School of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Materials Engineering 2

APPENDIX

Experimental Laboratories

Introduction
To complete the assessment of the existing facility, you will be required to undertake 4 separate tests
during the allocated period in weeks 7 and 8. The experimental testing consists of the following,

Depth of cover. You will use a cover meter to ascertain the depth of cover for reinforcement for various
regions of the existing facility, using a cover meter.

Corrosion. You will be required to scan a specimen of precast reinforced concrete to ascertain the extent
of corrosion of reinforcement.

Initial surface absorption (ISAT). The test will be set up for you and will be only required to take readings.

Water penetration. The test will already be set up and you will be only required to measure the extent
of water penetration.

Samples of concrete have been taken from a demolished parapet that was monolithic with the roof of the
building, which allows to complete all tests except for measuring cover and diameter of columns.
Experimental data to check cover and diameter one would hypothetically be taken directly on structural
components of the building.
 Figure 1 – Existing facility

Overview on Practical Activities

DEPTH OF COVER
Relevant Standard: BS EN 1881-204:1988 & ASTM C827
Theory for the REAL laboratory
Purpose. A cover meter is an instrument to locate rebars and measure the exact concrete cover. Rebar
detectors are less sophisticated devices that can only locate metallic objects below the surface. Due to
the cost-effective design, the pulse-induction method is one commonly used solution. Electromagnetic
cover meter testing is based on the principle of detecting disturbance to electromagnetic fields caused by
the presence of steel. An electromagnetic field is generated in the concrete by passing an alternating
current (sinusoidal or pulsed) through a coil in the search head of the instrument (Figure 2.1). The resulting
voltage induced in a second coil in the search head is then measured and interpreted to give position,
depth and approximate bar diameter automatically.

Figure 2. Coils in the probe generating a magnetic field

The Profoscope uses different coil arrangements to generate several magnetic fields. Advanced
signal processing allows:
 ▪ Localization of a rebar
▪ Localization of the mid-point between rebars
▪ Determination of the cover
▪ Estimation of the bar diameter

This method is unaffected by all non-conductive materials such as concrete*, wood, plastics, bricks etc.
However, any kind of conductive materials within the magnetic field (approx. 400 mm / 16” sphere) will
have an influence on the measurement.

Equipment. The figure below shows a conventional cover meter and a profoscope. The latter is the one
used in our virtual laboratory.

Figure 3. (a) Cover Meter with (b) proposcope

As you move the protoscope toward the rebar (r.h.s. of Figure 4) the Rifle scope moves in opposite direction
to the Profoscope. The signal strength is increasing  as the rifle scope moves towards the centre line (lhs
of Figure 3) As you move the protoscope away from the rebar (l.h.s of Figure 4) the Rifle scope moves in
the same direction as the Profoscope. The signal strength is decreasing  as the rifle scope moves towards
the centre line. You must continue sweeping until the rifle scope is in the centre of the screen. When it is
centred exactly, the LED indicator will light. (If the acoustic signal is activated it will sound provided the
LED is lit). This indicates the rebar is directly beneath the measurement centre.

Figure 4. A Cover Meter used to find rebar

 Virtual laboratory
You will be using the cover meter to identify bar diameter and depth of cover for three elements across
the building, namely: D1 (Parapet), D2 (Beams top floor) and D3 (Columns in the basement). In Step 1 (see
virtual lab-sheet below) you will select the location of the readings, to visualise readings of amplitude and
penetration depth (unscaled). As shown below in Step 2, there are 9 positions where readings become
available.

Step 3 allows to generate experimental values associated to each meter position. You only need to move
from position 1 – 9 by using the buttons, and copy paste the readings in the BLUE cells in the corresponding
table: Table 1 for D1, etc. Each table will thus report on estimated bar diameter and cover – from which
you should infer the mean, median and standard deviation.

Figure 5. Virtual laboratory sheet

CORROSION
Relevant Standard: ASTM C876-15
Theory for the REAL laboratory
Purpose. This test method covers the estimation of the electrical corrosion potential of uncoated
reinforcing steel in field and laboratory concrete, for the purpose of determining the corrosion activity of
the reinforcing steel.

Equipment. The figure below shows a conventional electrode circuit.

Figure 6. Reference Electrode Circuitry

In normal circumstances, you would use precast lintels such as those shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 7. Typical reinforced lintels for physical testing

The standard physical laboratory includes the following steps:

Through the laboratory Depth of Cover confirm whether there is steel reinforcement in the lintel and check that it is
continuous, using the resistance reading of a multi-meter, connected to protruding ends of the reinforcing bars.

By using the equipment shown in Fig. 6, establish a good electrical connection to the reinforcing bar, using a crocodile
clip, completing the circuit through a high impedance voltmeter and a copper/copper sulfate half-cell (the half-cell
meter).

Using the sponge moistened with electrolyte, take measurements of half-cell potential regularly along the test lintel
and record differences in potential.

Compare the potential at the ends of the lintel with the potential in the central portion (activated with chloride ion).

Virtual laboratory
You will be using a spreadsheet to generate experimental results (half-cell potential readings). The process
will be straightforward, you will only need to take various readings to then work out first and second-order
statistics.

The outcomes of your experiment will enable you to define level of corrosion by using the scale given.

Figure 8. Virtual laboratory sheet

INITIAL WATER ABSORTION TEST (ISAT)
Relevant Standard: BS 1881-208:1996
Theory for the REAL laboratory
Purpose. To measure the permeability of hardened concrete - Initial surface absorption is measured in
terms of rate of flow of water into concrete per unit area at a given time from the start of the test and
at a constant head of 200mm (water). In or case we measure the rate of flow of water absorbed by a unit
square surface area of 150 cube concrete blocks with design strengths ranging from 20 MPa to 80 MPa.

The apparatus consists of a capillary tube, reservoir and a scale, as shown in Fig. 9. The Inlet is
connected to a reservoir by a flexible tube of give sufficient length to enable a head of 180mm to 20mm
to be maintained above the surface of the concrete - in our specific case a 150mm cube.

Figure 9. Typical reinforced lintels for physical testing

Then, a pressure head of 180mm to 220mm is applied to the concrete surface though a sealed cap as
shown in Fig. 10, and it is to be maintained throughout the test. The Outlet tube from the cap is
connected to a capillary tube by a flexible pipe of sufficient length to set up the capillary tube in
horizontal position at a head of water between 180mm and 220mm above the top surface of the
concrete.

Figure 10. Typical Cap assembly

The test instructions, as specified by the norm, include direction for setting up (bullet points) followed
by steps to run the testing.

▪ Test at least three specimens at locations considered to be representative.

▪ Clean the surface to be tested – remove mould oil etc.
▪ Either oven-dry the specimen to a constant weight or air-dry it in the laboratory for minimum of
48 h at 20 °C before testing. All specimens tested during the laboratory exercise are air dried for
minimum of 48 hours.
▪ If the gasket in the cap is made of elastomer, slightly grease it before use. Foamed elastomeric
gasket may not need greasing. Suggest you always use a small amount of grease.

The testing thus goes like this,

1. Clamp the cap into position. Check for any leaks by gently blowing gently down one of the tubes
whilst closing the other. Ensure that there are no leak and check for leaks throughout the test.
Note that movement of joints can cause leaks. Should there be leak, discontinue the test.
2. Set up the reservoir so that the filled head is between 180mm and 220mm above the surface of the
concrete.
3. Connect the reservoir to the inlet of the cap with the flexible tubing, which has the tap fitted to
it. Support the capillary tube horizontally just below the level of the surface of the water in the
reservoir.
4. Measure the temperature of the concrete surface adjacent to the cap to the nearest 1 °C.
5. Close the tap from the reservoir and fill the reservoir with water.
6. Start the test by opening the tap to allow the water to run into the cap and record this start time.
7. Flush all air from the cap through the capillary tube, assisted if necessary, by sharply pinching the
flexible tubing.
8. Replenish the reservoir to maintain the head of 180 mm to 220 mm of water and raise one end of
the capillary tube just above the water level to prevent further outflow.
9. Take care that the reservoir does not empty itself.
To record experimental data you would,

1. Take readings normally after 10 min, 30 min; and 1 h from the start of the test.
2. As concrete adjacent to the test area become water filled. The rate of surface absorption will
normally diminish as the duration of the test increases.
3. Just before the specified intervals lower the capillary tube so that water runs in to fill it
completely and then fix it in a horizontal position at the same level as the surface of the water in
the reservoir.
4. At each of the specified test intervals close the tap to allow water to flow back along the
capillary tube.
5. When the meniscus reaches the scale start the stopwatch. After 5 s note the number of scale
divisions the meniscus has moved and, by reference to Table 1, determine the period during
which movement is to be measured.
6. Record the number of scale divisions moved during the period selected from Table 1.
7. When readings are taken over a 2 min or 30 s period, multiply the number of divisions by 0.5 or 2
respectively to convert the reading to a 1 min period.
8. Record the actual or equivalent number of scale units traversed per min, which is 0.01 times the
number of divisions, as the initial surface absorption in ml/(m2.s) for that particular test interval.
9. If the movement over the 5 s period exceeds 30 scale divisions record the initial surface
absorption as more than 3.60 ml/(m2.s).
 Virtual laboratory
You will be taking readings of water absorption at 7 intervals for 7 specimens of different characteristic
strength. Fig. 11 shows the experimental facility and a detailed list of steps to follow.

Figure 11a. Virtual laboratory sheet

Figure 11b. Table to record experimental results

WATER PENETRATION TEST
Relevant Standard: BS EN-12390-8:2000
Theory for the REAL laboratory
Purpose. Water Penetration Test is a widely used method for evaluating permeability of concrete. The test
is conducted by applying water on one face of 150mm concrete cubes under a pressure for a constant
period of 72 hours. The concrete cubes are then split in half in order to inspect the water penetration
profile within the cubes, and the maximum depth of water penetration is recorded.

Equipment: The test apparatus for a 150mm cube is shown below. This apparatus is used to determine the
depth of penetration of water under pressure in the concrete specimens. The test is performed clamping
the specimen - cubic, cylindrical or prismatic of length of edge, or diameter not less than 150 mm -
between two flanges with special circular gaskets. The water, under controlled pressure, is then applied
to the surface of the concrete specimen.

Figure 13. Water permeability test rig

Figure 14. Water permeability test equipment

The penetration of water is measured, after the testing period, by breaking the specimen. The quantity of
penetrated water can also be measured through the graduated burettes fitted on top of the apparatus.

The testing instructions, as specified by the norm, include direction for setting up (bullet points)
followed by steps to run the testing.

▪ Immediately the sample is de-moulded, roughen the surface of to be exposed to water pressure
with a wire brush and cure the specimen under water.
▪ Do not apply water pressure to troweled surface of the specimen.
▪ Use test specimens that are at least 28 days old.
▪ Place the specimen in the apparatus and apply 500 kPa ± 50 kPa for 72 ± 2h.
▪ During the test periodically observe the appearance of the surfaces not subjected to water
pressure to note the presence of water. If leakage is observed, consider the validity of the results
and record the fact.
▪ Tap water may be used.

The testing thus goes like this,

1. After pressure has been applied for a specific period - in our case 72 hours, remove the specimen
from the apparatus.
2. Wipe the face on which water pressure has been applied to remove excess water.
3. Split the specimen in half, perpendicular to the face on which water pressure was applied.
4. When splitting the specimen and during examination place the face of the specimen on which water
pressure was applied on the bottom.
5. As soon as the split face has dried to such an extent that the water penetration front can be clearly
seen, mark the maximum depth of penetration under the test and record it to the nearest mm.

Virtual laboratory
As in the physical laboratory, all will be setup and the only activity you need to complete is to take
readings. You will note that once the experimental results generate, by changing the characteristic
strength of the concrete specimen, the result will change for any change you operate in the page – for
example going through the quiz. You could take any set of randomly generated results.

Figure 15. Virtual laboratory sheet

Marking Scheme

The points below are not meant to define the structure of your report but rather to give you an idea of
key elements of your submission.

Criteria Weight % Comment

Context and scope 10 ▪ Describe the problem you are solving.
▪ Identify constraints and hypothesis you would have
made.
▪ Define the breadth and depth of your study
Experimental Results 35 ▪ Present your experimental results.
▪ Expand on any further research you would have
completed to better understand the experimental
work.
Discussions 35 ▪ Reflect of the results that you obtained and how
these inform your knowledge on the state of the
existing facility.
▪ Talk about the standards that you consulted and
how the works that you completed addresses
those.
▪ Identify knowledge gaps that could remain past the
completion of the virtual laboratories.
Recommendations 10 ▪ Draw conclusions based on experimental evidence
Quality of written submission 10

Use the Report Template ME2 Feasibility Study to prepare your submission.