Communication System

Engr. Haseeb Ahmad Khan

E-Mail: haseebkhan@uetmardan.edu.pk

1
Chapter # 2

2
 Chapter-2

• Signals and systems

• Size of signal
• Classification of signals
• Signal operations
• The unit impulse function
• Correlation
• Orthogonal signals
• Trigonometric Fourier Series
• Exponential Fourier Series

3
 Signals and systems
• A signal is a any time-varying quantity of information or data.

• Here a signal is represented by a function g(t) of the independent time

variable t. Only one-dimensional signals are considered here.

• Signals are processed by systems.

• "A system is composed of regularly interacting or interrelating groups of

activities/parts which, when taken together, form a new whole."
(from Wikipedia)

• Here a system is an entity that processes an input signal g(t) to produce a

new output signal h(t).

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 Size of Signals
The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity
• Energy
The energy Eg of a signal g(t) can be calculated by the formula

For complex valued signal g(t) it can be written as

The energy is finite only, if

5
 Size of Signals (cont…)

• Power
The power Pg of a signal g(t) can be calculated by the formula

For complex valued signal g(t) it can be written as

The power represents the time average(mean) of the signal amplitude squared. It is
finite only if the signal is periodic or has statistical regularity.

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 Size of Signals (cont…)

• Examples for signals with finite energy (a) and finite power (b):

• Remark:
• The terms energy and power are not used in their conventional sense as
electrical energy or power, but only as a measure for the signal size.

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 Classification of signals
1) Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2) Analog and digital signals
3) Periodic and aperiodic signals
4) Energy and power signals
5) Deterministic and random signals
6) Causal vs. Non-causal signals

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 Classification of signals
Continuous time (CT) and discrete time (DT) signals

CT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent

variable that ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as x(t).

DT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent

variable that ranges over the integers and are denoted as x[n].

Note the use of parentheses and square brackets to distinguish between CT

and DT signals.

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 Classification of signals
Analog continuous time signal x(t)

Analog discrete time signal x[n]

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 Classification of signals
Digital continuous time signal

Digital discrete time signal

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 Classification of signals
periodic and aperiodic signals

Examples:

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Classification of signals

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Classification of signals

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 Classification of signals
Energy and Power Signals

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 Classification of signals
Remarks:
• A signal with finite energy has zero power.
• A signal can be either energy signal or power signal, not both.
• A signal can be neither energy nor power e.g. ramp signal

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 Classification of signals
Deterministic and Random signals
• A signal g(t) is called deterministic, if it is completely known and
can be described mathematically

• A signal g(t) is called random, if it can be described only by

terms of probabilistic description, such as
– distribution
– mean value (The average or expected value)
– squared mean value (The expected value of the squared
error)
– standard deviation (The square root of the variance)

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 Classification of signals
Causal vs. Non-causal signals
A causal signal is zero for t < 0 and an non-causal signal is
zero for t > 0 or
A causal signal is any signal that is zero prior to time zero.
Thus, if x(n) denotes the signal amplitude at time (sample) n,
the signal x is said to be causal if x(n)=0 for all n< 0

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 Classification of signals

Right- and left-sided signals

A right-sided signal is zero for t < T and a left-sided signal is
zero for t > T where T can be positive or negative.

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 Classification of signals
Even signals xe(t) and odd signals xo(t) are defined as
xe(t) = xe(−t) and xo(−t) = −xo(t).

If the signal is even, it is composed of cosine waves. If the signal

is odd, it is composed out of sine waves. If the signal is neither
even nor odd, it is composed of both sine and cosine waves.

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 Signal operations
Time Shifting

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 Signal operations (cont'd)
Time-Scaling

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 Signal operations (cont'd)

Time- Inversion/ Time-Reversal

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Unit Impulse Function

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Unit Step Function

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 Signals and Vectors
• Analogy between Signals and Vectors
• --A vector can be represented as a sum of its components
• --A Signal can also be represented as a sum of its components
• Component of a vector:
• A vector is represented by bold-face type
• Specified by its magnitude and its direction.
• E.g
Vector x of magnitude | x | and Vector g of magnitude | g |
• Let the component of vector g along x be cx
• Geometrically this component is the projection of g on x
• The component can be obtained by drawing a perpendicular from the
tip of g on x and expressed as
g = cx + e

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 Component of a Vector
• There are infinite ways to express g in terms of x

•g is represented in terms of x plus another vector which is called

the error vector e

• If we approximate g by cx

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Component of a Vector (cont..)

The error in this approximation is the vector e

e = g - cx

The error in the approximation in both cases for last figure

are

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Component of a Vector (cont..)
• We can mathematically define the component of vector g along x
• We take dot product (inner or scalar) of two vectors g and x as:

g.x = | g || x | cos 

• The length of vector by definition is

|x|² = x.x
• The length of component of g along x is
c| x | = | g | cos 
Multiply both sides by | x |
c | x | ² = | g | | x | cos  = g.x

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Component of a Vector (cont..)
Consider the first figure again and expression for c

• Let g and x are perpendicular (orthogonal)

• g has a zero component along x gives c = 0
•From equation g and x are orthogonal if the inner (scalar or
dot) product of two vectors is zero i.e.
g.x = 0 39
 Component of a Signal

• Vector component and orthogonality can be extended to signals

•Consider approximating a real signal g(t) in terms of another real
signal x(t)

The error e(t) in the approximation is given by

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 Component of a Signal
• As energy is one possible measure of signal size.
•To minimize the effect of error signal we need to minimize its
size-----which is its energy over the interval

This is definite integral with

dummy variable t
Hence function of c (not t)

For some choice of c the energy is minimum

Necessary condition

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Component of a Signal

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 Component of a Signal

•Remarkable similarity between behavior of

vectors and signals. Area under the product of two
signals corresponds to the dot product of two
vectors
Recall equation for two vectors
•The energy of the signal is the inner product of
signal with itself and corresponds to the vector
length squared (which is the inner product of the
vector with itself)
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 Component of a Signal

Consider the signal equation again:

t2
1
c
Ex
 g(t)x(t)dt
t1

• Signal g(t) contains a component cx(t)

• cx(t) is the projection of g(t) on x(t)
• If cx(t) = 0 

c=0
signal g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal over the interval  
t ,t
1 2

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 Example 2.5 Component of a Signal (cont..)

For the square signal g(t), find the component of g(t) of the form
sint or in other words approximate g(t) in terms of sint
g(t)  c sin t 0  t  2

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 Example 2.5 (cont…)

x(t)  sin t and

From equation for signals

t2
1
c
E x t1
 g(t)x(t)dt

1 2 1  2
 4
c   g(t) sin tdt  sin tdt    sin tdt 
 o  0   
4
g(t)  sin t
 46
 Orthogonality in complex signals

For complex functions of t over an interval

g(t)  cx(t)
t2 2

Ex   x(t) dt
t1
Coefficient c and the error in this case is

e(t)  g(t) cx(t)

t2 2

Ee   g(t) cx(t)
t1 47
 Orthogonality in complex signals

t2 2

Ee   g(t) cx(t)
t1

We know that:

2
 
u  v  u  v  u   v   u v  uv uv
2 2

2 2 2
t2 t2 t2
1 1
Ee   g(t)dt 
Ex
 g(t)x (t)dt  c Ex 


Ex
 g(t)x 
(t)dt
t1 t1 t1

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 Orthogonality in complex signals

t
1 2
c 
Ex t 1
g(t)x 
(t)dt

So, two complex functions are orthogonal over an interval, if

t2
x (t)x  (t)dt  0
 1 2
t1 or
t2
x (t)x (t)dt  0
 1 2
t1
40
 Energy of the sum of orthogonal
signals

•Sum of the two orthogonal vectors is equal to the sum of the

lengths of the squared of two vectors. z = x+y then

z  x  y
2 2 2

• Sum of the energy of two orthogonal signals is equal to

the sum of the energy of the two signals. If x(t) and y(t) are
orthogonal signals over the interval, t1 ,t 2  and if
z(t) = x(t)+ y(t) then
Ez  Ex  E y

41
 Correlation
Consider vectors again:
• Two vectors g and x are similar if g has a large component along x
OR

• If c has a large value, then the two vectors will be similar

c could be considered the quantitative measure of similarity between g

and x

But such a measure could be defective. The

amount of similarity should be independent of the
lengths of g and x
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 Correlation
Doubling g should not change the similarity between g and x
However:

Doubling g doubles the value of c
c is faulty measure
Doubling x halves the value of c
for similarity

•Similarity between the vectors is indicated by angle between the

vectors.
• The smaller the angle , the largest is the similarity, and vice versa
• Thus, a suitable measure would be cn  cos , given by
g.x
cn  cos  Independent of the lengths of g
g x and x 43
 Correlation
g.x
cn  cos 
g x

This similarity measure cn is known as correlation co-efficient.

The magnitude of cn is never greater than unity 1  cn  1

•Same arguments for defining a similarity index (correlation

co-efficient) for signals
• consider signals over the entire time interval
• normalize c by normalizing the two signals to have unit
energies. 1
c 
n 
g(t)x(t)dt
E g E x 
53
 Correlation
consider g(t)  kx(t)
Related signals-------Best friends
If k is positive then: cn  1

Negative then: cn  1 Dissimilarity worst enemies

If g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal then

Unrelated signals-------Strangers
cn  0

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 Example 2.6

Find the correlation co-efficient cn between the pulse x(t) and the
pulses gi (t) ,i  1,2,3,4,5,6

5 5
E x   x 2 (t)dt   dt  5 Similarly E g1  5
0 0 5
 1
 cn   dt  1
1
cn  
E g E x 
g(t)x(t)dt
5 5 0
Maximum possible similarity 55
 Example 2.6 (cont…)

5 5
E x   x 2 (t)dt   dt  5 E g2  1.25
0 0


1 5
cn  
E g E x 
g(t)x(t)dt  cn 
1
 (0.5)dt  1
1.25 5 0

Maximum possible similarity……independent of amplitude 56

 Example 2.6 (cont…)

5 5
E x   x 2 (t)dt   dt  5 Similarly E g1  5
0 0

5
 1
 (1)(1)dt  1
1
cn   g(t)x(t)dt  cn 
E g E x  5 5 0
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 Example 2.6(cont…)

Ex   x 2(t)dt   dt 5
5 5

0 0

T 2 T
1
E   (e at
) dt   e 2at
dt  (1 e2aT )
0 0
2a
1 5 t
Here a T5
1
5
Eg 4  2.1617
cn  
5 2.1617 0
e 5 dt  0.961

Reaching Maximum similarity 58

Orthogonal Signal Space

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Orthogonal Signal Space

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 Trigonometric Fourier series
Consider a signal set:
1, cos wot, cos 2wot........cos nwot,....sin wot,sin 2wot....sin nwot,....
•A sinusoid function with frequency nwo is called the nth harmonic
of the sinusoid of frequency w o when n is an integer.
• A sinusoid of frequency wo is called the fundamental
• This set is orthogonal over any interval of duration To 2
wo

because: 0 nm

 cos nwo t cos mwo tdt  T o n  m o
To  2

0
nm
sin nwo t sin mwo tdt  T o
To  2 nmo 61
 Trigonometric Fourier series
and

 sin nw
To
o t cos mwo tdt  0 for all n and m

The trigonometric set is a complete set.

Each signal g(t) can be described by a trigonometric Fourier
series over the interval To :
g ( t )  a o  a 1 cos w o t  a 2 cos 2 wo t ... t 1  t  t 1  To

 b1 sin wo t  b 2 sin 2 wo t ...

or 
g ( t )  a o   a n cos nw o t  b n sin nw o t t 1  t  t 1  To
n1

2
wn  62
To
 Trigonometric Fourier series

We determine the Fourier co-efficient a o , a n ,b n as:

t 1T

o
g ( t ) cos nw o tdt
t1
Cn  t 1T

o
cos 2 nw o tdt
t1

t 1 T o
1
a 0
T  g ( t )dt
o t1

t1 To
2
a n
T  g ( t ) cos nw o tdt n  1, 2, 3,......
o t1

t1 To

bn 
2
 g ( t )sin nw o tdt n  1, 2, 3,......
T o t1
63
 Compact Trigonometric Fourier series

Consider trigonometric Fourier series

g ( t )  a o  a 1 cos w o t  a 2 cos 2 wo t ... t 1  t  t 1  To

 b1 sin w o t  b 2 sin 2 wo t ...

It contains sine and cosine terms of the same frequency. We

can represents the above equation in a single term of the same
frequency using the trigonometry identity
a n cos nwo t  b n sin nwo t  C n cos( nwo t   n )

Cn  a n2  b n2

  bn 
 n  tan 1
 
 an 

Co  a o 64
Compact Trigonometric Fourier series


g ( t )  C 0   C n cos( nw o t   n ) t 1  t  t 1  To
n1

56
 Periodicity of the trigonometric Fourier
series

The co-efficient of the of the Fourier series are calculated for the
interval t1 ,t1  To 


 ( t )  C o   C n cos( nw o t   n ) for all t
n1

 ( t  T 0 )  C o   C n [cos( nw o ( t  T 0 )   n ]
n1


C 
o
C n
cos( nwto  2 n    n )
n 1


 C   C cos( nwt   )
o n o n for all t
n 1

  (t)
57
Periodicity of the trigonometric Fourier series

1
ao 
To To
g(t)dt

2
an 
To To
g(t) cosnwotdt n= 1,2,3,……

2
bn 
To To
g(t) sinnwtdt
o n= 1,2,3,……

 Means integration over any interval of To

To

58
 Fourier Spectrum
Consider the compact Fourier series

g(t)  C0   Cn cos(nwo t   n )
n1

This equation can represents a periodic signal g(t) of

frequencies: 0(dc), wo ,2wo ,3wo ,....., nwo
Amplitudes: C0 ,C1,C2 ,C3,......,Cn
Phases: 0,1,2 ,3 ,.....n

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 Fourier Spectrum
Frequency domain description of  ( t )

cn vs w (Amplitude spectrum)

 vs w (phase spectrum)

Time domain description of  (t )

60
Exponential Fourier series

61
Exponential Fourier series

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