UNOCHB2: Unit Operations 2B

LEARNING UNIT 4

Drying

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 Contents: Learning Unit 4
■ Introduction
■ Classification of drying methods
■ Terminology (Humidity, Saturation humidity, % humidity, % relative humidity, Dew
point of air-water mixture, humid heat of air-water mixture, total enthalpy of air-water
mixture).
■ Humidity charts for air-water vapour mixtures
■ Adiabatic air-water saturation (heat balance, wet bulb temperature)
■ Equilibrium moisture content of materials
■ Rate of drying curves
■ The mechanism of moisture movement during drying
■ Calculation methods for constant rate drying
■ Calculation methods for falling rate drying period
■ Material and Heat balances
■ Drying Equipment
■ Specialized Drying Methods 2
 INTRODUCTION
• Two processes will be considered: Drying and Water Cooling

Drying- Removal of water or organic liquids (solvents) from

process materials and other substances
Drying vs. Evaporation

• Drying- removal of small amounts of water

• Evaporation- removal of large amounts of water

• Drying- water removed as vapour by air

• Evaporation- water removed as a vapour at its boiling point
 CLASSIFICATION OF
DRYING METHODS
• According to process operation
i. Batch
ii. Continuous

• According to physical conditions used to add heat and remove

water vapour.
i. Air drying- heated by direct contact with hot air and water
vapour formed removed by air
ii. Vacuum drying- heat added by contact with metallic wall or by
radiation. Note: water evaporation is faster at low pressures
iii. Freeze drying- water is sublimed from frozen material.
 Drying

- Drying is the final operation in a manufacturing process

carried out immediately prior to packaging and dispatch.

- It is the final removal of water or another solute.

- The operation follows processes like evaporation, filtration

and crystallization.

- In some cases drying is an essential part of a manufacturing

process e.g. paper making or seasoning of timber.
 Why Drying?

- To reduce the cost of transportation.

- To make material more suitable for handling e.g. soap
powder, sugar, fertilizer etc.
- To provide define properties e.g. maintaining the free
flowing nature of salt.
- To remove moisture which may lead to corrosion,
deterioration etc.
NB: With the exception of partial drying of material by
squeezing in a press or the removal of water by
adsorption, almost all drying processes require the
removal of water by evaporation, which requires the
supply of heat. Heat utilization is important in drying
efficiency consideration.
 General drying principles
- Moisture content is normally expressed in terms of water content
as a % of the mass of dry material.
- If a material is exposed to air at a given temperature and humidity,
the material will lose or gain water until equilibrium is established.
- Equilibrium moisture content varies widely with moisture content
and air temperature.
- Moisture is present in 2 forms, namely (a) bound moisture and (b)
free moisture.
(a) Bound moisture: Water retained so that it exerts a vapour pressure
less than that of free water at the same temperature. This water maybe
retained in small capillaries, absorbed on surfaces or as a solution on
cell walls.
(b) Free moisture: - This is the water in excess of the equilibrium
moisture content.
- Air and hot gases remove this water by evaporation and the removal
ability is determined by temperature and humidity.
Air-Water Systems
Important Definitions
Important Definitions
 TERMINOLOGY

• Humidification: Transfer of water from liquid phase to gaseous

mixture of air and water vapour.

• Dehumidification: Reverse transfer i.e. water vapour transferred

from vapour state to liquid state.

• Vapour pressure of water: Refer to phase diagram of water and

steam tables. Vapour pressure of water is independent of the
total pressure of the system.

• Humidity (H): Of air-water mixture is defined as the kg of water

vapour contained in 1kg of dry air. Depends only on the partial
pressure of water vapour in the air and the total pressure (P).
 TERMINOLOGY

PA- partial pressure of water vapour

P- total pressure (1 atm used through out this module)
Percentage humidity is defined as
h𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℋ
% h𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ×100 % = × 100 %
h𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℋ0

• Saturated air: Air in which the water vapour is in equilibrium with

the liquid water at the given conditions of temperature and
pressure. In this mixture the partial pressure of water vapour in
the air-water mixture is equal to the vapour pressure (PAS) of pure
water at a given temperature.
 TERMINOLOGY

• Saturation humidity (HS):

• % humidity (HP):

• % relative humidity (HR):

𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟

%𝑟𝑒𝑙 .h 𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = × 10
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 h 𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Note: HP ≠ HR
• Dew point of air-water mixture: the temperature at which a given
mixture of air water vapour would be saturated is called the dew
point temperature or simply dew point.
 TERMINOLOGY

• Humid heat of an air-water vapour mixture (CS): Is the amount of

heat (J or kJ) required to raise the temperature of 1kg of (dry air +
water vapour) mixture by 1K or 1oC. The heat capacity of the air-
water mixture can be assumed to be constant over the
temperature ranges usually encountered.
CP (dry air) = 1.005 kJ/kg dry air·K
CP (water vapour) = 1.88 kJ/kg water vapour·K
 TERMINOLOGY

• Humid volume of an air-water vapour mixture: Is the total

volume (m3) of 1kg of dry air plus the water vapour
υH it contains at
1 atm abs. pressure and the given temperature.

Using the ideal gas law

• For saturated air-water vapour mixture, H = HS and the saturated

volume is υH
 TERMINOLOGY

• Total enthalpy of an air-water mixture (Hy): Total enthalpy of 1kg

of air plus its water vapour

To – datum temperature for both components

λo – latent heat in kJ/kg water vapour at To

Note:
If To = 0; then Hy becomes
 HUMIDITY CHARTS

• Humidity charts: Chart of the properties of air-water mixture at

1atm abs pressure. In this chart humidity (H) is plotted against
actual temperature of the air-water vapour mixture (dry bulb
temperature)
HUMIDITY CHART
 ADAIBATIC SATURATION
TEMPERATURE
• Consider an adiabatic air-water saturator shown below

• Entering gas (air-water vapour mixture) is contacted with a spray

of liquid water (re-circulated with some make-up water) until the
gas and liquid are at equilibrium. The air leaves saturated at a
temperature (TS) and enthalpy (HS).
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR HEAT
BALANCE

• Writing a heat balance over the system with a datum temperature

of TS, which means the enthalpy of the make-up water is zero.

Enthalpy of entering gas = enthalpy of leaving

gas

Re-arranging and noting:

This is the equation of an

adiabatic humidification curve.
These lines are plotted on the
humidity chart for air-water
mixtures.
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR

• If a gas mixture at T1 and H1 is contacted in an adiabatic saturator

until equilibrium is reached, it will leave saturated at TS1 and HS1.
The values of TS1 and HS1 are determined from the humidity chart
by following the adiabatic saturation line through (T1,H1) until it
intersects the 100% saturation line.

• If contact is not sufficient it will leave at HP less than 100%.

 WET BULB TEMPERATURE

• Adiabatic saturation temperature is the steady-state temperature

when a large amount of water is contacted with entering gas.

• Wet bulb temperature is the steady-state non-equilibrium

temperature reached when a small amount of water is contacted
under adiabatic conditions by a continuous stream of gas. Since
the amount of liquid is small, the temperature and humidity of the
gas are not changed contrary to adiabatic saturation.

• Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of the vapour-gas

mixture as determined by immersing a thermometer in the mixture
shown in the diagram below.
 MEASUREMENT OF WET BULB
TEMPERATURE

• If a wet solid is brought into contact with a large excess of air so

that equilibrium is reached the solid will attain a definite moisture
content known as equilibrium moisture content of the material
under specific humidity and temperature of air.
 MOISTURE CONTENT

• If a wet solid is brought into contact with a large excess of air so

that equilibrium is reached the solid will attain a definite moisture
content known as equilibrium moisture content of the material
under specific humidity and temperature of air.

• Moisture content: Usually expressed on dry basis i.e. kg H2O per

kg of moisture free (bone dry) solid or kg H2O/100kg of dry solid.

• For some solids equilibrium moisture content depends on the

direction from which equilibrium is approached i.e. desorption
(drying) or adsorption (wetting). For drying calculations the
desorption equilibrium is larger and is of particular interest.
 EQUILIBRUM MOISTURE CONTENT

• If a material contains more moisture than its equilibrium value

when in contact with a gas of given humidity and temperature, it
will dry until it reaches its equilibrium value. The reverse is also
true.

• For air having 0% humidity the equilibrium moisture content of all

materials is zero.

• Equilibrium moisture content of various material can not be

predicted and must be determined experimentally.
EQUILIBRUM MOISTURE CONTENTS
FOR SOME SOLIDS
 BOUND AND UNBOUND WATER IN
SOLIDS
• If the equilibrium moisture content of a given material is
continued to its intersection with 100% humidity line the moisture
content is called bound water. This water in the solid exerts a
vapor pressure less than that of liquid water at the same
temperature.

• If the material contains more water than indicated by the

equilibrium moisture content at 100% humidity, it will only exert a
vapour pressure as high as that of liquid water at the same
temperature.

• This excess moisture is called unbound water and is

held primarily in the voids of the solid. Substances
containing bound water are called “hygroscopic
materials”
 FREE AND EQUILIBRUM MOISTURE
CONTENT

• Free moisture content- moisture above equilibrium moisture

content. This free moisture can be removed by drying under the
given relative humidity

• Example: Silk has an equilibrium moisture content of 8kg/100kg

of dry material in contact with air of 40% relative humidity. If a
sample contains 12kg/100kg of dry material then only:

12 – 8 = 4kg H2O/100kg of dry material can be removed

by drying using air of 40% relative humidity.
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

• For drying operations the following parameters need to be

determined or estimated:

- Size of dryer needed

- Humidity and temperature of air to be used
- Time required to obtain the drying required

• Drying rates are determined experimentally by placing a sample

on a tray and exposing its top surface to the drying air stream. By
suspending the tray from a balance in a cabinet, the loss in weight
due to drying can be found at different intervals.

• Batch drying experiments should be conducted under conditions

closely resembling those used in large scale operations. More
information on these methods is available in textbooks.
 DRYING IN CONSTANT-RATE PERIOD

• The surface of the solid is initially very wet and a continuous film
of water exists on the drying surface. This water is entirely
unbound and the rate of evaporation under the given air conditions
is independent of the solid and similar to the rate from a free
liquid surface.

• Increased surface roughness may lead to higher evaporation

rates compared to that from a flat surface.

• If the solid is porous water evaporated in the constant rate period

comes from the solid interior and continues as long as water is
supplied to the surface as fast as it is evaporated.

• In the absence of heat transfer by radiation or conduction, the

surface temperature of the solid is approximately the same as the
wet bulb temperature.
 MOISTURE MOVEMENTS IN SOLIDS DURING
DRYING IN THE FALLING PERIOD

Liquid Diffusion Theory

• Diffusion of liquid moisture occurs when there is a concentration

difference between the depths of the solid and surface. Normally
found in non-porous solids where single phase solutions are
formed with moisture e.g. paste, soap, glue and food materials.

Capillary Movements in Porous Solids

• When granular porous solids e.g. clay, sand and minerals are
dried, free moisture moves through the capillaries and voids of the
solids by capillary action not diffusion. This mechanism involves
surface tension.
 Rate of Drying Curves

- In drying, moisture from the surface and interior has to

be removed.
- If moisture content of a material is determined as a
function of time, a smooth curve is obtained, from
which the rate of drying at any given moisture content
maybe determined.
- The form of drying curve varies with structure and type
of material.
- Two typical curves are shown in Fig. 1.
 Rate of Drying Curves

Fig. 1 Rate of dying curves

 Rate of Drying Curves
Curve 1:
- Two well defined zones
- AB - rate of drying is constant
- BC - Steady fall in the rate of drying as the moisture content is reduced.
- Moisture content at the end of constant rate period is represented by B
(critical moisture content)
- Example, drying of soap
 Rate of Drying Curves
Curve 2:
- Three stages DE, EF and FC
- DE – Constant rate period
- EF and FC – Falling rate periods
- EF – first falling rate period is a straight line
- FC – Second falling rate period is curved
- Example, drying of sand
NB: Students to search for more examples
Constant Rate Period
Rate of drying at constant rate period
Rate of drying at constant rate period
 DRYING TIMES

𝑤 total moisture content in the solid

𝑤𝑖 initial moisture content in the solid
𝑤𝑒 equilibrium moisture content, point E
𝑤 − 𝑤𝑒 free moisture content at the end of the drying process, also known as 𝑓
𝑤𝑐 critical moisture content, point C
CALCULATION METHODS FOR CONSTANT RATE
DRYING

The rate of drying between the point at which the moisture content is equal to 𝑤𝑖 and the
critical moisture content, 𝑤𝑐 , is constant. Drying time during this period, 𝑡𝑐 , is given by
𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑐 = × 𝑄
𝑅𝑐 𝐴

where

𝑅𝑐 rate of drying per unit area in the constant rate period

𝐴 area of the exposed surface

Q mass of dry solids

 CALCULATION METHODS FOR FALLING RATE
PERIOD

During the falling rate period, the rate of drying is directly proportional to the free moisture
content (𝑤 − 𝑤𝑒 ):

1 𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑡𝑓
𝑡𝑓 = න = න 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝐴 𝑤𝑐 ሺ𝑤 − 𝑤𝑒 ሻ 0

which, after integration, yields

1 𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑒
𝑡𝑓 = ln ൤ ൨
𝑚𝐴 𝑤 − 𝑤𝑒
CALCULATION METHODS FOR FALLING RATE
PERIOD
Or, in more common forms

1 𝑓𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln ൬ ൰
𝑚𝐴 𝑓

𝑓𝑐 𝑄 𝑓𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln ൬ ൰
𝑅𝑐 𝐴 𝑓

where

𝑄 total mass of dry solids [kg]

𝑓𝑐 free moisture content at critical point [kg moisture/kg solids]
𝑓 free moisture content [kg]
𝑚 ratio of the drying rate per unit area to moisture content [1/m 2.s]
𝐴 drying surface area [m2]
𝑅𝑐 drying rate during the constant rate period [kg H2O/m2.h]
 TOTAL DRYING TIME

Total drying time, 𝑡, is the sum of the drying times for the two drying periods, that is, the
constant rate period (𝑡𝑐 ) and the falling rate period (𝑡𝑓 ):

𝑡 = (𝑡𝑐 + 𝑡𝑓 )

Let us now look at several examples which will demonstrate practically how to determine
the total drying time for a solid.
 MATERIAL AND HEAT BALANCES
Continuous dryer

• Solid enters at rate LS (kg dry solid/h), having a free moisture

content X1 and temperature TS1.
• The gas enters at a rate G (kg dry air/h), having a humidity
H2 (kg H2O/kg of dry air) and temperature TG2.
 MATERIAL AND HEAT BALANCES

Material balance on moisture

Heat balance (datum: T = 0oC)

Enthalpy of wet solid = enthalpy of dry solid + enthalpy of free moisture

CPs – heat capacity of dry solids (kJ/kg dry solids·K)

CPA – heat capacity of liquid moisture (kJ/kg water ·K)
H́s – enthalpy of wet solid (kJ/kg of dry solids)

• Heat of wetting is usually neglected

 MATERIAL AND HEAT BALANCES

Enthalpy of gas H́G (kJ/kg of dry air)

λo – latent heat of water at 0oC

CS – humid heat (kJ/kg dry air ·K)

Thus heat balance on dryer is:

• Q is the heat loss in dryer (kJ/h). Q = 0 for an adiabatic process

 Self study
Drying equipment and specialized
drying methods
Prescribed text book:
“Chemical Engineering: Particle technology and
Separation Processes”. Coulson and Richardson, 5th
Edition, Vol 1 & 2, Butterworth-Heinemann.
 
Volume 2- Chapter 16

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