Uts Worktext For Week 4 8

WORK TEXT IN GE 09
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

(WEEK 4-8)
PREPARED BY:
CHERYL F. OLVIDA RICOH JAE U. MATERUM
FRANCIS MABBORANG MARK JOSEPH L. ARIMAS
GE 09 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
CHAPTER I
LESSON IV PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students are expected to:
1. determine whether the “I” self and “Me” self are congruent or not
based on people’s view and your own perception;
2. distinguish how the structures of the mind operate in your
personality; and
3. illustrate the real self and ideal self.
READINGS:
I. The self as a cognitive construction:
● William James (1842–1910) was one of the first to postulate a theory

of the self in The Principles of Psychology.
- James described two aspects of the self that he termed the “I
Self”and “Me Self.”
- The I Self reflects what people see or perceive themselves doing
in the physical world (e.g., recognizing that one is walking,
eating, writing).
- The Me Self is a more subjective and psychological phenomenon,
referring to individuals’ reflections about themselves (e.g.
Characterizing oneself as athletic, smart, and cooperative).
- Other terms such as self-view, self-image, self-schema, and self-
concept are also used to describe the self-referent thoughts
characteristic of the Me Self. James further distinguished three
components of the Me Self.
(1) The material self (e.g., tangible objects or possessions we
collect for ourselves)
(2) The social self (e.g., how we interact and portray ourselves
within different groups, situations, or persons)
(3) The spiritual self (e.g., internal dispositions).
● According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has
more than a single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory of
personality, personality is composed of three elements. These three
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elements of
personality—known
as the id, the ego, and
the superego—work
together to create
complex human
behaviors.
- The id is driven by
the pleasure
principle, which
strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.
- The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to
satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways.
- The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our
internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both
parents and society—our sense of right and wrong.
● The 3 Levels of Awareness
- The conscious: The conscious consists of what
someone is aware of at any particular point in
time. It includes what you are thinking about
right now, whether it is in the front of you mind
or the back. If you are aware of it then it is in the
consciousmind.
Example: Right now as you are reading about

Freud you could be thinking about what is being
said in the text and that your eyes are tired from
staring at this screen. In the back of your mind,
however, you might be thinking "wow this
website is really cool, if I was a psychology teacher I would give whoever
made it an A". Both of these thoughts occur in the conscious mind.
- The Preconscious: The preconscious contains information that is just

below the surface of awareness. It can be retrieved with relative ease and
usually can be thought of as memory or recollection.
Example: Right now think of your middle name. That is an example of

preconscious memory. Similar example could be what is your mom's
birthday, when did it last rain, and how long does it take to drive to the
mall.
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- The Unconscious: The unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and
desires that are buried deep in ourselves, well below our conscious
awareness. Even though we are not aware of their existence, they exert
great influence on our behavior.
Example: Things in your unconscious would be forgotten negative

experiences in your past, extreme dislike for a parent, or a terrible event
that you pushed out of your preconscious.
 The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to

be related to major developments in brain growth. The human brain is
not fully developed until late adolescence or in the case of males
sometimes early adulthood. We often expect children to think like
adults when they are not yet capable of doing so. It is important that
parents know what to expect from their child as they develop and to be
sure that the expectations they may have for their child at a given age
are realistic.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensory Motor Period (0 - 24 months)
Developmental
Stage Characteristic Behavior
& Approximate
Age
Reflexive Stage Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking.

(0-2 months)
Primary Reflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition

Circular such as opening and closing fingers repetitively.
Reactions(2-4
months)
Secondary Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting

Circular consequences such as kicking one's feet to more a
Reactions mobile suspended over the crib.
(4-8 months)
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Coordination of Responses become coordinated into more complex

Secondary sequences. Actions take on an "intentional" character
Reactions such as the infant reaches behind a screen to obtain a
(8-12 months) hidden object.
Tertiary Discovery of new ways to produce the same

Circular consequence or obtain the same goal such as the
Reactions infant may pull a pillow toward him in an attempt to
(12-18 months) get a toy resting on it.
Invention of Evidence of an internal representational system.

New Means Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before
Through actually responding. Deferred imitation.
Mental
Combination
(18-24 months)
The Preoperational Period (2-7 years)
Developmental
Stage Characteristic Behavior
& Approximate
Age
Increased use of verbal representation but speech is

Preoperational egocentric. The beginnings of symbolic rather than
Phase simple motor play. Transductive reasoning. Can think
(2-4 years) about something without the object being present by
use of language.
Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. The

child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in
some areas. However, there is still a tendency to focus
attention on one aspect of an object while ignoring
Intuitive Phase
others. Concepts formed are crude and irreversible.
(4-7 years)
Easy to believe in magical increase, decrease,
disappearance. Reality not firm. Perceptions
dominate judgment.
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In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show

principles underlying best behavior. Rules of a game
not develop, only uses simple do's and don'ts imposed
by authority.
Period of Concrete Operations (7-12 years)

Characteristic Behavior:
Evidence for organized, logical thought. There is the ability to perform
multiple classification tasks, order objects in a logical sequence, and
comprehend the principle of conservation. thinking becomes less
transductive and less egocentric. The child is capable of concrete
problem-solving.
Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such
as in arithmetic:
3+4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3, etc.)
Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where
previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color.
Categorical labels such as "number" or animal" now available.
Period of Formal Operations

(12 years and onwards)
Characteristic Behavior:
Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of formal
logic. The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses
and their possible outcomes is evident. Thinking becomes less tied to
concrete reality.
Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions,
algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a + b = x then
a = x - b. If ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA.
Prepositional logic, as-if and if-then steps. Can use aids such as axioms
to transcend human
LEV VYGOTSKY
Born in Orsha, a part of the Russian Empire (now known as Belarus) on 17th
November 1896, Vygotsky was a pioneer of psychology; he contributed much
important research to the field. He graduated from the Moscow State University
in 1917, and went on to work in many research facilities and and educational
establishments in Moscow, Leningrad and Kharkov. His extensive research into
cognitive development has lead his theory to be one of the most important of
it’s kind. He believed that children’s thinking is affected by their social
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knowledge, which are communicated by either psychological (language,
number, art) or technical (books, calculator) means. He was – and sometimes
still is – often criticised for being an idealist and his overemphasis of the role of
language in thinking (more on the criticisms later). He was also a very popular
author, with 6 volumes of his work being classed as major.
Vygotsky rarely conducted research; he was more focused on constructing the
best possible theory on the transfer of knowledge. Unfortunately, Vygotsky died
at the very young age of 37 in 1934 from Tuberculosis, but once his main work
was translated to English in 1962, it had a major impact on other psychological
research in similar fields.
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.

As stated above, Vygotsky believed children’s thinking is affected by their
knowledge of the social community (which is learnt from either technical or
psychological cultural tools). He also suggested that language is the most
important tool for gaining this social knowledge; the child can be taught this
from other people via language. He defined intelligence as “the capacity to learn
from instruction”, which emphasises the fact there is a requirement for a more
knowledgable other person or ‘teacher’. He referred to them as just that: the
More Knowledgable Other (MKO). MKO’s can be parents, adults, teachers,
coaches, experts/professionals – but also things you might not first expect, such
as children, friends and computers.
He described something known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD),

which is a key feature of his theory.
There are two levels of attainment for the ZPD:
 Level 1 – the ‘present level of development’. This describes what the
child is capable of doing without any help from others.
 Level 2 – the ‘potential level of development’. This means what the
child could potentially be capable of with help from other people or
‘teachers’.
The gap between level 1 and 2 (the present and potential development) is what
Vygotsky described as this zone of proximal development. He believed that
through help from other, more knowledgable people, the child can potentially
gain knowledge already held by them. However, the knowledge must be
appropriate for the child’s level of comprehension. Anything that is too
complicated for the child to learn that isn’t in their ZPD cannot be learnt at all
until there is a shift in the ZPD. When a child does attain their potential, this
shift occurs and the child can continue learning more complex, higher level
material.
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Diagram to demonstrate the

ZPD.
Another important feature of
this theory is scaffolding. When
an adult provides support for a
child, they will adjust the
amount of help they give
depending on their progress.
For example, a child learning to
walk might at first have both
their hands held and pulled
upwards. As they learn to support their own weight, the mother might hold both
their hands loosely. Then she might just hold one hand, then eventually nothing.
This progression of different levels of help is scaffolding. It draws parallels from
real scaffolding for buildings; it is used as a support for construction of new
material (the skill/information to be learnt) and then removed once the building
is complete (the skill/information has been learnt).
Woods and Middleton (1975) studied the influence of instruction with their
experiment. They provided 3-4 year olds with a puzzle which was beyond their
comprehension on their own. The mother then provided different levels of
assistance for the child:
 L1 – General verbal instruction (“Very good! Now try that again.”)

 L2 – Specific verbal instruction (“Get four big blocks”)
 L3 – Mother indicates material (“You need this block here”)
 L4 – Mother provides material and prepares it for assembly
 L5 – Mother demonstrates the operation
After the session, the child was assessed on whether they could construct the
pyramid on their own. Results showed that when children were given varied
support from mothers (low levels of support when the child was doing well, and
high levels when the child struggled) they were able to construct the pyramid on
their own. However, when the mother consistently provided the same support,
they seemed to make the child conclude the activity was beyond their
comprehension and the child soon lost interest in constructing the pyramid. This
shows the importance of providing the correct level of scaffolding when
teaching a learner.
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The Woods & Middleton

(1975) pyramid puzzle.
As a final point, Vygotsky
looked at the role of
egocentric/private speech.
This is, for example, when
a child will sit on their
own and speak their
thoughts out loud as they play. He suggested a child is regulating and planning
their behaviour at this point: “Where is the block? I can’t find it. Oh well, I’ll
use this block.” He called these ‘monologues’.
By 7 years, these monologues become internalised and the child becomes a
“verbal thinker”, which is what most adults can do with no problem. When we
are faced with a problem, and we’re alone, we quite often think through the
problem – but in our heads. Children before 7 will do this out loud. This verbal
thinking forms the basis for higher level, more abstract thinking (planning,
reasoning, memorising, evaluating).
Quick summary
 Emphasised the role of a teacher in cognitive development, and the need
to have support from a More Knowledgable Other, or MKO.
 The zone of proximal development, or ZPD, differentiates between a
learner’s current development and their potential development when
being taught from a MKO.
 Scaffolding provides an effective way to reach potential levels of
development, but only when different levels of assistance are given
when required.
 Social and cultural tools are an important means of gaining intelligence.
 There is a close link between the acquisition of language and the
development of thinking.
 Internalising monologues, and therefore becoming a verbal thinker, is a
stepping stone to higher levels of thinking.
Vygotsky provided a very influential theory which provided a meaningful social

context in the development of learning. The emphasis of cultural knowledge was
something unseen in Piaget’s theory. In the next post, I will be evaluating both
of the cognitive theories (that of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky) and then
comparing and evaluating them against each other.
Reference: https://psychohawks.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/theories-of-
cognitive-development-lev-vygotsky/
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Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of
those behaviors. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of
continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences.
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention
paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence,
complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory
capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect
attention.
2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes
symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic
rehearsal, motor rehearsal
3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical
capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such
asÂ past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives)
and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s
behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s
environment causes one’s behavior, Bandura, who was studying adolescent
aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that
behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered
personality as an interaction between three components: the environment,
behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images
in minds and language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist
and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and
Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social
learning.
Social cognitive theory is a learning theory based on the ideas that people learn
by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to
understanding personality. While social cognitivists agree that there is a fair
amount of influence on development generated by learned behavior displayed
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in the environment in which one grows up, they believe that the individual
person (and therefore cognition) is just as important in determining moral
development.
People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition
all as the chief factors in influencing development. These three factors are not
static or independent; rather, they are all reciprocal. For example, each behavior
witnessed can change a person's way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the
environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors, just as a father's
mindset (also cognition) will determine the environment in which his children
are raised.
II. True self

There is true self that has a sense of integrity, of connected
wholeness that harks to the early stage.
False self
When the person has to comply with external rules, such as being
polite or otherwise following social codes, then a false self is used. The
false self constantly seeks to anticipate demands of others in order to
maintain the relationship.
In early development, the false self is split off as an adaptation to a
mother or career who reflects her own defenses onto the infant rather
than reflecting the infant's actual moods.
Two Kinds of False Self
Healthy false self Unhealthy false self
When the false self is functional A self that fits in but through a feeling of forced
both for the person and for compliance rather than loving adaptation is
society then it is considered unhealthy.
healthy. The healthy false self
When the false self-wins debates against the true self,
feels that that it is still being true
the person finds that they are unable to be guided by
to the true self. It can be
their true self and so has to adapt to the social situation
compliant but without feeling
rather than assert its self.
that it has betrayed its true self.
When the situation becomes
difficult, the true self can still
override the true self and so acts
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as an effective conscience
or super-ego.
Discussion
An unhealthy and pathological false self never gains independence from the mother,
and so never gets to transition to independence.
These principles help explain how people seem at ease or are constantly in tension and so
act in dysfunctional ways. It also indicates how treatment is not about exposing the fragile
true self, which most of us naturally fear, but helping the individual move on, both letting go
of the unhealthy portions of the false self and building a healthy replacement.
III. Ideal Self -concept

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions
in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing.
The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.
Real Self Concept
The knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions people have about themselves as they
actually are. It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act. The real self can be
seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view
us, the real self is our self-image. The real self can be seen by others, but because
we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the real self is our self-
image.
Discussion
According the Humanistic Psychologist Carl Rogers, the personality is
composed of the Real Self and the Ideal Self. Your Real Self is who you actually
are, while your Ideal Self is the person you want to be.
It is an idealized version of yourself created out of what you have learned from
your life experiences, the demands of society, and what you admire in your role
models.
For example, your parents are medical doctors who are respected and admired
in the community, and experience tells you that in order to be happy, you need
to be smart and have a high-paying job. Your Ideal Self might be someone who
excels in science subjects, spends a lot of time studying, and does not get queasy
at the sight of blood. If your Real Self is far from this idealized image, then you
might feel dissatisfied with your life and consider yourself a failure.
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IV. Unified self
● It is the integration of the sub selves into one, however, integration is a
task for the later part of life.
● “each version of self includes cognitive elements as well as feelings,
drives, values, and behaviors organized around a certain point of view.”
V. Multiple self
● It contains different modes of the self, “appear, one after another and
side-by-side in the consciousness.”
VI. Agentic Self and Proactive Self
The agentic self is defined as the aspect of human personality that is determined
by future assessments of one's goals, objectives, and actions. Its functions are
adversely affected by degenerating planning, selecting, and implementing the
capabilities of an individual.
The proactive self make things happen, instead of waiting for them to happen to
you. Active means "doing something." The prefix pro- means "before." So if
you are proactive, you are ready before something happens. Proactive
Attitude (PA) is a personality characteristic which has implications for
motivation and action. It is a belief in the rich potential of changes that can be
made to improve oneself and one's environment. This includes various facets
such as resourcefulness, responsibility, values, and vision.
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHTS
Key Concepts
EASTERN WESTERN
MAIN PRINCIPLES
1. Cosmological unity 1. Feeling oneself as an element of the

2. Life is a journey towards Divine
eternal realities that are 2. Life is a service (to the God, money,
beyond the realities that business, etc.)
surround us 3. Linear view of the universe and life, based
3. Circular view of the on the Christian philosophy where
universe, based on the everything has its beginning and the end.
perception of eternal 4. Outer-world dependent
recurrence
5. Self-dedication to the goal (life
4. Inner-world dependent vision, success,happiness, etc.)
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5. Self-liberation from the false
"Me" and finding the true
"Me". The highest state is
believed to be a state of 'no-
self', where neither self-
worth nor self-importance
have any real meaning.
6. Behavioral ethics
THE “ME” CONCEPT
Eternal reality of the universal truth: “Me” is here and now. The true “Me” in every
self-liberation through getting rid of human being is a part of the Divine that need to
the false "Me" and discovering the become apparent. True “Me” is given and doesn’t
true "Me" have to be cognizable.
SEARCH FOR ABSOLUTE TRUTH
● HOLISTIC approach – all ● More focused on INDIVIDUAL

events in the universe are EVENTS and the role of the person
interconnected ● Searching outside yourself - through
● Searching INSIDE research andanalysis
YOURSELF – by
becoming a part of the "The truth that survives is simply the lie that
universe is pleasantest to believe." ~ H.L.Mencken
through meditation and right
living
"Though he should live a hundred

years, not seeing the Truth
Sublime; yet better, indeed, is the
single day's life of one who sees
the Truth Sublime." ~ Buddha
INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM
A human being is an integral part of the A human being has an individualistic nature and is
universe and the society. People are an independent part of the universe and the society.
fundamentally connected. Duty towards INDIVIDUALISM is stronger.
all others is a very important matter.
COLLECTIVISM is stronger.
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ACHIEVEMENT & WINNING
Winning is INSIDE yourself. Winning is OUTSIDE yourself.
"Though he should conquer a "You're not a star until they can spell your name
thousand men in the battlefield a in Karachi."
thousand times, yet he, indeed, who ~ Roger Moore
would conquer himself is the noblest
victor." ~ Buddha "Life affords no higher pleasure than that of
surmounting difficulties, passing from one stop of
"He who conquers others is strong; success to another, forming new wishes and
he who conquers himself is mighty." seeing them gratified."
~ Lao Tzu ~ Samuel Johnson
"The most excellent Jihad is that for "It is not because things are difficult that we do
the conquest of self." not dare; it is because we do not dare that they
– Mohammad are difficult."
LEADERSHIP
SPIRITUAL; walking behind HANDS-ON; walking ahead of people; speech is
people; silence is golden. golden.
"In order to guide people, "Leadership is done from in front. Never ask
the leader must put himself behind others to do what you, if challenged, would not
them. Thus when he is ahead they be willing to do yourself."
feel no hurt." ~ Lao Tzu ~ Xenophon
 THE CONCEPT OF SELF IN THE CONFUCIAN

THOUGHT
Self or No-Self
- The notion of self in Confucian thought is very similar to what Ames
expresses in above quote, and to the understanding of self in our examples of
the Maori. Although it is by westerners often understood that there is no self
in Confucian thought, (because in Confucianism one does talk of the concept
of "no-self") this concept may be misunderstood when taken into western
paradigms of thinking.
- But what is really meant by the idea of "no self", is this: "If one had no selfish
motives, but only the supreme virtues, there would be no self. … If he serves
selflessly, he does not know what service is [does not recognize it as service]. If
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he knows what service is, he has a self… [to think] only of parents but not of
yourself… is what I call no self." (Zoku Kyuo dowa [Kyuo’s Moral discourses
continued], 1835).
REFERENCES:
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-
9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0093.xml
https://www.monash.edu/business/marketing/marketing-dictionary/r/real-self-
concept
https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/psychoanalysis/concepts/true_false_self.h
tm
https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ideal+Self
https://study.com/academy/lesson/ideal-self-vs-real-self-definition-lesson-
quiz.html#:~:text=The%20real%20self%20is%20who,how%20we%20want%
20to%20be.
https://quizlet.com/381497571/144-multiple-vs-unified-selves-flash-cards/
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CHAPTER II DIMENSION OF SELF
LESSON I THE PHYSICAL SELF

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. familiarize how physical self functions in relation to understanding
our self;
2. appreciate the physical body as an expression of the self;
3. Determine ways to care for the physical self.
READINGS:
Random Facts
o The human body contains nearly 100 trillion cells.
o There are at least 10 times as many bacteria in the human body
as cells.
o The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.
o Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of
blood to filter out about 2 quarts of waste and water
o Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine
each day.
o The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells
o Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's
body weight
o You use your eyes to see, your ears to hear and your muscles to
do the heavy lifting. In fact, most body parts are far more
complicated than that, while some seem to have no business
being inside there at all.
 The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self Esteem

Our body image, which includes our perception of ourselves and our
own body and the manner in which we feel about our body, is influenced
by a variety of factors. Many aspects contribute to body image,
including the environment in which we are immersed in as well as our
biological makeup and genetic predisposition.
Understanding how each of these areas impact how we feel about our
body is important to understanding how we can create and build a
positive body image.
 Cultural Traditions Can Help or Hurt
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The culture in which we are surrounded by has a significant impact on
how we feel about ourselves and the manner in which we think about
our body. Many cultural traditions also contribute to body image and
can influence either negative or positive body image and self-esteem.
Depending on the culture and overall emphasis of traditions involved, a
person may find their surroundings either conducive to or resistant to
the building of a healthy body image and self-esteem.
 The Impact of Western Culture

The Western culture in general, for example, is one that tends to hyper-
focus on dieting and body appearance. Digitally retouched photos are
the norm in which our society is saturated in, and this mentality can
negatively influence an individual’s body image.
Other cultures that celebrate and uphold a person’s body and whose
traditions uphold what a person is capable of doing rather than their
appearance may more effectively support the building of a positive body
image.
 Culture Is Just One Factor

While culture alone is not responsible for a poor or negative body
image, the influence and potential in which it can impact how a person
feels about themselves and their body are substantial. Being aware of
your surroundings and understanding how culture and traditions may
affect and impact how you think and feel about your body can be
helpful, especially in a conscious effort to build a positive body image
and increase self-esteem. Understanding each of the components that
contribute to your body image is an important step towards making a
difference in how you see and feel about yourself.
Published on July 18, 2015.

Reviewed, Updated & Approved on February 21, 2019, by Jacquelyn
Ekern MS, LPC
Published on EatingDisorderHope.com
 Article Reading
Beauty is in the Mind of the Beholder
There’s no getting around it. In this world, you’re better
off being good-looking. At all ages and in all walks of life, attractive
people are judged more favorably, treated better, and cut more slack.
Mothers give more affection to attractive babies. Teachers favor more
attractive students and judge them as smarter. Attractive adults get paid
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more for their work and have better success in dating and mating. And
juries are less likely to find attractive people guilty and recommend
lighter punishments when they do.
Many factors can play into personal attractiveness — the way you dress,
the way you act, the way you carry yourself, even things that are hard
or impossible to change, like social status and wealth, race, and body
size and shape. But the first thing we notice when we meet someone is
their face. There are faces that launch a thousand ships, and faces that
only a mother could love, and we are supremely attuned to tell the
difference. The brain, among its many other functions, is a beauty
detector.
The brain is such a good beauty detector, in fact, that it can
judge the appeal of a face before you’re aware you’ve even seen one.
When participants in a recent study were presented with attractive and
unattractive faces for only 13 milliseconds, they were able to judge the
faces’ attractiveness accurately (that is, in accordance with
experimenters’ ratings), even though they were not consciously aware
of the stimuli and felt like they were just guessing (Olson & Marshuetz,
2005).
There is no doubt that beauty (which here means both male and
female attractiveness) is to some extent in the eye of the beholder, but
across individuals and across cultures there is nevertheless considerable
agreement about what makes a pretty or handsome face, and the
evidence strongly counters the conventional wisdom that attractiveness
preferences are mainly acquired through life experience. For one thing,
the beauty bias is already present in infancy. Six-month-olds prefer to
look at the same relatively attractive faces that adults do (Rubenstein,
Kalakanis, & Langlois, 1999).
 Truth in Beauty
The question is, is beauty really only skin deep, or does an
attractive face actually reflect underlying good qualities? In a few ways,
the stereotype that “beautiful is good” does hold. Evolutionary
psychology holds that faces really are windows onto certain
fundamental and important characteristics indicative of a person’s
quality as a romantic partner and as a mate — qualities of health and
genes, and even character.
Among the most important and consistent factors in facial
attractiveness are structural qualities of the face that are highly sex-
typical. An attractive man, in the eyes of female experimental
18
participants, is generally one with relatively prominent cheekbones and
eyebrow ridges and a relatively long lower face. Likewise, prominent
cheekbones, large eyes, small nose, a taller forehead, smooth skin, and
an overall young or even childlike appearance add to women’s allure in
the eyes of male raters.
Our faces are sculpted by our hormones. These sex-typical
facial features of adult men and women reflect the ratio of testosterone
to estrogen or estrogen to testosterone, respectively, acting on the
individual during development. We are programmed to be drawn to
strong indicators of maleness (for women) and femaleness (for men)
partly because they reflect an individual’s health (Fink & Penton-Voak,
2002). The reason hormones equate to health is somewhat
counterintuitive. High levels of sex hormones during puberty
actually suppress the immune system, raising vulnerability to disease
and infection. It sounds like a bad thing. But when a person with a
particularly “male” or “female” face makes it to adulthood with all his
or her health intact, it means that the person has withstood the
potentially debilitating influence of those high hormones. In other
words it signifies a more robust constitution.
 ‘Your Symmetry Lights Up the Room’
No two faces are alike, and no two halves of a face are alike.
Countless small variables make faces somewhat asymmetrical – a
slightly wider jaw on one side, one eye a fraction of an inch lower than
the other, a cheekbone that sticks out just a wee bit more, a dimple on
one cheek, etc. Some asymmetries (called directional asymmetries) are
common across the population – for example, the left side of most
people’s faces is slightly larger than the right. But many asymmetries,
called fluctuating asymmetries, arise when one’s unfolding genetic
program is perturbed during development, for instance by parasites or
other environmental challenges. The slings and arrows of life’s fortunes
can literally knock our faces off of kilter, just like a punch to the nose.
A symmetrical face, like a particularly masculine or feminine one, is a
sign of having stood up better to life’s figurative schoolyard beatings.
Numerous studies have found that when men and women are
asked to compare versions of faces that are more versus less
symmetrical, the symmetrical ones garner significantly higher ratings
of attractiveness, dominance, sexiness, and health, and are perceived to
be more desirable as potential mates (Rhodes, Proffitt, Grady, &
Sumich, 1998; Shackelford & Larsen, 1997). So as with
masculine/feminine features, the appeal of symmetry makes perfect
19
sense to evolutionary psychologists. In a beautiful face, we are really
seeing the artistry of good genes. People prefer symmetrical faces even
when they can’t actually perceive the symmetry – that is, when only
face halves are presented. It may be that symmetry covaries with other
desirable characteristics that reflect the same genetic endowment and
overall health (Penton-Voak et al., 2001).
It may not be all that surprising that we’d rather mate with a
symmetrical Greek god or goddess than with someone who stepped out
of a Picasso painting. Less obvious is that a pretty or handsome face is
also generally one that is, well, average. When presented with
individual faces and a composite of those individual faces, participants
will judge the composite as more attractive than the individual, more
distinctive faces. And the more faces that contribute to the composite,
the more attractive it becomes (Langlois & Roggman, 1990). The most
attractive faces appear to be those whose features are closest to the
average in the population—that is, more prototypical.
Averageness, like symmetry, reflects a favorable genetic
endowment. Those with average features are less likely to be carrying
harmful mutations. Additionally, averageness reflects greater
heterozygosity — having both a dominant and a recessive allele for
given traits, rather than two dominant or two recessive alleles (an
advantage that symmetry also reflects). Heterozygosity confers
relatively greater resistance to pathogens, in many cases, and thus, along
with all the other indicators of resilience, we may be programmed to
seek it out through its subtle but telltale signs.
However, it has also been argued that there may be some much
simpler cognitive reasons for the preference for averages. Besides faces,
people show a preference for average-looking dogs, average-looking
birds, and average-looking watches (Halberstadt & Rhodes, 2000).
Prototypes are more familiar-looking than less typical examples of a
given class of objects, be it the face of a potential mate or the face of a
timepiece, and they are easier to process. Easy on the eyes = easy on the
brain.
 In the Sex of the Beholder

Men and women both show the above preferences when it
comes to faces, but in general men’s preferences tend to be more
pronounced (Rhodes et al., 1998). Males may place greater importance
on physical beauty when it comes to mate choice, while females also
attend to characteristics like power and status. But a number of factors
20
contribute to how much — and when — male face characteristics matter
to women.
One factor is a woman’s own attractiveness: Preference for
masculine and symmetrical features has been shown to be higher for
women who regard themselves as more attractive (Little, Burt, Penton-
Voak, & Perrett, 2001). Another is time of the month: The degree of
women’s preferences for different attractive qualities fluctuates
strikingly across the ovulatory cycle.
A group of University of Mexico psychologists have studied
women’s shifting preferences for symmetrical men. They have found
that this preference (which women can not only see, but even smell in
tee-shirts slept in by symmetrical men) increases dramatically around
the time of ovulation, when a woman is most fertile and the chance of
conception is highest (Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver-Apgar, 2005).
So does a woman’s preference for more masculine-looking men. But
this preference wanes during other times of the month. Again,
evolutionary psychology provides a ready explanation.
Humans, like many other species, are socially monogamous but
not necessarily sexually monogamous. When sex might result in getting
pregnant, it’s health and fertility that are particularly desirable in a mate.
But good genes in the sense of physical health is not the same as good
genes in the sense of character, and what makes a good sperm donor
may not make the best long-term, nurturing, helpful life partner. The
flip side of high testosterone is an increased tendency toward aggression
and antisocial behavior, a tendency to compete rather than help. Thus a
male with less testosterone, indicated by less masculine features, may
invest more in caring for offspring (whether or not he’s the biological
father) and so may be better to have around for the long term.
 A Thousand Ships
In myth, beautiful women are disruptive of men’s reason, even
causing them to go to war. We now know that there’s truth to the idea
that men make worse decisions when exposed to female beauty, and we
even are beginning to understand the neural basis. A pair of McMaster
University researchers found that looking at photographs of attractive
women (but not unattractive women) caused a significant increase in
delay discounting in men — that is, choosing a smaller immediate
reward over a larger delayed one (Wilson & Daly, 2004). It’s the same
tendency found to a high degree in addicts and others with impaired
self-control. Interestingly, viewing attractive men did not influence
women’s decisions.
21
The reason-unseating effect of a beautiful face partly involves
the amygdala. Activation of the amygdala, which detects the value of
social stimuli, has been associated with greater discounting of all kinds
of future rewards, and sure enough, this brain area shows much stronger
activation to attractive faces than to more ho-hum ones. (It is actually a
U-shaped relationship; the amygdala is also highly activated by
unattractive faces; Winston, O’Doherty, Kilner, Perrett, & Dolan,
2007.)
In both men and women, attractive faces cause greater
activation in several other brain areas involved in processing of rewards.
These include the nucleus accumbens, which also activates in response
to rewarding stimuli like money; the medial prefrontal cortex; and the
anterior cingulate cortex, which may be involved in shaping future
behavior from learning reward outcomes. In men (but not in women),
the orbitofrontal cortex, an area that evaluates the reward value of
current behaviors, also activates in response to attractive female faces
(Cloutier, Heatherton, Whalen, & Kelley, 2008).
 Beautify Yourself
Beauty is unfair. Not everyone can be born with great genes.
Not everyone can be born symmetrical. Not everyone can be born
enticingly, well, average. But obviously there are many factors
contributing to attractiveness that are potentially under our control.
For women, makeup does have a strong effect. In one study,
women wearing makeup were approached more, and approached faster,
by men at a bar than they were on nights without makeup (Gueguen,
2008b). Effect sizes on beauty judgments for makeup have been found
to be as high as those for the facial structural features mentioned earlier
(Osborn, 2006).
Getting enough beauty sleep is something everyone can do to
up their beauty quotient. A group of Swedish and Dutch researchers
conducted an experiment in which observers rated the attractiveness (as
well as health) of participants who were photographed both after a
period of sleep deprivation and after a good night’s sleep (Axelsson,
2010). Not surprisingly, individuals who were sleep deprived were rated
significantly less attractive than those who were rested. They were also
rated less healthy.
And then there are the emotions we project through our faces.
Not surprising, positive emotions increase attractiveness. We are drawn
to those who smile, for example. As when they wore makeup, women
who smiled at men on entering a bar were more likely to be approached
22
and were judged more favorably (Gueguen, 2008a). Even a smile
perceived only in the periphery of one’s vision will be seen as more
attractive than a face with a neutral expression (Bohrn, Carbon, &
Hutzler, 2010). And attractive faces that smile produce even more
activity in the orbitofrontal cortex than do attractive faces wearing
neutral expressions (O’Doherty et al., 2003).
 So here’s the timeless message of psychological science: Be beautiful—

or, as beautiful as you can. Smile and sleep and do whatever else you
can do to make your face a reward. Among its other social benefits,
attractiveness actually invites people to learn what you are made of, in
other respects than just genetic fitness. According to a new study at the
University of British Columbia (Lorenzo, Biesanz, & Human, 2010),
attractive people are actually judged more accurately—at least, closer
to a subject’s own self-assessments—than are the less attractive,
because it draws others to go beyond the initial impression. “People do
judge a book by its cover,” the researchers write, “but a beautiful cover
prompts a closer reading.”
PROMOTING PHYSICAL IMAGE
Personal Hygiene
The physical self is a significant component in one’s image and

personality. Being clean and hygienic creates a good image and allows one to
feel good about the self. It is necessary to be following the hype in fashion but
the requirement to be neat and well-groomed at all times. The skin plays a major
role in one’s appearance. It creates an impression that implicates certain
attitudes and habits. Aside from functioning as an outer covering, the skin
maintains body temperature as it contains as well the nerve endings that feed the
nervous system with the stimulus from the external environment. Taking care of
the skin entails the following:
1. Taking regular bath or shower

2. Applying deodorant
3. Avoiding oily food
4. Preventing acne by facial cleaning
5. Sleeping at least 7-8 hours per day
6. Drinking 8 glasses of water each day
7. Avoiding too much exposure to sunlight
23
8. Using waterproof sunscreen with 15 spf or higher
9. Avoiding sunlight at 10-12 o’clock pm
10. Taking vitamin C
11. Avoiding cigarettes
12. Taking vitamin E
13. Moderate use of cosmetics
14. Avoiding harsh substances
15. Using facial cream/lotion to hydrate the skin.
The hair follicle and root are embedded in the skin. It is basically made
of dead cells. As new ones are formed old ones are pushed outward through the
surface of the skin and die. As one’s crowning glory taking care of the hair
entails simple habits and practices which includes the following daily routine:
1. Brush or comb hair at least twice a day to maintain body and shine as it
releases natural oil from the roots.
2. Wash hair everyday with gentle soap and shampoo to prevent dryness
3. Use enough hair conditioner
4. Have an intensive treatment at least once a week
5. Use your own comb or brush to prevent getting parasites from others
6. Color/perm/rebond hair with salon assistance for extreme care
7. Iron/blower hair occasionally only during significant events
8. Trim hair at least once a month to get rid of split ends.
The teeth affect our appearance and our image. Decaying teeth turns off
people as it results to foul breath. More so, gaps in our teeth results to speech
problems. Indeed, our teeth contribute a lot to our appearance and appeal.
Smiling entails, a good set of teeth. Here are some ways to maintain and show
that contagious smile:
1. Maintain a regular oral care

2. Brush teeth after meal and before bed time
3. Use a mouthwash
4. Use floss on hard-to-reach spots
5. Maintain a healthy diet especially veggies and fruits
6. Avoid sugar
7. Have a regular dental check up
8. Avoid cigarettes
24
Good Grooming
It is common notion that First Impression lasts. It is necessary to take
pride in our appearance and to dress appropriately as those significant others
serve as our audience and critic. Careful grooming and observance of proper
clothing in specific occasions is an important practice in building one’s self-
esteem. One should adhere to the basics and appreciate the following tips:
1. For the Gentleman

a) Be clean. Take a shower, cut nails, and pamper skin
b) Select the right wardrobe for the right event
c) Have a sense of style. Wear clothing that feels comfortable but elegant
d) Wear clean and shiny shoes that complement your attire
e) Smell good by wearing mild perfume scent
f) Check your bearing. Proper body posture adds confidence and appeal
2. For the Ladies
a) Bathe, be clean and fresh always as it exudes confidence
b) Polish nails to add femininity and art
c) Apply light make-up using colors that match your skin tone
d) Choose the appropriate attire that suits the event
e) Use a mild feminine perfume scent that fits your personality
f) Wear clean shoes or sandals
g) Choose the best bag or clutch that complements your clothing
h) Bring only essentials in your bag
i) Wear a smart face, chin up and keep proper smart posture
Social Graces
All civilized societies are built upon discipline. Since man is gregarious
by nature there is need to practice a little self-denial for the sake of order and
control. Social graces are skills used to interact politely in social situations. They
include manners, etiquette, deportment, fashion and refinement. This is
maintained through certain unwritten guidelines that maintain the harmony in
relationships through etiquette which adheres to conventional requirements of
social behavior. Good manners are a reflection of one’s education, values and
sensitivity. The same could be manifested in several ways. One’s image is
considered positive and cultured if the following practices are mastered
especially on specific occasions:
A. Smoking Etiquette:
1. Use an ashtray
2. Put out the stub
3. Never throw cigarette butts on the floor
4. Never smoke when walking
25
5. Never smoke in public vehicles
6. Be courteous to those who are sensitive to smoke
B. Drinking Etiquette:
1. Be pleasant
2. Drink in moderation
3. Drink slowly
4. Do not mix drinks
5. Drink coffee for hangover
6. Call it a day when you have enough
C. Dating Etiquette:
1. Give a gift
2. Learn to appreciate and compliment
3. Do not embarrass the person if you do not like him/her
4. Do not stay late
5. Inform your parents
6. Do not be tempted to drink, take drugs or do sex
7. Control yourself
8. Don’t spend over
9. Plan ahead
D. Party Etiquette
1. Plan ahead
2. Make good friend
3. Don’t over decorate
4. Dress up well
5. Receive guests personally
6. Get conversations going
7. Play soft music
8. Arrange party games
9. Be hospitable
10. Be on time
11. Make new friends
12. Eat moderately
13. Do not overstay
14. Thank the host/hostess
E. Phone Etiquette
1. Learn to greet
2. Identify yourself
3. Modulate your voice
4. Caller should end the call
5. Be accommodating
6. Avoid negative statements
26
7. Let the speaker finish his/her line
8. Say thank you and goodbye
Proper Bearing and Posture

Composure and bearing affects not only one’s physical self and image
but his or her level of confidence. An individual who has the right degree of
confidence conducts themselves well in front of others. Standing or sitting
upright in a snappy and smart manner creates an aura of confidence and strength.
Posture in the position in which you hold your body upright against gravity
while standing, sitting or lying down. Good postures involve training your body
to stand, walk, sit and lie in positions where the least strain is placed on
supporting muscles and ligaments during movement or weight-bearing
activities. By pulling your shoulders towards the back, making sure that the
stomach is in, your chest out and chin up, it is assured that you already observing
proper posture. It should be noted that proper posture has its positive effects on
the body specially the following:
1. Keep bones and joints in the correct alignment so that muscles are
being used properly
2. Helps decrease the abnormal wearing of joint surfaces that could result
in arthritis
3. Decrease the stress on the ligaments holding the joints of the spine
together
4. Prevents the spine from becoming fixed in abnormal positions
5. Prevents fatigue because muscles are being used more efficiently,
allowing the body to use less energy
6. Prevents strain or overuse problems
7. Prevents backache and muscular pain
8. Contributes to a good appearance
Health
One has to understand that our health affects our performance and
compliance in our daily tasks whether in school or at work. Illness and diseases
make us weak physically and intellectually. This may cause us to perform or
become unproductive. The case of Steve Jobs exemplifies this case as his genius,
his wealth and fame became futile when he died at a young age of 56 caused by
pancreatic cancer. His early demise shows that our wealth is nothing without
good health. Even our image and self will suffer if our physical self could never
be maintained and taken care of. How should the body be taken care of and how
can a longer and productive life span be assured? Several ways can be
considered but this has to be religiously observed to develop habits that will
27
provide an assurance that life will be lived with much zest and satisfaction. Such
practice includes the following:
1. Proper Nutrition – diet or what we regularly eat and drink provides

us with the fuel that powers our body and brain. Food is crucial to or
body’s survival but eating the right food on the other hand will assure
prevention of cardiovascular illness and the like. One therefore
should be guided by the Food Pyramid to determine what should be
consumed less and what we should be the bulk of what we take in.
Major nutrients should be considered in our daily diet as they help maintain
our body’s wellness such that.
a) Carbohydrates – provide our body with energy

b) Protein – is necessary to repair body cells and tissues
c) Fats – serve as source of energy for vitamin storage and body
insulation
d) Minerals – strengthen muscles, bones and teeth, enrich the
blood and keep the heart and other organs healthy
e) Vitamins – help regulate body functions
f) Water – keeps 60% of an adult’s total body weight. It helps
break down food, carries nutrients throughout the body,
removes wastes and maintains a stable body temperature.
Healthy choice of food includes plenty of grains, vegetables and fruits.
The bottom of the pyramid helps in maintaining healthy eyes, skin, bones and
blood. These food groups serve a source of fiber such as those which are derived
from apple, potato skin and beans. Fiber helps in waste elimination and prevents
onset of cancer. Twenty grams of fiber should be maintained to keep digestive
system healthy.
28
2. Clean Environment – humans and environment make up the
ecosystem. Human activities over the years have put many waste products
in the air, land and water. They contaminate and pollute the environment
through toxic wastes killing plants, animals and humans as well. Many
of the illness that afflict people now are caused by these pollutants. The fresh
water that we directly get from our faucet is now substituted with distilled or
purified water that we buy from water station. It is imminent therefore
that the air that we breath will soon be purchased using oxygen tanks from air
stations. People are accountable for what they do. Hence, it is necessary to
engage in activities that will revive the environment, replenish the lost resources
and revert to the original state of our environment. This, in turn, will
provide us clean air, clean water and clean environment which are necessary
elements to provide longer and healthier lives for people like us.
a) Resource Conservation – a major new industry that requires the use of
eco bags when shopping or maybe reusing an item like food packages.
Conserving electricity and water is also a practice of resource
conservation.
b) Recycling – this is the process of reusing materials that have ben put to
waste. Recycling allows finding new ways to utilize those things that
have been thrown away.
c) Reduce Pollution – whether it is air, water or land pollution, individuals
can contribute by maintaining cleanliness in their daily activities.
Reducing smoking prevents indoor pollution; initiating car pool or taking
a train instead of cars or motorbikes as well as short distance walk can
help in preventing release of more toxic fumes. Moreover, individuals
should stop dumping garbage in rivers and other bodies of water. This
responsible behavior can contribute a lot to the cleanliness of our
surroundings.
REFERENCES:
Published on July 18, 2015.
Reviewed, Updated & Approved on February 21, 2019, by Jacquelyn Ekern MS, LPC
Published on EatingDisorderHope.com
Demello, M (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173 — 188. And Fat and Thin Bodies. 189 - 205. In
Body Studies: An Introduction. Routledge
Demetrio, Fernando & Zialcita. (1991). The soul, 95-97. One is not enough. 99-101. The Soul
Book. GCF Books.
Diokno, MS (1997). Becoming a Filipino Citizen. In Perspectives on
Citizenship and
Democracy. UP Third World Studies Center. 17 - 38
Dittmer, H (1992). The Individual Centered Approach: Material Possessions as Parts of the
Extended Self. Pp. 41- 64 and Possessions as Symbolic Expressions of Identity. Pp. 95-121 in
The Social Psychology of Material Possessions: To Have is to Be? St. Martin’s Press.
29
CHAPTER II
LESSON II THE SEXUAL SELF
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. identify the development of Secondary sex characteristics and the
human reproductive system; and differentiate secondary sex
characteristics in male and female and the Identify Human Sexual
response;
2. understand the basic biology of sexual behavior and the Chemistry
of lust, love and attachment;
3. know the diversity of sexual behavior solitary, heterosexual,
homosexual and bisexual, transsexual; and
READINGS:
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human
Reproductive System
Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are

formed. The general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex
hormone levels, are similar in preadolescent boys and girls. As puberty begins
and sex hormone levels rise, differences appear, though some changes are
similar in males and females. Male levels of testosterone directly induce the
growth of the genitals, and indirectly (via dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the
prostate. Estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in females.
However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development
by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen.
Underarm hair and pubic hair are usually considered secondary sex
characteristics, but may also be considered non-secondary sex characteristics
because they are features of both sexes following puberty.
Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become
sexually mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very
different, the hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though
the timing of these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes
that occur is predictable for male and female adolescents. As shown in the image
below, a concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus (GnRH), the
anterior pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either testosterone or estrogen)
is responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems and the
30
development of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes that
serve auxiliary roles in reproduction.
Figure 1. During puberty, the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary
stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones in both male and female
adolescents.
Signs of Puberty
Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute
to the development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples
of secondary sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Male Female
Increased larynx size and deepening of Deposition of fat, predominantly in breasts and
the voice hips
Increased muscular development Breast development
Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, Broadening of the pelvis and growth of axillary
and increased growth of body hair and pubic hair
As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the
development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and
pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11, and may
31
last two years or more. During this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a
year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation.
In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the
beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the
scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including
armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the
larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice
to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately
15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the
early growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt occurs toward the
end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can increase
as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue
through the early 20s.
Human Reproductive System
An organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring.

Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly,
the essential features of human reproduction are (1) liberation of an ovum, or
egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, (2) internal fertilization of the
ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells, (3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the
uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed
from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, (5) formation of a placenta
and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period of gestation, (6)
birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7) suckling and care of the
child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually their original
state.
Figure 2. Organs and structures of the male and female reproductive
systems.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
32
The Human Sexual Response Cycle
It is a four-stage model of physiological responses to sexual stimulation,
which, in order of their occurrence, are the excitement-, plateau-, orgasmic-, and
resolution phases. This physiological response model was first formulated by
William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, in their 1966 book Human Sexual
Response. Since then, other human sexual response models have been
formulated.
1 Excitement phase
The excitement phase (also known as the arousal phase or initial

excitement phase) is the first stage of the human sexual response cycle,
which occurs as a result of physical or mental erotic stimuli, such as
kissing, making out, or viewing erotic images, that leads to sexual
arousal. During this stage, the body prepares for sexual intercourse,
initially leading to the plateau phase.[1] There is wide socio-cultural
variation regarding preferences for the length of foreplay and the
stimulation methods used.[3] Physical and emotional interaction and
stimulation of the erogenous zones during foreplay usually establishes
at least some initial arousal.
2 Plateau phase
The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm.

The phase is characterized by an increased circulation and heart rate in
both sexes, increased sexual pleasure with increased stimulation and
further increased muscle tension. Also, respiration continues at an
elevated level.[1] Both men and women may also begin to vocalize
involuntarily at this stage. Prolonged time in the plateau phase without
progression to the orgasmic phase may result in sexual frustration.
3 Orgasm phase
Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response

cycle and is experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied
by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles,
which surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs. Women
also experience uterine and vaginal contractions. Orgasms are often
associated with other involuntary actions, including vocalizations and
33
muscular spasms in other areas of the body and a generally euphoric
sensation. Heart rate is increased even further
4 Resolution phase
The resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to
relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited
state.[1] The refractory period, which is part of the resolution phase, is
the time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though
women can also experience a refractory period.
Understanding “The Chemistry of Love: lust, attraction, and attachment ”
THE SCIENCE OF LOVE

Research has shown that all of these crazy, haywire feelings and
physical reactions are, in fact, led by the brain and the chemicals released as a
result of attraction and desire. Experts believe that three neurotransmitters
(chemical messengers that transmit impulses (i.e. messages) between nerve
cells) play a significant role during the initial stages of love.
According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers,
romantic love can be broken down into three categories: lust, attraction, and
attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones
stemming from the brain (Table 1).
Figure 3. : Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and
attachment. Though there are overlaps and subtleties to each, each type is
characterized by its own set of hormones. Testosterone and estrogen drive lust;
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin create attraction; and oxytocin and
vasopressin mediate attachment.
34
Lust – Testosterone and Estrogen
The first stage of romantic love, lust is defined as having an intense sexual desire
towards someone, therefore, lust is driven by having a desire to achieve sexual
gratification. This is based on an evolutionary need to reproduce, something that
is common among all living species. It is through reproduction that we are able
to pass on our genes and this aids in contributing to the continuation of our
species.
The hypothalamus of your brain plays a major role in lust as it stimulates the
production of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. It is a common
misconception that these hormones should be labelled as female and male
respectively, as these play a role in both women and men’s physiology and
sexuality.
Testosterone is known to increase libido in both genders. In women, the effects
of testosterone may be less significant than in men due to the presence of higher
levels of estrogen. However, estrogen promotes the function of two hormones,
testosterone, which increases sex drive, and oxytocin, commonly referred to as
‘the love hormone’ which is released during physical contact and sexual climax.
It is little wonder then that women report being more sexually aroused during
the ovulation stage of their menstrual cycle when estrogen levels are at their
peak.
Lust then leads to the next stage of love, which is attraction.
● Attraction – Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin
Attraction, although regarded as a distinct category in the stages of love, is
closely related to lust and while one can be linked to the other and vice versa,
they can also be mutually exclusive (i.e. one can occur without the other).
Attraction is associated with the ‘reward’ pathways in the brain that influence
our behavior.
The ‘reward’ pathway is connected to parts of your brain that control
memory and behavior and begin in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and
prefrontal cortex, this is where neurons release dopamine to induce feelings of
pleasure when we do something that feels good to us. The VTA forms an
important part of your brain’s reward circuit which is considered to be a
primitive, evolutionary neural network. Some of the structures that make up this
reward network or circuit include the hippocampus, amygdala and the prefrontal
cortex, all of which are stimulated by pleasure-inducing behaviors such as
food consumption, sex and even gambling or drug use.
35
Dopamine, which is produced by your hypothalamus, is released during
the stage of attraction, specifically when we spend time with someone we are
attracted to or when we engage in sexual intercourse with them. Dopamine is a
natural stimulant that fills you with emotions of ecstasy, this is often why the
way falling in love feels is regarded as the natural equivalent to the high
experienced from taking an illicit drug.
Dopamine is also involved in focus and attention, which explains why you
cannot get that one special person out of your head and when you are with them
as, during this stage, you are ‘hyper-focused’ on their presence and the way they
make you feel.
Another hormone that is released during the stage of attraction is
norepinephrine. Norepinephrine, also referred to as noradrenaline, may sound
familiar to you, this is because it plays an important role in our ‘fight or flight’
response to stressful situations and keeps us alert. When it comes to love, the
combination of dopamine and norepinephrine allows us to feel energetic,
euphoric and even giddy. These hormones may also lead to insomnia and a
decreased appetite. Basically, these are why you can be so attracted to someone
that you can’t sleep or eat.
Serotonin is the final hormone associated with attraction. This hormone is a vital
neurotransmitter that aids in the regulation of social behaviour, mood, memory,
appetite, digestion and sexual desire. Interestingly, it is believed that serotonin
levels begin to decline during the attraction phase. Cortisol (also known as the
stress hormone) levels increase during the initial stage of falling in love, which
allows for our bodies to deal with the ‘crisis’ or ‘stressful situation’ that romantic
love is perceived by the body to be on a physiological level. As chemicals flood
the reward centre of the brain, our hearts race, palms sweat, cheeks flush and we
are overwhelmed with emotions of anxiety and passion.
● Attachment – Oxytocin and Vasopressin
The final stage of falling in love is attachment, this is the predominant factor
in defining the success of long-term relationships. Although the previous stages
of lust and attraction are seen as exclusive to a more romantically euphoric stage
of falling in love, the attachment stage refers to a more meaningful bond
developing between two people, moving a romantic relationship to an advanced
level of falling in love wholeheartedly. The two main hormones involved in the
stage of attachment include oxytocin, as well as vasopressin.
Oxytocin is referred to as ‘the love hormone’ or ‘the cuddle hormone’ is
also produced by the hypothalamus and is released in substantial amounts during
sexual intercourse and is stimulated through skin-to-skin contact. Interestingly,
36
oxytocin is also released during childbirth and breastfeeding. It may seem like
the same hormone is responsible for a strange combination of activities,
however, what all of these have in common is a form of bonding and attachment.
Therefore, oxytocin, or OT, plays an important role in forging bonds
representative of the depth of love and attachment to a partner as it heightens
the feelings of calmness, security and contentment that are so often linked to
bonding with a mate2.
The second hormone involved in the phase of attachment is one that is
released in large quantities directly after having sex. The pituitary gland in both
men and women release vasopressin. Experts believe that vasopressin plays a
role in social interactions between humans and encourages pair-bonding
(monogamous, long-term relationships). Researchers have also noted that this
hormone may in actual fact, have a taming effect on more promiscuous people,
thus, when this hormone is increased after sex with someone that you are in love
with, this may affect your brain by triggering your neural reward system which
stimulates feelings of happiness, encouraging you to want to stay with that
person as a result.
These two hormones provide us with an explanation as to why euphoric
love will begin to fade as attachment and long-term love grow.
Gender and Sexual Diversity

Gender and Sexual Diversity (GSD), or simply sexual diversity,
refers to all the diversities of sex characteristics, sexual orientations and gender
identities, without the need to specify each of the identities, behaviors, or
characteristics that form this plurality.
Overview
In the Western world, generally simple classifications are used to
describe sexual orientation (heterosexuals, homosexuals and bisexuals), gender
identity (transgender and cisgender), and related minorities (intersex), gathered
under the acronyms LGBT or LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender/transsexual people, and sometimes intersex people); however, other
cultures have other ways of understanding the sex and gender systems. Over the
last few decades, some sexology theories have emerged, such as Kinsey theory
and queer theory, proposing that this classification is not enough to describe the
sexual complexity in human beings and, even, in other animal species.
For example, some people may feel an intermediate sexual orientation
between heterosexual and bisexual (heteroflexible) or between homosexual and
37
bisexual (homoflexible). It may vary over time, too, or include attraction not
only towards women and men, but to all the spectrum of sexes and genders
(pansexual).[9] In other words, within bisexuality there exists a huge diversity of
typologies and preferences that vary from an exclusive heterosexuality to a
complete homosexuality (Kinsey scale).
Sexual diversity includes intersex people, those born with a variety of
intermediate features between women and men. It also includes all transgender
and transsex identities which do not frame within the binary gender system and,
like sexual orientation, may be experienced in different degrees in between
cisgender and transsexuality, such as genderfluid people.
Lastly, sexual diversity also includes asexual people, who feel
disinterest in sexual activity; and all those who consider that their identity cannot
be defined, such as queer people.
Socially, sexual diversity is claimed as the acceptance of being different
but with equal rights, liberties, and opportunities within the Human Rights
framework. In many countries, visibility of sexual diversity is vindicated
during Pride Parades.
Sexuality without Responsibility
The expression of human sexuality is a natural process. As stated by
Abraham Maslow in his hierarchy of human needs, sex is a basic need. This
urge has to be addressed in a rightful manner to prevent aggravating the plight
of humanity at this point in time. The unmonitored expression of this drive can
result to the consequences that can further destroy the life and dignity of every
human person with the possible proliferation of sexually transmitted diseases
due to promiscuity.
REFERENCES:
Diversity of Sexual behavior. 379-385; Module 36: Sexual Difficulties. 389-
391
Fisher, H. (2004). Why We Love: The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic
Love. Chapter 3: Chemistry of Love. 51-76; Chapter 4: Web of Love: Lust,
Love and Attachment. 77-98.
Frankl, V. (1959) Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy.
Especially Part 2: Basic Concepts of Logotherapy. 149-210.Gibbs et. Al.
(2006) Self Presentation in online
Understanding Psychology. 8th ed. McGraw Hill. Module 34: Understanding
Human Sexual Response. 369-375; Module
38
CHAPTER II
LESSON III: The Material/Economic Self
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

1. develop understanding about the material self;
3. appraise one’s self in terms of motives in acquiring material
possessions; and
4. develop qualities of a wise buyer.
READINGS:
The Material Self
The American philosopher and psychologist, William James (1979),

considered the self as anything that an individual considers to be his or hers, not
only his or her body and material possessions but also his or her reputation and
beliefs. The self constitutes the material self and the manifestation of one’s
identity through his material possessions.
The material self entails two subclasses such as the bodily self and the
extracorporeal self or beyond the body self. The bodily component as the term
suggests refers to the entities comprising our bodies. For instance, someone may
speak of his/her head, eyes, and hands which form part of his/her physical body.
Rosenberg (1979) regarded the extracorporeal self as the extended self. The
extended self includes other people (e.g. my parents), pets (my puppy),
possessions (my phone), places (my hometown), and the products of our labor
(my recipe). Thus, it is not merely the physical entities which encompass the
material self but the tangible objects, people or places carrying the designation
my or mine.
James (1979) added that an entity can be identified as part of the self
through our emotion and/or action towards it. If we pay much attention or work
hard towards that entity, we can conclude that the entity is part of the self. As
James wrote:
“A man’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his, not only
his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house,
his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation
and works, his lands and horses, and yacht and bank account. All
these things give him the same emotions. If they wax and
prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and die away, he
39
feels cast down, --not necessarily in the same degree for each
thing, but in much the same way for all.” An equally instinctive
impulse drives us to collect property; and the collections thus
become, with different degrees of intimacy, parts of our
empirical selves. The parts of our wealth most intimately ours
are those which are saturated with our labor. ... and although it
is true that a part of our depression at the loss of possessions is
due to our feeling that we must now go without certain goods
that we expected the possessions to bring in their train, yet in
every case there remains, over and above this, a sense of the
shrinkage of our personality, a partial conversion of ourselves to
nothingness, which is a psychological phenomenon by itself. (p.
293)
The Role of Material Possessions on the Sense of Self and Identity
Possessions are considered as the extended versions of oneself;

whereas, material possessions tell something of the personality and social values
of those who own them.
Ø Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people
have, they remain valuable because these possessions are symbolic
of one’s social status. The more expensive they are; the more other
people are impressed.
Ø Russel Belk (1988) in his work “Are We What We Own?”, suggests
that material possessions act as an objective manifestation of the
self. Material possessions can be a reflection of hard work and
success.
Ø Normally, people tend to measure success through the amount of their
material possessions. Owning material possessions becomes a
driving force in urging an individual to seek a high level of
achievement in order to be able to acquire more possessions.
Ø However, the lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to
one’s mental health.
Ø People tend to judge others through their material possessions.
Ø Materialism – refers to giving more importance to material
possessions than intangible values.
40
Ø Materialistic person – one who is excessively concerned with the
acquisition of material possessions.
Ø The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological

dysfunction or impairment in functioning such as compulsive buying
disorder (CBD) which is characterized by an obsession with shopping
and buying behaviors that can cause adverse consequences.
Ø Lack or loss of these material possessions could lead to anxiety,
insecurity, and depression in people who are overly materialistic.
In relation to the Theory of Meaning of Material Possessions, Dittmar
(1992, 2004) suggested that material goods can fulfill a range of instrumental,
social, symbolic and affective functions. Individuals buy and use material goods
depending on their specific functions.
1. Instrumental functions relate to the functional properties of a product.
e.g. Jake bought a four-wheeler closed van for the delivery of their
merchandise
2. Social symbolic functions signify personal qualities, social standing,
group affiliation and gender roles.
e.g. Using branded bags and shoes
3. Categorical functions refer to the extent to which material
possessions may be used to communicate group membership and status.
e.g. Wearing organizational shirt
4. Self-expressive functions reflect a person’s unique qualities, values or
attitudes.
e.g. Collecting items with Panda designs
In terms of the economic self, people buy goods not only because they
need them but also because of the joy and happiness the goods give by merely
having of acquiring them. The emotion that an individual expects to feel when
doing or buying something is called the anticipated affect. The anticipated
positive effect like excitement, pride, and happiness as well as the negative
affect such as anger, sadness, and frustration are important predicates of whether
to buy or not to buy the product. In other words, these emotions can be a strong
motivator or barrier for the buying behavior of people.
The Role of Consumer Culture on our Sense of Self and Identity
❏ It is a social system in which consumption is dominated by the

consumption of commercial products.
41
❏ Consumer culture denotes a social arrangement in which the relations
between lived culture and social resources, and between meaningful
ways of life and the symbolic and material resources on which they
depend on, are mediated through markets.
❏ The consumption of market-made commodities and desire-inducing
marketing symbols is central to consumer culture.
❏ A consumerist society is one in which people spend a great deal of time,
money, and energy to “consume” commercial products, goods, and
services.
❏ Consumerism is the consumption of material goods and services in
excess of one’s basic needs. It is closely tied to materialism. Both
heavily influence the way individuals view the self.
❏ The state of needs and wants tends to be endless, and thus could cause
negative effects such as dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and depression.
❏ Karl Marx’s theory of the alienation of workers within a capitalist
system stresses that consumerist urges become a social force separate
from the individual and operating independently.
❏ Products and brands become the force that propels and reproduces
norms, social relations, and the general structure of society.
❏ The dominant worldview, values, and culture are inspired by disposable
and empty consumption.
Regardless of your intention in purchasing, keep these two things in

mind when acquiring goods. Consider its utility to ensure that the product serves
a practical purpose; and, remember its significance and be aware of how the
objects become powerful symbols or icons of habit ritual.
Below are various ways to appreciate our own uniqueness and be genuinely
joyous about it.
1. Learn to share your blessings no matter how simple it is

2. Improve your self-esteem and self-worth by engaging in worthwhile
activities
3. Learn to communicate and relate with people around you
4. Take time to appreciate the beauty of life and God’s creations
5. Be grateful to those who compliment you by returning the favor
6. Focus on your strengths and not on your flaws
7. Stop projecting on media accounts about what you have and others do not
8. Learn to let go of things that are not significantly needed
9. Develop a mantra to counter the negativities entering your thoughts
42
10. Stop brewing on negativities and on hurtful past. Focus on the future and
what you can do to be productive and happy
ADDITIONAL READINGS
https://prezi.com/p/rtcf6o40smhy/the-materialeconomic-
self/
https://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/452/452_chapter_02.p
df
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QF3_dFo_yp8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=54SF9o27-Xw
REFERENCES:
Antonova, N. (2014). Economic Identity and Professional Self-
Determination.
Retrieved from https://www.atiner.gr/journals/social/2014-1-1-6-
Antonova.pdf
Alata, E., Caslib, B., Serafica, J. & Pawilen, R. (2018). Understanding the
self.
Manila: Rex Book Store.
Cole, N. (2019). What does consumerism mean. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/consumerism-definition-3026119
Go-Monilla, M. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the self. Quezon
City: C & E Publishing
Maderazo, S. (2017, September 28). Material self and economic self.
Retrieved
from:https://www.scribd.com/presentation/360154947/MATERIAL-SELF-
ECONOMIC-SELF-ppt
43

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WORK TEXT IN GE 09

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

LESSON IV PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

● William James (1842–1910) was one of the first to postulate a theory

Example: Right now as you are reading about

- The Preconscious: The preconscious contains information that is just

Example: Right now think of your middle name. That is an example of

Example: Things in your unconscious would be forgotten negative

 The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Reflexive Stage Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking.

Primary Reflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition

Secondary Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting

Coordination of Responses become coordinated into more complex

Tertiary Discovery of new ways to produce the same

Invention of Evidence of an internal representational system.

The Preoperational Period (2-7 years)

Increased use of verbal representation but speech is

Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. The

In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show

Period of Concrete Operations (7-12 years)

Period of Formal Operations

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.

He described something known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD),

Diagram to demonstrate the

 L1 – General verbal instruction (“Very good! Now try that again.”)

The Woods & Middleton

Vygotsky provided a very influential theory which provided a meaningful social

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

II. True self

III. Ideal Self -concept

1. Cosmological unity 1. Feeling oneself as an element of the

● HOLISTIC approach – all ● More focused on INDIVIDUAL

"Though he should live a hundred

 THE CONCEPT OF SELF IN THE CONFUCIAN

LESSON I THE PHYSICAL SELF

 The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self Esteem

 Cultural Traditions Can Help or Hurt

 The Impact of Western Culture

 Culture Is Just One Factor

Published on July 18, 2015.

 In the Sex of the Beholder

 So here’s the timeless message of psychological science: Be beautiful—

PROMOTING PHYSICAL IMAGE

The physical self is a significant component in one’s image and

1. Taking regular bath or shower

1. Maintain a regular oral care

1. For the Gentleman

Proper Bearing and Posture

1. Proper Nutrition – diet or what we regularly eat and drink provides

a) Carbohydrates – provide our body with energy

Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are

An organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring.

The excitement phase (also known as the arousal phase or initial

The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm.

Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response

Understanding “The Chemistry of Love: lust, attraction, and attachment ”

THE SCIENCE OF LOVE

Gender and Sexual Diversity

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

The American philosopher and psychologist, William James (1979),

Possessions are considered as the extended versions of oneself;

Ø The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological