DRYING OF PROCESS MATERIALS

DR NURUL EKMI BINTI RABAT

MAY 2019
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students should be able
to:
1. understand the drying definition, principles and methods
2. find the values of:
▪ humidity, humid volume, humid heat
▪ adiabatic saturation temperature
▪ wet bulb temperature
3. understand the equilibrium moisture content principle
4. discuss and analyze rate of drying

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Definition

Removal small amount of water/other liquid from solid material

Internal
 EVAPORATION vs DRYING

EVAPORATION DRYING

■ Large amount of water ■ Removal small amount of

removed water/other liquid from
solid material
■ Water removed as vapor
at its boiling point ■ Water usually removed
1) thermally - as a vapor by air
II) mechanically – centrifuge
(cheaper than thermal)
APPLICATIONS of DRYING

■ Preservation technique in food industry,

<10% water ~microbs cannot grow.
■ <5% water content to preserve flavor and
nutrition.
■ Final processing step before packaging
■ Pharmaceutical
VAPOR PRESSURE and HUMIDITY

■ Humidification - transfer of water from

liquid phase into gaseous mixture of air
and water vapour

■ Dehumidification - transfer of water

vapor from vapour state to liquid state
■ Capacity of air for drying depends on
– Air humidity
– Air temperature
■ Humidity (H) is the measure of water
content of air mass of water vapour per
unit mass of dry air (kg.kg-1)

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1) Humidity, H

Humidity (H) – kg water vapor contained in 1 kg of dry air

– depends on partial pressure of water, pA & total
pressure, P
P = total pressure = 101.325 kPa, 1 atm, 760 mmHg

kg H 2O p A kg mol H 2O 18.02 kg H 2O kg mol air

H =  
kg dry air P − p A kg mol air kg mol H 2 O 28.97 kg air /

18.02 p A
H=
28.97 P − p A

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 2) Saturation humidity, Hs
3) Dew Point TEMPERATURE, Tw

❑ air is saturated with water vapour at a given T & P

❑ humidity is maximum
❑ under conditions of saturation - partial pressure of water vapour in
air = saturation vapour pressure of pure water at that temperature

Saturation humidity, 18.02 p AS

HS =
28.97 P − p AS

Dew point - T at which a given mixture of air and water vapor would be saturated

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 4) PERCENTAGE HUMIDITY, Hp
5) Percentage Relative Humidity, Hr

H
Percentage Humidity, H P = 100
HS

Percentage Relative Humidity,

pA
H R = 100
p AS

HR ≠ HP

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 EXAMPLE 1
■ The air in a room is at 26.7 C with a
pressure of 101.325 kPa and contains water
vapor with a partial pressure, pA = 2.76 kPa.
Calculate
a) Humidity
b) Saturation humidity and percentage humidity
c) Percentage relative humidity

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EXAMPLE 1

a) Given: pA = 2.76 kPa, P = 101.325 kPa

hence H = 0.01742 kg H2O/kg air

b) Refer steam table, at 26.7ºC, 101.325 kPa,

pAS (partial pressure of water vapor in saturated air)
= 3.5 kPa (steam table)
HS = 0.02226 kg H2O/kg air
c) HP = 78.3%
d) HR = 78.9%

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6) Humid heat (c ) s

Amount of heat (in kJ or J) required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry

air + water vapor present by 1 K or 1ºC
Heat capacity of air & water vapor can be assumed constant, 1.005 kJ/kg
dry air . K and 1.88 kJ/kg water vapor. K

c S (kJ/kg dry air. K) = 1.005 + 1.88 H (SI)

c S (btu/lbm dry air. ˚F) = 0.24 + 0.45 H (english)

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7) Total enthalpy (H ) y

8) Humid volume (v ) H

Total enthalpy (Hy) – Total enthalpy of 1 kg of air plus its water vapor

Hy (kJ/kg dry air) = cS (T - T0) + H 0

=(1.005 + 1.88 H) (T - T0 ºC) +H0
T0 = reference temperature
0 = latent heat at T0 (kJ/kg)

Total volume in m3 of 1 kg of dry air plus the vapor it contains at 1 atm abs
& the given air temperature
vH = (2.83 x 10 –3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T K

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 ADIABATIC SATURATION
TEMPERATURE
cooled water vapor
Gas = air-water vapor mixture

❑ Gas is contacted with spray of liquid

water
❑ adiabatic process (chamber is insulated)

Steady state temperature attained when a large amount of water is contacted

by entering gas -the adiabatic saturation temperature, TS

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ADIABATIC SATURATION
TEMPERATURE
❑ contact between entering gas and spray
❑ enough (sufficiently long time)
❑ gas and liquid at equilibrium
❑ leaving air is saturated at TS and HS
 obtain TS and HS on 100% saturation curve
❑ not sufficient
❑ leaving mixture at percentage saturation < 100% but on
same line

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HUMIDITY CHART

❑ a convenient chart of the properties of air-water vapor mixtures at 1 atm abs

pressure
❑ humidity, H, is plotted versus the actual temperature of air-water vapor
mixture (dry bulb temperature)

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HUMIDITY (PSYCHROMETRIC) CHART

Humidity

= actual temperature of
air-water vapor mixture

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EXAMPLE 2

An air stream at 87.8ºC having a humidity H = 0.03 kg

H2O/kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic saturator with
water. It is cooled and humidified to 90% saturation.
Determine:
a) The final values of H and T
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H
and T

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HUMIDITY CHART

90% H=0.05
Given: 87.8ºC,
0.03 or 3% H = 0.03 kg
H2O/kg dry air,
90% saturation
87.8
T=42.5

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a) The final values of H and T
H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air,
T = 42.5 ºC

b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H and T

H = 0.0505 kg H2O/kg dry air,
T = 40.5ºC

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EXAMPLE 3

A water vapor-air mixture having a dry bulb

temperature of T = 600C is adiabatically passed
over a wet bulb. The wet bulb temperature
obtained is Tw = 29.5 0C. What is the humidity
of the mixture?

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HUMIDITY CHART

H=0.0135

60
29.5

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WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN A WET SOLID
IS BROUGHT INTO CONTACT WITH AIR?

❑ Solids tend to lose moisture to air lower humidity

❑ Solids tend to absorb moisture from air higher

humidity

UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM IS ATTAINED

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EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF MATERIALS

❑ Equilibrium attained when solid attain a definite

moisture content after prolonged exposure to air
under specified humidity and temperature of air

UNIT = kg water/kg bone dry solid (dry basis)

= kg moisture/kg wet substance (wet basis)
= kg H2O/100 kg dry solid
= kg water/kg dry solid

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EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT OF MATERIALS

❑ EMC varies greatly with

the type of material
❑ Nonporous insoluble solid
tend to have low EMC at
given humidity
❑ Typical food or biological
material tend have high
EMC
❑ EMC of a solid decreases
with increase in
temperature at given
humidity.

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FREE MOISTURE OF A SUBSTANCE

❑ Free moisture content is the difference between given moisture

content of solid, XT and equilibrium moisture content, X*, => XT –
X* (moisture in excess to EMC)
❑ This excess moisture can be removed by drying under the given
percent relative humidity
eg. Silk, EMC = 8.5 kg H2O/100 kg dry material when in contact with air
of 50% HR, 25◦C.
If a sample contains 10 kg H2O/100 kg dry material, only 1.5 kg
H2O/100 kg dry material is removed (free moisture)

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 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

■ For drying process following need to estimate

– Size of dryer
– Various operating conditions of H, T for the air used
– Operating time to perform desired drying
– Determination of equilibrium moisture content
experimentally
– Experimental measurements of drying of rates

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RATE OF DRYING CURVES

Sample (solid) is placed on tray

use balance to measure the loss in weight of

moisture during drying at different intervals
without interrupting the operation

Constant drying condition : Velocity,

humidity, temperature and direction of
air are constant

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RATE OF DRYING

LS X LS dX
R= − =−
A t A dt

R = drying rate curve, kg moisture/h . m2

A = exposed surface area for drying, m2
LS = kg dry solid
X = weight loss for a t time

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CALCULATION METHODS FOR CONSTANT-RATE DRYING PERIOD

W − LS
XT =
LS
X = XT − X *
LS X L dX
R=− =− S
A t A dt

W = weight of wet solid, kg

R = drying rate curve, kg H2O/h . m2
A = exposed surface area for drying, m2
LS = kg dry solid
X = weight loss for a t time
X = free moisture content, kg free water/kg dry solid
X* = EMC, kg equilibrium moisture/kg dry solid
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 DRYING CURVES

Aʹ= when
solid is hot

A= when
solid is
colder

Curve in terms of free moisture Curve in terms of drying rate

content

Internal

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Rate of drying for constant-rate period

Assumption: adiabatic
Rate of drying for constant-rate period

h 0
RC = (T − TW C )(3600) [to express the rate per hour]
W
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
T = temperature of air
TW = wet bulb temperature = solid surface temperature
W = latent heat at TW (J/kg)

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PREDICTION OF CONSTANT RATE DRYING

To predict constant rate drying heat transfer co-efficient must be known

h = 0.0204 G0.8 (1)
Air is flowing parallel to drying surface
T = 45 –150 0C
G, mass velocity = 2450 – 29 300 kg/h m2
Velocity of air = 0.61 – 7.6 m/s

h = 1.17 G 0.37 (2)

Air is flowing perpendicular to drying surface

G, mass velocity = 3900 – 19 500 kg/h m2
Velocity of air = 0.9 – 4.6 m/s

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Mass Velocity, G = v

Density of air,  = m/H

Velocity of air
= GIVEN (Total mass of dry air +
moisture)/Humid volume
= m/H

vH = (2.83 x 10 –3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T

K

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EXAMPLE 5: PREDICTION CONSTANT- RATE DRYING

An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 x

0.457 m, and 25.4 mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep in
the pan, and the sides and bottom can be considered to be
insulated. Heat transfer by convection from an air stream
flowing parallel to the surface at a velocity of 6.1 m/s. The air
is at 65.6 oC and has a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air.
Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period.

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Given: A = 0.457 x 0.457 m
Deep = 25.4 mm deep
Insulated = adiabatic
Air parallel, velocity = 6.1 m/s
T = 65.6 oC
H = 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air
Find: rate of drying for the constant-rate
period, Rc?

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1. Tw = ? Refer Humidity Chart, Tw = 28 0C, Hw
=0.026

Hw
H

Tw

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2. Refer steam table for W,
at Tw = 280C, W = 2433 kJ/kg

3. How to obtain h, heat transfer

coefficient???

h = 0.0204 G0.8 [for parallel air flow]

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 Mass Velocity, G = v

Density of air,  = m/H

Velocity of air
= GIVEN (Total mass of dry air +
moisture)/Humid volume

vH = (2.83 x 10 –3 + 4.56 x 10-3 H) T K = 0.974 m3/kg dry air

= m/H = 1 (kg dry air) + 0.01 (kg H2O) = 1.037 kg/m3

0.974

G = 22 770 kg/h m2

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 Then, h = 0.0204 G0.8 = 62.45 W/m2 K
4. Substitute all values into Equation
h 0
RC = (T − TW C )(3600)
W
Rc = 3.39 kg/h m2 (drying rate for constant period)

What is the total evaporation rate for a

surface area of 0.457 x 0.457 m2 ? RCA = 0.708 kg/hr

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 PREDICTION OF CONSTANT RATE DRYING

Heat and Mass Transfer in a constant-rate period

• Similar to wet-bulb temp.

• Heat transfer only by convection
(no radiation & conduction)

Convection of heat transfer from gas to surface: q = h(T − TW ) A

M air
Mass flux of water vapor from the surface: N A = k y ( yw − y ) = k y (H w − H )
M Wat
Neglecting the small sensible heat changes, heat required to vaporize NA kg mol/m2.s
is
q = MwatNAWA

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 PREDICTION OF CONSTANT RATE DRYING

Combining both equations:

q h(T − TW )
RC = = = k y M air ( H W − H )
AW W

Drying time for constant rate drying (in terms of transfer coefficients)

LS W ( X 1 − X 2 ) LS ( X 1 − X 2 )
t= =
Ah(T − TW ) Ak y M air ( H W − H ) 42

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 DISCUSSION – PROBLEM 1

A traditional pasta manufacturer, Al Dante is using Low-Temperature (LT)

drying method to produce 300 kg dry pasta with equilibrium moisture
content of 0.20 kg H2O/kg dry solid. LT method requires 3 hours to
remove 40% of the free moisture content of moist extruded pasta in an
insulated oven (5m x 5m). The oven is operated at a constant drying rate
at 40˚C and has a humidity of 0.015 kg H2O/kg dry air.

Estimate the rate of drying and air velocity in meter per second if the air
flows parallel to the pasta.

[15marks]

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DISCUSSION – PROBLEM 2

An entrepreneur has purchased a vacuum dryer to produce

500 kg of lavender soap. Hot air from the built-in blower flows
perpendicular to the soap chips at constant drying rate to
remove 20% of the initial free moisture content. The vacuum
dryer is considered to be insulated with following operating
conditions:
Parameter Value
Temperature, T 125˚C
Humidity, H 0.01 kg H2O/kg DA
Area, A 25 m2
Initial free moisture content, X i 0.6 kg H2O/kg dry solid

Predict the rate of drying, R and air velocity if the entrepreneur

has only one hour to dry the soap.
[15marks]
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EFFECTS OF PROCESS VARIABLES
ON CONSTANT- RATE PERIOD

Experimental measurements are usually preferred, HOWEVER the equations are HELPFUL
in predicting the EFFECT of CHANGING FEW VARIABLES.

SOLID
THICKNESS - AIR
VELOCITY HUMIDITY
TEMPERATURE
MOISTURE

x, (kg H, (kg
H2O/kg dry v, (m/s) T, (oC) H2O/kg dry
solid) air)

Internal 45
 1) SOLID THICKNESS 2)AIR VELOCITY

❑ Different solid ❑ effect of air velocity +

thickness changes the no conduction.
solid moisture, and  Rc, h, G
drying time, t of solid
being dried ❑ Effect of air velocity is
less important when
𝐿𝑠𝜆𝑊 (𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥 ∗ ) exist radiation &
𝑡= conduction
𝐴ℎ(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 )

Internal
3) Air Temperature
4) AIR HUMIDITY

■ If T increased, Tw ■ If H increased, Tw from

increased but not as humidity chart increased
much as T −the
Tw 2 increased
w1 H in− H 2 T − Tw 2 w1 H w2 − H 2
Rc 2 = Rc1 = Rc1 w 2 Rc 2as
=Rwell as Rc. New = drying
R
−  H w1 − H1
c1 c1
T. New drying
T − Tw1 rate
w2 H w1 − H1 T T
rate equation:
w1 w2
equation:
w1  w 2 w1  w 2
T2 −T Tw
− Tw2 2 H − H2
Rc2 = Rc
R =
c 2 1 Rc1 = Rc1 w 2 T − Tw 2 H − H2
− T1w1
T1 −TTw H w1 − H1 Rc 2 = Rc1 = Rc1 w 2
T − Tw1 H w1 − H1

Internal

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 EXAMPLE 6 – Prediction of
Problem 1
■ In order to export his pasta to other countries, Al Dante
has to comply with a strict regulation that requires the
dry pasta to be produced with a free moisture content
of 0.12 kg H2O/kg dry solid. Hence, High-Temperature
(HT) drying method is implemented at 90°C. Using the
same operating conditions, calculate the new amount
of dry pasta produced.
New Conditions:
T2= 90°C, x* = 0.12 kg H2O/kg dry solid
From humidity chart:
H2 = 0.015kg H2O/kg dry air, Tw2 = 35 °C
T2 − Tw2
Rc2 = Rc1
T1 − Tw1

Rc2 = 1.91 kg/m2.h

𝐿𝑠 (𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥 ∗ )
𝑅𝑐2 =
𝐴𝑡
Ls = 682 kg

Internal
 “Minds are like flowers. If you let
it sit there without soaking
anything up, it will dry up”

Ken Hill
-End of Lecture -
Internal