DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Computer Applications in Power System (ECEg4242)
Chapter One: Introduction
Target year: Fifth Year, Summer Program

Prepared by Getalem K.(MSc.)

June 2022 G.C
Outlines
Introduction

Computers tasks in power systems

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Power System Controls

Automatic Generation Control
Automatic Voltage Regulator

Transmission system development

Optimal power flow

Interactive power system analysis 2

 Introduction
The main purpose of an electric power system is to efficiently generate,
transmit, and distribute electric energy. The modern interconnected power
systems are complex networks, with several thousand buses and components.

The manual calculation of the performance indices is time consuming.

The computational efforts are very much simplified in the present day
calculations due to the availability of efficient programs and powerful computers.

The tools are used for power system analysis such as digital computer (used in
power system calculations such as power flow, stability, short circuit and
similar studies). 3
 Contd..
In order of increasing processing requirements the main application of computer
involved in the management of electrical energy systems are as follows:
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA).
Generation control such as automatic voltage control (AGC),automatic load
frequency control ( ALFC),economic dispatch (ED),etc.
Generation scheduling such as outage scheduler, load forecasting, unit commitment.
Network monitoring such as contingency analysis, state estimation, security
monitoring, etc.
Network analysis and security control such as transfer capability, short circuit
analysis, voltage security assessment, optimal power flow, etc.
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 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
The energy management system (EMS) exercises overall control over the total system.
 The SCADA system is a computer monitoring and control system that can be used to
supervise, control, optimize, and manage generation and interconnected transmission
systems.
The distribution automation and control (DAC) system includes the distribution and
connected loads. Automatic monitoring and control features have long been a part of the
SCADA system.
Automation has become a part of the overall EMS, including the distribution system.

Typical computer processing requirements of SCADA systems are 1-2 millions of

instructions per second (MIPS).
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 Advantages of SCADA in power systems
Some of the advantages are as follows:

1. Optimizing performance, to minimize errors by accurately measuring data and increasing the
overall efficiency of the system.

2. Lower operating costs, as there is less personnel involvement due to automation.

3. Increased reliability, as the system can be operated with less severe contingencies and the
outages are addressed quickly.

4. Optimized system operation, as optimization algorithms can be run and appropriate

performance parameters chosen.

5. Reduced human influence and errors, as the values are accessed automatically, and the meter
reading and related errors are avoided.

6. Reduced maintenance cost, as the maintenance can be more effectively done (transition from
time-based to condition-based maintenance) with continuous monitoring of the equipment.
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 Power System Controls
An electrical power system normally operates under steady-state condition (
maintain a power balance in the system).

Under steady-state operation, both the system frequency and bus voltages
are maintained at prescribed constant values.

In reality, the system is never under steady state as the active and reactive
power load demands of the system are never steady but are continually
changing with increase or fall in load demand.
Thus the power output of generators must be adjusted at all times so that
the power balance is maintained.
 ...Cont’d
In a conventional AC power system the most of the controllability exists at
generating stations.
For example, generators called spinning reserves maintain an instantaneous
balance between power demand and power supply.
 Conventional control mechanisms such as Automatic Generation Control and
Excitation Control exists at generating stations.
At power-transmission capacity of lines, traditional use of shunt and series
impedances was hinted.
Phase-shifting transformer and Transformer Tap-Changer Control :Their speed of
operation is generally slow, and frequent operations result in electrical and mechanical
wear and tear. Instead, by using high-speed semiconductor switches: 8
 ...Cont’d
The active power delivered by a generator is changed by controlling the
mechanical power output of a prime mover such as a steam turbine, hydro-turbine,etc.
In case of a steam or hydro-turbine, the mechanical power(active power) is controlled by opening
(by opening wider/and smaller) or closing of valves regulating input of steam or water flow
into the turbine.
The active power imbalance is sensed through the change in generator speeds and/or frequency.
The control signals action for causing appropriate valve opening or closing action automatically
is provided by governor-controlled mechanism.

 The load frequency control (LFC) loop is employed for controlling the real
power and frequency.
 LFC system is also sometimes referred to as automatic generation control (AGC) system.
 ...Cont’d
The real and reactive powers controlled loops are separately (do not
interfere each other).Why?

The AVR loop is much faster than the LFC loop. Why?

Schematic block diagram of AVR and LFC of a synchronous generator shown

figure below:

 AGC=AVR+LFC

 Different time constant (𝝉)

𝝉(gen−field) ≠ 𝝉(speed−

governor) .
 Automatic Generation Control
If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the
generator can adjust the input of the steam or water to the new load.

System frequency control is more relevant to active power control while

voltage control is more related to reactive power control.

As system load is continuously changing, the output of the generation adjusted
automatically to restore the frequency to the normal value. This scheme is
known as the automatic generation control (AGC).

One way to restore the speed or frequency to its normal is to add an integrator
and the integral action also known as the rest action.
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 ...Cont’d
The first step in the analysis and design of control system is mathematical
modeling of the system. The transfer function model is obtained for the
components such as generator model, load model, prime mover model, governor.

Generator model:

Generator block diagram

Swing equation of synchronous generator

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 ...Cont’d
The first step in the analysis and design of control system is mathematical
modeling of the system.

The transfer function model is obtained for the components such load model.

 Load model: The loads on a power system consist of a variety of electrical

devices. Some of them are purely resistive, some are sensitive to the changes in
frequency. The relationship between the change in load due to the change in
frequency is given by:

13
 ...Cont’d
The first step in the analysis and design of control system is mathematical
modeling of the system.

Applying transfer function model for prime mover model.

The prime mover driving a generator unit may be a steam turbine or a hydro
turbine.

“Charging time” time constant=𝝉𝑻 and per unit change in valve position
from nominal=𝜟𝑷𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 =𝜟𝑷𝑽 Block diagram

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 ...Cont’d
The first step in the analysis and design of control system is mathematical modeling
of the system. Applying transfer function model for governor model:

Any load change would be a speed change sufficient to cause the frequency-sensitive
load to exactly compensate for the load change.

Adjusts the input valve to change the mechanical power output to compensate for load
changes and to restore frequency to nominal value.

The speed governor has two inputs:

Change in the reference power setting, ∆𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇
Change in the speed of the generator,∆𝝎

 The earliest mechanism used rotating “fly-balls”. 15

 ...Cont’d
Speed Governing Control Mechanism: It includes all equipment such as levers

and linkages, servomotors, amplifying devices and relays that are placed between

the speed governor and the governor controlled valves.

Speed Changer: It enables the speed governor system to adjust the speed of the

generator unit while in operation.

AGC system computer studies requiring processing power capabilities (of the

order of 0.1 millions of instructions per second ). 16

 AGC in a Single-Area (Isolated) System
The first step in the analysis and design of control system is mathematical
modeling of the system. The transfer function model is obtained for the
components such as generator model, load model, prime mover model, governor.

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 ...Cont’d
Proportional (P),Derivative(D),Integral(I),PID controllers also used for control of frequency
error or used to eliminate steady state frequency error and to maintain stability.
 But in these control methods the peak overshoot, peak undershoot and settling times are
more. If these factors are more then the system will be damage or the system becomes unstable.
To reduce above mentioned factors Artificial Intelligent Techniques such as Fuzzy Logic
Controllers, Genetic Algorithms, Neuro-Fuzzy Intelligent Controller,etc.

Area Control Error: is a signal which is the function of frequency and tie-power deviation.
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 Contd..
The basic objectives of power system operation during normal operating
conditions associated with AGC:
Matching total system generation to total system load (this task is met to governor
speed control; turbine speed governors respond proportionally to local frequency
deviations).
Regulating system electrical frequency error to zero (This task is associated with the
regulation function, or load-frequency control).
Distributing system generation among control areas, so that net area tie flows
match net area tie flow schedules (the task similar to the second bullet list).
Distributing area generation among area generation sources so that area operating
costs are minimized (this task is associated with the economic dispatch function).19
 Excitation Control
Excitation means the production of flux by passing current in the field winding.

The amount of excitation required depends on the load current, load power factor and speed of the
machine.

The more excitation is needed in the system when the load current is large, the speed is less, and the
power factor of the system becomes lagging.

 The excitation system is mainly classified into three types. They are:

1.DC Excitation System: where the exciter is a DC generator, often on the same axis as the rotor.
2.AC Excitation System: where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
i. Rotor Excitation System
ii. Brushless Excitation System
3.Static Excitation System: where the exciting current is fed from a controlled rectifier.
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 ...Cont’d
The basic function of an exciter is to provide a dc source for field excitation of
a synchronous generator.

A control on exciter voltage results in controlling the field current, which, in

turn, controls the generated voltage (to control the excitation voltage).

The excitation control causes the reactive power output to change.

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 ...Cont’d
The control of the voltage level in a power system is an important aspect. Practically all the
equipment in operation in a power system are designed for rated, nameplate voltage rating.

 The performance of the device suffers if the voltage deviates from that value and its life is reduced.

Reactive power flow depends mainly on the line-end voltages, which can thus become a means of
controlling active power loss (𝑰𝟐 𝑹).

There are different methods of voltage control in a power system:

 Excitation control of generators can effectively maintain the voltage at the generator buses.
 Static Var Compensator (SVC) has the capability of continuously injecting or draining reactive power from a bus.
 Synchronous condensers when connected to a bus can control reactive power fed to the bus.
 Tap-changing transformers are also installed for control of voltage,etc.

Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop is used for regulating the reactive power and voltage
magnitude.
 ...Cont’d
 In single area power system the increase in load demand while keeping the supply constant will lead to load shedding or in
worst cases the system may lose synchronism and black out may happen.

 In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the function of the AGC is only to
bring the frequency to the nominal value (How to solve this problem).

 Connecting other area system interconnected power systems to maintain the tie-line power at the scheduled
value, keep the frequency of both areas at the nominal value and controlling the supply of power from one area to
the other (Solution of the above problem).

 In a two-area system each area tends to reduce it is area control error (ACE) to zero, the ACE is given by this equation:

 Advantages of Multi-area power system:

 Reliability.
 Optimization of generation.
 Continuity of supply
 Transmission system development
Transmission lines have two primary objectives:
To transmit electrical energy from the generators to the load centers within a single utility, and
To provide paths for electrical energy to flow between utilities (i.e. tie lines).

The factors affecting transmission growth, especially voltage levels are:

Load growth (the growth in loads is being met by building transmission lines).

Generation siting (in urban areas, it is almost impossible to acquire new generating
sites because of environmental concerns and the unavailability of suitable land).

Ecology (minimization of the biological and visual impact dictates a thorough study of
the compatibility of alternative transmission routes with the various tower types and
terrain types). Reliability, Government,etc. 24
 Contd..
Until recently, active- and reactive-power control in AC transmission networks was exercised
by carefully adjusting transmission line impedances, as well as regulating terminal voltages by
generator excitation control and by transformer tap changers.

At times, series and shunt impedances were employed to effectively change line impedances.

The new controller technology such as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS )

devices was triggered by the development of new solid-state electrical switching devices.

In long distance bulk power transmission, DC transmission is always an alternative to be

considered over AC transmission: HVDC transmission;
 Acceptable variation of voltage over the transmission distance and expected loading levels.

 Need to maintain stability, that is, synchronous operation across the transmission, after a
disturbance, both transiently and dynamically. 25
 Contd..
The two computer programs; Power and Transthetics, have been developed
to aid the planner in transmission route identification and selection.

The Power computer program can be used to locate not only transmission line
corridors, but also other types of corridors.

The Transthetics computer program is specifically designed for electrical

utilities for the purpose of identifying and selecting potential transmission line
corridors and purchasing the necessary rights of way.

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 Optimal power flow
Optimal power flow (OPF) or optimal load flow is the power flow with
optimization (minimize or maximize)a predefined objective function
subjected to a certain system constraints (optimizing an objective function).

The objective function commonly found in OPF problems formulation are:

1. Minimum generation cost: The objective function expressed as follows:

NG

TF=Min σ𝑵𝑮
𝒊=𝟏 𝑭𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 where , P
i 1
G (i )
 P load (i )  P loss (i )

Subject to the equality constraints (load flow balance equation):

     0
NG

P P
i G (i )
 P load (i )   V i V j Y ij cos ij ij
j 1 i

     0
NG

Q Q Q   V i V j Y ij sin ij ij 27
i G (i ) load ( i )
j 1 i
 Contd..
2. Minimum transmission loss
3. Minimum emissions
4. Minimum number of controls scheduled
Subject to the inequality constraints:

V V V ........ j  1,2,.......NB
j (min) j j (max)

f i(min)  f j  f i(max)........i  1,2,.......NG / NL

where 𝑵𝑳 and 𝑁𝐺 are the number of load and generator buses respectively. The nodal
voltages are taken as independent variables. If there are n no. of buses, n = 𝑁𝐿 + 𝑁𝐺
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 Multi-objective optimal power flow
In general, a large scale power system possesses multiple objectives to be achieved.
 The ideal power system operation is achieved when various objectives like, cost of
generation, system transmission loss, environment pollution etc. are simultaneously
attained with minimum values.
Multi-objective planning has the following advantages:
 Multi-objective programming and planning promotes more appropriate roles for the
participants in the planning and decision-making process.
 A wider range and alternatives are usually identified.
The power system analyst’s perception of a problem will be more realistic if many
objectives are considered. 29
 Contd..
The three aspects of the optimal power flow problem considered are:
To minimise the cost of generation
To minimise the system transmission loss
To minimise the environmental pollution
Some of the multi-objective techniques are listed as follows:
Weighting Method
Non-inferior Set Estimation Method
Minimum Distance Method
Surrogate Worth Trade-off Technique
Sequential Goal Programming
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 ...Cont’d
The OPF problem can be described as the cost of minimization of real power
generation in an interconnected system where real and reactive power,
transformer taps, and phase-shift angles are controllable and a wide range of
inequality constraints are imposed.

OPF studies provide an effective tool for reactive power management and for
assessing the effectiveness of FACTS device from the point view of steady state
operation conditions of power system networks.

The ultimate goal is to have the security-constrained scheduling calculation

initiated, completed and dispatched to the power system entirely automatically
without human intervention. 31
 Interactive power system analysis
Interactive Power System Analysis (IPSA) is the first power system analysis
software to have a graphical user interface.

Until, International Business Machines (IBM) introduced the PC/AT in 1984 it was out
of the question to use a PC to perform power system analyses.

Recent advances in graphics devices in terms of speed, resolution, color, reduced

costs and improved reliability have enhanced the interactive capabilities and made
the designer’s task more effective and attractive.

The full potential of interactive analysis on the PC is still some how limited by the
resolution of typical displays available on the PC today, though this problem can be
overcome to some extent by the use of zooming and panning techniques. 32
 Contd..
Method of power system analysis with the aid of a personal computer and
software tools such as:

MATLAB (MATrix LABarotary)

PowerFactory DIgSILENT (DIgital SImuLation and Electrical NeTwork)

ETAP(Electrical Transient Analyzer Program)

PSAT (Power System Analysis Toolbox)

POWER WORLD (Power World Simulator)

PSS/E(Power System Simulation for Engineers),etc.

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Thanks For Your Attention !!!

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