to
this it is possible to use a wide variety of air filters and avoid noise
in the conditioned space.
108
 Disadvantages of all air systems:
1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the
available floor space in the buildings. It could
be difficult to provide air conditioning in high-
rise buildings with the plant on the ground
floor or basement due to space constraints.
2. Retrofitting (modification or new
installation) may not always be possible due
to the space requirement.
3. Balancing of air in large and particularly with
variable air volume systems could be difficult.

109
 Applications of all air systems:
• All air systems can be used in both comfort as
well as industrial air conditioning applications.
They are especially suited to buildings that
require individual control of multiple zones, such
as office buildings, classrooms, laboratories,
hospitals, hotels, ships etc.
• They are also used extensively in applications
that require very close control of the conditions
in the conditioned space such as clean rooms,
computer rooms, operation theatres, research
facilities etc.
110
 All water systems:
• In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system
is water, i.e., water transports energy between the conditioned space
and the air conditioning plant. When cooling is required in the
conditioned space then cold water is circulated between the
conditioned space and the plant, while hot water is circulated
through the distribution system when heating is required.
• Since only water is transported to the conditioned space, provision
must be there for supplying required amount of treated, outdoor air
to the conditioned space for ventilation purposes. Depending upon
the number of pipes used, the all water systems can be classified into
a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
• A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only
application, but cannot be used for simultaneous cooling and
heating. Figure below shows the schematic of a 2-pipe, all water
system. 111
• As shown in the figure and as the name implies, a 2-pipe system
consists of two pipes – one for supply of cold/hot water to the
conditioned space and the other for the return water. A cooling
or heating coil provides the required cold or hot water. As the
supply water flows through the conditioned space, required heat
transfer between the water and conditioned space takes place,
and the return water flows back to the cooling or heating coil.
• A flow control valve controls the flow rate of hot or cold water
to the conditioned space and thereby meets the required
building heating or cooling load. The flow control valve is
controlled by the zone thermostat. As already mentioned, a
separate arrangement must be made for providing the required
amount of ventilation air to the conditioned space. A pressure
relief valve (PRV) is installed in the water line for maintaining
balanced flow rate.
112
FIG. A two-pipe, all water system
113
• A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one
for cold water and one for hot water; and two return
water pipelines. The cold and hot water are mixed in a
required proportion depending upon the zone load,
and the mixed water is supplied to the conditioned
space. The return water is split into two streams, one
stream flows to the heating coil while the other flows
to the cooling coil.
• Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the
conditioned space takes place either by convection,
conduction or radiation or a combination of these. The
cold/hot water may flow through bare pipes located in
the conditioned space or one of the following
equipment can be used for transferring heat:
• 1. Fan coil units
• 2. Convectors
• 3. Radiators etc. 114
 Advantages of all water systems:
1. The thermal distribution system requires very less space
compared to all air systems. Thus there is no penalty in terms
of conditioned floor space. Also the plant size will be small due
to the absence of large supply air fans.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the
system offers all the benefits of a large central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating
is small, it is possible to use solar or waste heat for winter
heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe
systems.
115
 Disadvantages of all water systems:
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air
systems, particularly in the conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may
also create health problems if water stagnates in the
drain tray. This problem can be eliminated, if
dehumidification is provided by a central ventilation
system, and the cooling coil is used only for sensible
cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall
apertures, then, it is difficult to ensure positive
ventilation under all circumstances, as this depends on
wind and stack effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is
difficult using chilled water control valves.
116
 Applications of all water systems:
• All water systems using fan coil units are most
suitable in buildings requiring individual room
control, such as hotels, apartment buildings
and office buildings.

117
 Air-water systems:
• In air-water systems both air and water are used for
providing required conditions in the conditioned space. The
air and water are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air
supplied to the conditioned space from the central plant is
called as primary air, while the water supplied from the
plant is called as secondary water. The complete system
consists of a central plant for cooling or heating of water
and air, ducting system with fans for conveying air, water
pipelines and pumps for conveying water and a room
terminal. The room terminal may be in the form of a fan coil
unit, an induction unit or a radiation panel.
• Figure below shows the schematic of a basic air-water
system. Even though only one conditioned space is shown in
the schematic, in actual systems, the air-water systems can
simultaneously serve several conditioned spaces.

118
FIG. A basic air-water
system.
119
• Normally a constant volume of primary air is supplied to each zone
depending upon the ventilation requirement and the required
sensible cooling capacity at maximum building load. For summer air
conditioning, the primary air is cooled and dehumidified in the
central plant, so that it can offset all the building latent load.
• Chilled water is supplied to the conditioned space to partly offset
the building sensible cooling load only. Since the chilled water coil
kept in the conditioned space has to take care of only sensible load,
condensation of room air inside the conditioned space is avoided
thereby avoiding the problems of condensate drainage and related
problems in the conditioned space.
• As mentioned, the primary takes care of the ventilation
requirement of the conditioned space, hence unlike in all water
systems, there is no need for separate ventilation systems. In
winter, moisture can be added to the primary air in the central plant
and hot water is circulated through the coil kept in the conditioned
space. The secondary water lines can be of 2-pipe, 3- pipe or 4-pipe
type similar to all water systems.
120
 Advantages of air-water systems:
1. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner using room
thermostats, which control either the secondary water flow rate or the
secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary
air and secondary water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less
than that of an all air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
5. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept in the
conditioned space, the coil operates dry and its life thereby increases
and problems related to odors or fungal growth in conditioned space is
avoided.
6. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help of the
heating coil and secondary air, thus avoiding supply of primary air during
winter.
7. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all water systems.
121
 Disadvantages of air-water systems:
1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and
controlling both primary air and secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if
the quality of filters used in the room units is not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space,
and room control is only through the control of room cooling/heating
coils, shutting down the supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is
not possible.
5. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then
condensation may take place on the cooling coil of secondary water.
6. Initial cost could be high compared to all air systems.
Applications of air-water systems:
These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large
sensible loads and where close control of humidity in the
conditioned space is not required. These systems are thus
suitable for office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels, apartments
etc.
122
 Unitary refrigerant based AC systems:
• Unitary refrigerant based systems consist of several separate air
conditioning units with individual refrigeration systems. These systems
are factory assembled and tested as per standard specifications, and are
available in the form of package units of varying capacity and type. Each
package consists of refrigeration and/or heating units with fans, filters,
controls etc. Depending upon the requirement these are available in the
form of window air conditioners, split air conditioners, heat pumps,
ductable systems with air cooled or water cooled condensing units etc.
• The capacities may range from fraction of TR to about 100 TR for
cooling. Depending upon the capacity, unitary refrigerant based systems
are available as single units which cater to a single conditioned space, or
multiple units for several conditioned spaces. Figure below shows the
schematic of a typical window type, room air conditioner, which is
available in cooling capacities varying from about 0.3 TR to about 3.0 TR.

123
FIG. A typical window type room
air conditioner
124
• As the name implies, these units are normally mounted either in the window
sill or through the wall. As shown in the figure, this type of unit consists of
single package which includes the cooling and dehumidification coil, condenser
coil, a hermetic compressor, expansion device (capillary tube), condenser fan,
evaporator fan, room air filter and controls. A drain tray is provided at the
bottom to take care of the condensate water. Both evaporator and condensers
are plate fin-and-tube, forced convection type coils. For rooms that do not
have external windows or walls, a split type room air conditioner can be used.
In these air conditioners, the condensing unit comprising of the condenser,
compressor and condenser fan with motor are located outside, while the
indoor unit consisting of the evaporator, evaporator fan with motor, expansion
valve and air filter is located inside the conditioned room.
• The indoor and outdoor units are connected by refrigerant piping. In split type
air conditioners, the condensed water has to be taken away from the
conditioned space using separate drain pipes. In the room air conditioners
(both window mounted and split type), the cooling capacity is controlled by
switching the compressor on-and-off. Sometimes, in addition to the on-and-
off, the fan speed can also be regulated to have a modular control of capacity.
It is also possible to switch off the refrigeration system completely and run
only the blower for air circulation. 125
 Advantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.
2. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution
with simple adjustment by
the occupants.
3. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the
manufacturer.
4. System installation is simple and takes very less time.
5. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need
for a trained operator.
6. Initial cost is normally low compared to central
systems.
7. Retrofitting is easy as the required floor space is small.

126
 Disadvantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. As the components are selected and matched by the
manufacturer, the system is less flexible in terms of air flow
rate, condenser and evaporator sizes.
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to
central systems.
3. Close control of space humidity is generally difficult.
4. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher.
5. Limited ventilation capabilities.
6. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance
standards, rather than the
building standards.
7. May not be appealing aesthetically.
8. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off
control is used as in room air conditioners.
9. Limited options for controlling room air distribution.
10. Equipment life is relatively short.
127
 Applications of unitary refrigerant
based systems:
• Unitary refrigerant based systems are used where
stringent control of conditioned space
temperature and humidity is not required and
where the initial cost should be low with a small
lead time.
• These systems can be used for air conditioning
individual rooms to large office buildings,
classrooms, hotels, shopping centers, nursing
homes etc. These systems are especially suited
for existing building with a limitation on available
floor space for air conditioning systems.
128
 6. Air distribution (duct) system
• Central heating and cooling systems use an air
distribution or duct system to circulate heated
and/or cooled air to all the conditioned rooms
in a house. Properly designed duct systems
can maintain uniform temperatures
throughout the house, efficiently and quietly.

129
 WHYDUCTDESIGNISIMPORTANT
• The efficiency of air distribution systems has
been found to be 60-75% or less in many
houses because of insufficient and/or poorly
installed duct insulation and leaks in the duct
system. Properly designed and installed duct
systems can have efficiencies of 80% or more
for little or no additional cost, potentially
saving a homeowner heating and cooling
costs. Moreover, efficient duct system designs
can reduce equipment size, further saving
money for new or replacement equipment.

130
• Duct systems that leak and/or do not distribute air properly
throughout the house may make some rooms too hot and
others too cold. Leaky and unbalanced duct systems may
force conditioned air outside and unconditioned air into
the house. This increases heating and cooling costs and
may also draw humidity, dust, mold spores, and other
contaminants into a home from the attic, crawlspace, or
garage and radon gas from the soil. In extreme cases,
poorly designed and installed duct systems can induce back
drafting—spillage of flue gases from combustion appliances
(e.g., furnace, water heater, fireplace) into the living
space— primarily when atmospheric or natural-draft flues
are used rather than powered combustion systems.
• Duct systems that are undersized, are pinched, or have
numerous bends and turns may lead to low air flow rates
and high air velocities. Low air flow rates cause the heating
and cooling equipment to operate inefficiently. High air
velocities increase noise.
131
 • DUCTDESIGNOBJECTIVES
The objectives of good duct design are occupant comfort,
proper air distribution, economical heating and cooling
system operation, and economical duct installation. The
outcome of the duct design process will be a duct system
(supply and return plenums, ducts, fittings, boots, grilles,
and registers) that:
• Provides conditioned air to meet all room heating and
cooling loads.
• Is properly sized so that the pressure drop across the air
handler is within manufacturer and design specifications.
• Is sealed to provide proper air flow and to prevent air from
entering the house or duct system from polluted zones.
• Has balanced supply and return air flows to maintain a
neutral pressure in the house.
• Minimizes duct air temperature gains or losses between
the air handler and supply outlets, and between the return
register and air handler.
132
 SUPPLY DUCT SYSTEMS
• Supply ducts deliver air to the spaces that are to be
conditioned. The two most common supply duct systems
for residences are the trunk and branch system and the
radial system because of their versatility, performance, and
economy. The spider and perimeter loop systems are other
options.
TRUNK AND BRANCH SYSTEM
• In the trunk and branch system, a large main supply trunk is
connected directly to the air handler or its supply plenum
and serves as a supply plenum or an extension to the
supply plenum. Smaller branch ducts and run outs are
connected to the trunk.
• The trunk and branch system is adaptable to most houses,
but it has more places where leaks can occur. It provides air
flows that are easily balanced and can be easily designed to
be located inside the conditioned space of the house.

133
• There are several variations of the trunk and branch
system. An extended plenum system uses a main
supply trunk that is one size and is the simplest and
most popular design. The length of the trunk is usually
limited to about 24 feet because otherwise the velocity
of the air in the trunk gets too low and air flow into
branches and run outs close to the air handler
becomes poor.
• Therefore, with a centrally located air handler, this duct
system can be installed in homes up to approximately
50 feet long. A reducing plenum system uses a trunk
reduction periodically to maintain a more uniform
pressure and air velocity in the trunk, which improves
air flow in branches and runouts closer to the air
handler. Similarly, a reducing trunk system reduces the
cross-sectional area of the trunk after every branch
duct or runout, but it is the most complex system to
design.
134
 SPIDER SYSTEM
• A spider system is a more distinct variation of the trunk and branch
system. Large supply trunks (usually large-diameter flexible ducts)
connect remote mixing boxes to a small, central supply plenum.
Smaller branch ducts or runouts take air from the remote mixing
boxes to the individual supply outlets. This system is difficult to locate
within the conditioned space of the house.
RADIAL SYSTEM
• In a radial system, there is no main supply trunk; branch ducts or
runouts that deliver conditioned air to individual supply outlets are
essentially connected directly to the air handler, usually using a small
supply plenum. The short, direct duct runs maximize air flow. The
radial system is most adaptable to single-story homes. Traditionally,
this system is associated with an air handler that is centrally located
so that ducts are arranged in a radial pattern. However, symmetry is
not mandatory, and designs using parallel runouts can be designed so
that duct runs remain in the conditioned space (e.g., installed above a
dropped ceiling).
135
 PERIMETER LOOP SYSTEM
• A perimeter loop system uses a
perimeter duct fed from a central supply
plenum using several feeder ducts. This
system is typically limited to houses built
on slab in cold climates and is more
difficult to design and install.

136
137
138
 RETURN DUCT SYSTEMS
• Return ducts remove room air and deliver it back to the
heating and cooling equipment for filtering and
reconditioning. Return duct systems are generally classified
as either central or multiple-room return.
MULTIPLE-ROOM RETURN SYSTEM
• A multiple-room return system is designed to return air
from each room supplied with conditioned air, especially
those that can be isolated from the rest of the house
(except bathrooms and perhaps kitchens and mechanical
rooms). When properly designed and installed, this is the
ultimate return duct system because it ensures that air flow
is returned from all rooms (even with doors closed),
minimizes pressure imbalances, improves privacy, and is
quiet. However, design and installation costs of a multi-
room return system are generally higher than costs for a
central return system, and higher friction losses can
increase blower requirements.
139
 CENTRAL RETURN SYSTEM
• A central return system consists of one or more large
grilles located in central areas of the house (e.g.,
hallway, under stairway) and often close to the air
handler. In multi-story houses, a central return is often
located on each floor. To ensure proper air flow from
all rooms, especially when doors are closed, transfer
grilles or jumper ducts must be installed in each room
(undercutting interior doors to provide 1 inch of
clearance to the floor is usually not sufficient by itself).
• Transfer grilles are through-the-wall vents that are
often located above the interior door frames, although
they can be installed in a full wall cavity to reduce noise
transmission. The wall cavity must be well sealed to
prevent air leakage. Jumper ducts are short ducts
routed through the ceiling to minimize noise transfer.
140
 RETURN AIR TECHNIQUES
• Closed interior doors create a return-air blockage in systems with
only one or two returns. Grilles through doors or walls or jumper
ducts can reduce house pressures and improve circulation.

141
 DUCT MATERIALS
• Air distribution ducts are commonly constructed from
sheet metal, rigid fiberglass duct board, or flexible
nonmetallic duct. Selection of duct material is based on
price, performance, and installation requirements.
• Designs that use the house structure or building framing
(e.g., building cavities, closets, raised-floor air handler
plenums, platform returns, wall stud spaces, panned floor
joists) as supply or return ducts can be relatively
inexpensive to install.
• However, they should be avoided because they are difficult
to seal and cannot always be insulated. In addition, because
such systems tend to be rough and have many twists and
turns, it is difficult to design them so as to ensure good air
distribution.
• Even return plenums built under a stairway or in a closet,
for example, should be avoided if a completely ducted
system is possible.
142
 SHEET METAL
• Sheet metal is the most common duct material and can be used on
most all supply and return duct applications (for plenums, trunks,
branches, and runouts). Sheet metal ducts have a smooth interior
surface that offers the least resistance to air flow. When located in an
unconditioned space, they must be insulated with either an interior
duct liner or exterior insulation.
• They must also be carefully and completely sealed during
construction/installation, using approved tapes or preferably mastic,
because each connection, joint, and seam has potential leakage.
Screws should be used to mechanically fasten all joints.
FIBERGLASS DUCT BOARD
• Fiberglass duct board is insulated and sealed as part of its
construction. It is usually used to form rectangular supply and return
trunks, branches, and plenums, although it can be used for runouts as
well. Connections should be mechanically fastened using shiplap or V-
groove joints and stapling and sealed with pressure-activated tapes
and mastic. Fiberglass duct board provides excellent sound
attenuation, but its longevity is highly dependent on its closure and
fastening systems.
143
 FL E X I B L E NONMETALLIC DUCT
• Flexible nonmetallic duct (or flex duct) consists of a
duct inner liner supported on the inside by a helix wire
coil and covered by blanket insulation with a flexible
vapor-barrier jacket on the outside. Flex duct is often
used for runouts, with metal collars used to connect
the flexible duct to supply plenums, trunks, and
branches constructed from sheet metal or duct board.
Flex duct is also commonly used as a return duct. Flex
duct is factory-insulated and has fewer duct
connections and joints.
• However, these connections and joints must be
mechanically fastened using straps and sealed using
mastic. Flex duct is easily torn, crushed, pinched, or
damaged during installation. It has the highest
resistance to air flow. Consequently, if used, it must be
properly specified and installed.
144
 DUCT DESIGN METHOD
• The air distribution system should be designed at the same time the house
plans are being developed, following the procedures in the Air Conditioning
Contractors of America’s (ACCA’s) Manual D: Residential Duct Systems.
Planning locations for ductwork, structural framing, plumbing, and electrical
wiring simultaneously avoids conflicts between these systems.
• The following eight steps should be followed in the design of an air
distribution system to ensure efficiency and comfort:
1. Select the general type of heating and cooling equipment (e.g., furnace,
heat pump, air conditioner). The heating and cooling equipment should be
selected based on occupant preferences, availability of different fuels (e.g.,
natural gas, electricity), installation costs, and operating costs.
• 2. Select the general type of air distribution system (supply and return duct
systems). The general designs and duct materials for the supply and return
duct systems should be selected after considering the type of equipment
selected and its location, the local climate, the architectural and structural
features of the house, zoning requirements, and installation and operating
costs. ACCA’s Manual G: Selection of Distribution Systems and Manual RS:
Comfort, Air Quality, and Efficiency by Design can assist in this selection. 145
3. Calculate the design heating and cooling loads of each room of the
house and the loads that are associated with the entire house using
ACCA’s Manual J: Residential Load Calculation (eighth edition).
Room loads are used to determine the air flow needed for each
room, and the house loads are used to size and select specific
heating and cooling equipment models.
4. Size and select the specific models of the heating and cooling
equipment using ACCA’s Manual S: Residential Equipment
Selection. This precedes the duct sizing calculations because, in
residential applications, the blower (fan) data of the selected
equipment establish the duct design criteria. In addition, identify
any component or device (e.g., filter, humidifier, electric resistance
heater, cooling coil) that was not included when the blower data
and their associated pressure drops were developed.
5. Develop a scale drawing or rough sketch of the air distribution
system showing the location of the air handling equipment, supply
outlets, return openings, loads and air flow rates associated with
each supply and return register, location of duct runs, lengths of
straight duct runs, fitting types, and equivalent lengths of the
fittings. Be sure to account for the direction of joists, roof hips, and
other potential obstructions such as two-story foyers or rooms.
146
6. Determine the size of all the ducts based on the room
loads, blower data, pressure drops of additional
components or devices, and equivalent duct lengths
following the procedures in ACCA’s Manual D: Residential
Duct Systems. Several duct layouts may need to be
examined before reaching a final design.
7. Select and size the air distribution system devices (return
grilles and supply air diffusers, grilles, and registers) using
ACCA’s Manual T: Air Distribution Basics for Residential and
Small Commercial Buildings. These must be selected to
maintain air velocities below values that will cause noise
but, in the case of supply outlets, sufficiently high so that
air is disbursed to exterior walls or ceilings as desired.
8. Select the insulation levels for the duct system in
accordance with the 2000 International Energy
Conservation Code.

147
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