IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 12, No.

3, September 1997 255

DIGITAL EXCITATION TECHNOLOGY - A REVIEW OF FEATURES, FUNCTIONS AND
BENEFITS

Digital Excitation Applications Task Force of the Excitation

Systems Subcommittee

Abstract - a Review of the current state of the art in digital
excitation control for ac synchronous generators. The
features and functions of digital excitation control systems
are discussed along with their benefits.
Keywords - Digital, Excitation Systems, Control, AVR
of the generator. The transfer functions of the various blocks
are designed to produce the desired response from the
generator. These blocks have traditionally been implemented
via analog electronic circuits. The trend in the industry today
is toward a digital implementation. The block diagram for a
simple digital excitation system is shown in figure 2.

INTRODUCTION

The methods employed to provide excitation control of

synchronous generators are evolving. There is a growing
trend toward the use of digital electronics to perform the
control and protection functions of modern excitation
systems. These digital excitation systems or automatic voltage Circuitry

regulators (AVR) are not just digital versions of their analog FIGURE 1
counterparts, but contain sophisticated control functions not
readily available in analog excitation systems. The idea of Block Diagram of an Analog Excitation System
using digital computers for excitation control is certainly not
new. Papers on the subject date back to the early 1970s[l].
The use of digital means in the primary control of excitation
systems has just recently become economically feasible.

This paper will address the features, functions and

benefits of digital excitation technology. To do this, we Will
define a basic excitation system for both analog and digital
systems, discuss some of the features unique to digital
systems, describe their function and conclude with a _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ - - I- - - -
I

comparison of the benefits of digital excitation systems. FIGURE 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM COMPARISON Block Diagram of a Digital Excitation System

The simplified block diagram of a traditional analog static
excitation system for synchronous generators is shown in
figure 1.
Figure 1 shows a reference input being compared by a
summing amplifier to a scaled sample of various generator
output variables. The summing amplifier's output is modified
by the controller, amplified and provided as an input to the
field
PE-314-EC-0-11-1996 A paper recommended and approved by
the IEEE Energy Development and Power Generation Committee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for publication in the IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion. Manuscript submitted July
25, 1996; made available forprinting November 25, 1996.
0885-8969/97/$10.00
The boxes in the dashed line are typically implemented
via digital technology, in particular by one or more embedded
microprocessors. The interface blocks, labeled A/D and DIA
are used to convert the signals from analog to digital and
digital to analog respectively.
DIGITAL EXCITATION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The reference input for a digital exciter is typically a
digital word held in the random access memory of the
microprocessor. The reference is compared to a digital word
representative of the generator's output(s). The generator
output voltage is typically used, but other variables such as
Pine current, frequency, real and reactive power, ... etc. may
also be used in the control scheme. The generator output
variables are scaled down to appropriate levels and converted
into digital words by the A/D converter. The comparison of
the controlled variables against the reference is also
0 1997 IEEE
256
accomplished digitally, by a math routine in the
microprocessor. The result is then acted upon by the control
logic, which consists of a set of equations implemented by a
series of instructions in the microprocessor’s program
memory. These instructions execute the desired control
algorithm for achieving stable operation. Classical methods
like proportional, and integral (PI) control[2] or proportional,
integral and derivative (PD) control[3] are available. In
addition, newer schemes like fuzzy logic and adaptive
COntr01[3],[4] may be utilized. The result of the controller
routine is then converted into the appropriate analog signals
to drive the power amplifier stage of the excitation system.
This may be accomplished via a D/A converter or by
generating the gate pulses for the power amplifier directly
from the microprocessor. The power amplifier stage provides
the required amount of dc voltage and current for the
generator or exciter field.
DIGITAL EXCITATION SYSTEM FEATURES AND
THEIR FUNCTION
There are many additional features available in excitation
systems, both digital and analog. We will describe some of
those features that are uniquely digital or are not commonly
available in analog excitation systems.
Sophisticated Control Algorithms - The digital systems
have the ability to implement extremely sophisticated control
equations called algorithms. These control schemes can be
non-linear, based on fuzzy sets, adaptive or any number of
other types of control. The control equation may include other
control functions as follows:
Discontinuous Excitation Control (DEC) or Transient
Excitation Control (TSEC) - A control function that boosts
excitation following severe faults on the power system. This
feature can improve post-fault stability by forcing the exciter
output voltage to ceiling for a longer period than would
normally occur under AVR control. DEC may also be used to
solve unique problems associated with a particular generation
plant or system. DEC has been used to increase generator
terminal voltage in order to prevent coolant pump motor
stalling during certain system events,
Power System Stabilizers (PSS) - A supplemental control
that changes excitation in order to dampen rotor angle
swings. This control is normally available as a separate
device in analog excitation systems. These separate PSS may
be analog or digital based. Digtal excitation systems may
have the PSS built in as part of the microprocessor’s code,
providing for a well matched system. The digital PSS control
algorithms can include sophisticated control functions that
cult to achieve with analog circuits, like auto-tuning
PSS (AT-PSS) [3],[4],[5].
VAr or Power Factor control (VArPF) - A mode of
operation that causes either the VAr output or Power Factor
of the generator to be maintained at a set value. This control
may be implemented via direct regulation of the VAr or
Power Factor setpoint or through a setpoint modifier via the
Automatic Voltage Regulator. This control is typically
available in analog systems, but is easier to implement in
digital systems and may result in better performance.
Under and Over Excitation Limiters (UEL/OEL) - Control
functions that operate to limit the level of excitation in order
to avoid overheating of the excitation control system or loss of
synchronism of the generator. These functions are typically
available in analog excitation systems as separate devices but
are typically integrated into the digital systems. The digital
implementation allows for much more sophisticated limiting
action and can be more closely matched to the generator’s
capability curve. It is also possible to take the generator’s
winding temperature into account with these sophisticated
limiters, allowing for close matching of the limiter to the
generator’s capability.
Stator Current Limiters (SCL) - Another limiting function
#at acts to limit the generator’s output current via excitation
control. These controls are normally provided as separate
devices in analog systems. Digital systems may include this
function as part of it’s normal control algorithm, providing
for better performance while in the limiting mode and
smootlker transition in and out of limiting.
-
Communications Capability Digital excitation systems
typically have some form of communications available to the
user. The simplest form is through a local key pad and
display. More complex schemes are available such as local
serial link, remote serial link, modem, local area network ...
etc. The type of data available through the communications
link includes; input values, output values, settings, internal
signals, limits, control relay status, fault conditions and so on.
The communications capability may be used to exchange data
with other controllers in the system such as the speed
governor or a supervisory controller.
The communicationsfeature could allow the direct control
of the excitation systems relays to allow the user to force
specific states of operation.
Static Set-point Adjusters - The digital systems typically
work with digital quantities for the various controlled
parameters, such as generator terminal voltage, manual
excitation level, VAr or Power Factor set-point... and so on.
The changing of these parameters is easily accomplished via
a remote raise / lower contact input to the microprocessor or
direct downloading from the generating plant computer.
Typical analog systems use low level analog voltages for the
controlled parameters and thus require motor operated

controls or separate static set-point adjusters for remote
adjustment.
-
Data Recording The ability to record various parameters
associated with the excitation system. These parameters may
be inputs to the excitation system such as generator quantities
or they may be internal to the excitation system such as power
system stabilizer contribution. This feature may provide data
directly from the excitation system to an external data
recorder via D/A converters or do the recording internally via
a circular data recorder[2]. The data recorder may have
features like built in filters and zero suppression to display
data in an offset form. Figure 3 shows an example of such a
recorder.
Circular List Record of PSS Response Test
75 MVA Hydraulic Unit
1.0, 1
Time (seconds)
FIGURE 3
Circular List Record of PSS Response Test on a Fully Loaded
Hydraulic Unit
The circular nature of this feature allows it to continually
record the selected parameters, then, once a trigger signal is
recognized, continue to record for a pre-selected length of
time. The trigger may be a forced event or triggered from a
system disturbance. The data is held in the memory circuits.
This data may include the system parameters prior to and
including the moment of the event. This feature is available
on analog excitation systems but only as a separate device.
The digital system has the ability to include this feature along
with its standard complement of hardware.
257
Metering - Most analog systems require external devices
for metering of the various system parameters. Digital
systems can provide the display of various generator system
parameters that are not normally available on analog systems
without including some additional transducers. The excitation
system may be data linked to a main computer to provide
these metering quantities, thus reducing the wiring required
for the metering function.
DIGITAL EXCITATION SYSTEMS BENEFITS
Digital systems have many advantages over the analog
systems of the past. Digital systems are relatively immune to
component value variations, and the problems associated with
component aging and temperature drift. Any drift or variation
in control signals usually occurs when they are still in analog
format. Once the signals are digitized, they are no longer
susceptible to component variations.
Digital systems provide much more information and
control capability than most analog systems. Many of the
features mentioned are also available in analog excitation
systems but the increased accuracy and precision of digital
implementation is where the benefits lie. These features are
typically included in the digital excitation system or are easily
added. Due to the reduced cost of digital implementation,
these types of controls are being used more frequently. The
implementation of these controls internal to the basic
excitation system enhances the performance over the older
analog systems, which typically used separate modules. The
addition of these controls does not reduce reliability since
additional hardware is not required to implement them.
Protection is easily achieved by utilizing a second processor
running the same algorithm but with setpoints slightly
relaxed from the main processor. When the cost of a digital
excitation system is compared to an analog system, the cost
per function is typically lower for the digital system,
providing more value to the purchaser.
-
Self Test and System Test Digital excitation systems
typically contain on-board test features. These features can
benefit the user by early detection of a problem and result in
safe and orderly shut down of failed portions of the excitation
system. Many systems also include system test features. AVR
“step of reference”[2] and other system jogging features are
typically available to allow tuning with minimal additional
equipment.
Off Line Set-up - Digital excitation systems, because of
their precise and accurate control of system parameters, may
be set-up without the need for the generator or sophisticated
test sets. Since the controlled parameter is often defined in
engineering units, like volts or amps, or in per unit or percent
of full scale value, the set up of a fbction is easily
accomplished via a computer interface. The user may simply
25 8
plug a remote terminal or computer into the excitation system
e various parameters prior to the actual
s feature reduces the time to commission
Representation of Digital-Based Excitation Systems”,
presented at the 1996 IEEEPES Winter Meeting, Baltimore,
MD, January 21 25, 1996.
~

a given excitation system. The use of per unit values allows

easy coordination of limiter setpoints. Setpoints may be -
[7] IEEE Std. 421.5 1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for
cataloged via self documentationfeatures. Excitation System Models for Power System Stability Studies.

System Security - The security of excitation system set-

oints is many times a concern. Digital systems offer many
styles of setpoint security from simple front panel lock-outs
to sophisticated multi-level security codes.

-
Models Models of various digital excitation systems are
described in recently published literature[6] and the
IEEERES Excitation Systems Subcommittee is planned to
incorporate these models into a future revision of
IEEE42 1.5[7].

Traditional excitation systems have utilized analog

electronics. Technology has evolved such that, digital
lementation of excitation systems is now possible. The
features found in excitation system can be implemented via
either technology. Digital excitation has become the choice
for large, complex multi-featured systems and the trend is
toward digital implementation for smaller, simpler systems.

NCES
il1K.J. Runtz, A.S.A. Farag, D.W. Huber, G.S. Hope, Q.P.
Mal&, “Digital Control Scheme for a Generating Unit”, IEEE
Transacactions PAS, Vol PAS-92(2), MarcWApril 1973, pp 478
- 483.
[2] M.J. D’Antonio, R.A. Lawson, W.R. Pearson, G.W.
Speer, M.L. Crenshaw, A. Murdoch, “A Digital-Based
Excitation System for Generator Voltage Control”, Presented
at the 1991 American Power Conference, Chicago, IL,April
29-May 1, 1991.

[ 3 ] H. Herzog, H. Baumberger, “Digital Control of

Generators”, Publication No. CH-4UE90006 E, Asea Brown
Boveri.

a, Y. Tone, K. Takagi, H. Murakami, M.

amura, U. Takagi, “Digital AVR Application
to Power Plants”, presented at the 1992 IEEEPES Winter
Meeting, New York, New York, January 26 - 30, 1992.

[SI K.E. Bollinger, L. Nettleton, T. Greenwood-Madsen, M.

Salyzyn, “Experience with Digital Power System Stabilizers
ro Generating Stations”, IEEE Trans. on
Energy Conversion, June 1993, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 172-177.

161 Digital Excitation Task Force of the IEEERES Excitation

Systems Subcommittee, “Computer Models for