REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET POPULAIRE

MINISTERE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR ET DE LA RECHERCHE

SCIENTIFIQUE

UNIVERSITY YAHIA FARES MEDEA

Technology faculty

Meni-Project

Specialty: Electronics

Solar capture & Photovoltaic cells

And a baisic solar tracker
Presented by:

Ayache Sidali

Esselimani Mohamed Chaker

Hachelfi Mohamed Khiredine

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 OBJECTIVES

The project was carried out to satisfy two main objectives:

Design a system that tracks the solar UV light for solar panels.

Prove that the sun tracking indeed increases the efficiency considerably.

The range of increase in efficiency is expected to be between 30 and 40

percent.

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 INTRODUCTION

There can be no denying in the fact that solar energy is an effective source of
power, one that is going to serve us for long. Despite the need to harness this
energy, very little research has been conducted to make photovoltaic cells
cost effective and thereby available for utilization by masses for their
various devices. Photovoltaic cells use sunlight and convert it directly to
electricity without leaving any residual elements that can pollute the
environs, and is therefore believed to be energy source that could be
available to mankind. Besides being used in power generation, photovoltaic
cells find applications in other non -space application programs. The ability
of solar cells to help produce significant quantities of hydrogen, which has
been difficult to produce on a substantial scale till now, is an encouraging
sign as it indicates the possibility that hydrogen could be used as an
alternative fuel source in future. Given this scenario, many people wonder
why the scientific community is not aggressively promoting this naturally
and abundantly available energy source. The fact is that the overall picture is
not as sunny as it appears on the surface. The economics of generating solar
power is a severe drawback and till date the efficiency levels have been far
from satisfactory, till now scientists seem to have maintained the
unidirectionality of their research and focused only on single-crystal silicon
cells, the efficiency of which is ridiculously low. Therefore, research funds,
by and large, have been used for costly and inefficient silicon cells and seem
to hold little promise even in the future. Extensive research on non-silicon
based cells is the need of the hour as fossil fuels like petrol will be exhausted
soon. But what sure holds promising is use of solar tracking systems which
has shown us from time to time, improvement in the efficiency speaking
statistically. In the case where solar cells are used for conversion of solar
energy into electricity, maximum efficiency is possible when solar panels
are held perpendicular to the sun’s rays where tracking comes into picture.
Trackers are devices used to change the orientation of the PV panels towards
the sun to capture maximum energy. There are many types of trackers
available which are prominently divided based on their mounts and drive

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types which are further discussed below. The graphs below give a clear
comparison about the efficiency of solar panel equipped with tracking
system to that without tracking system.

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 CHAPTER-1
PROJECT REVIEW

A solar tracker is a device used for orienting a photovoltaic array solar panel
or for concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun. The position of the
sun in the sky is varied both with seasons and time of day as the sun moves
across the sky. Solar powered equipment work best when they are pointed at
the sun. Therefore, a solar tracker increases how efficient such equipment are
over any fixed position at the cost of additional complexity to the system.
There are different types of trackers.

Extraction of usable electricity from the sun became possible with the
discovery of the photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development of the
solar cell. The solar cell is a semiconductor material which converts visible
light into direct current. Through the use of solar arrays, a series of solar cells
electrically connected; there is generation of a DC voltage that can be used on
a load. There is an increased use of solar arrays as their efficiencies become
higher. They are especially popular in remote areas where there is no
connection to the grid. Photovoltaic energy is that which is obtained from the
sun. A photovoltaic cell, commonly known as a solar cell, is the technology
used for conversion of solar directly into electrical power. The photovoltaic
cell is a non-mechanical device made power. The photovoltaic cell is a non-
mechanical device made of silicon alloy.

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SUNLIGHT:
Photometry enables us to determine the amount of light given off by the Sun
in terms of brightness perceived by the human eye. In photometry, a
luminosity function is used for the radiant power at each wavelength to give
a different weight to a particular wavelength that models human brightness
sensitivity. Photometric measurements began as early as the end of the 18th
century resulting in many different units of measurement, some of which
cannot even be converted owing to the relative meaning of brightness.
However, the luminous flux (or lux) is commonly used and is the measure of
the perceived power of light. Its unit, the lumen, is concisely defined as the
luminous flux of 3 light produced by a light source that emits one candela of
luminous intensity over a solid angle of one steroidal. The candela is the SI
unit of luminous intensity and it is the power emitted by a light source in a
particular direction, weighted by a luminosity function whereas a steroidal is
the SI unit for a solid angle; the two-dimensional angle in three-dimensional
space that an object subtends at a point.

Range of the brightness of sunlight (lux):

Time of day Luminous flux (lux)

Sunrise or sunset on a clear day 400

Overcast day 1000

Full day (not direct sun) 10000 – 25000

Direct sunlight 32000 130000

• Every hour, enough sunlight energy reaches Earth to

meet the world’s energy demand for a whole year.

• The amount of energy from the Sun that reaches

Earth annually is 4x10 18 Joules.

• The amount of energy consumed annually by the

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world's population is about 3 x10 14 J.

A major drawback of most renewable energy sources is the high cost. To

spur a huge rise in use, prices must come down and efficiencies must go up
(better technology)

Factors Affecting Efficiency

•Sunlight consists of a spectrum of wavelengths –

semiconductor materials cannot respond to the full spectrum

•As much as 30% of light is reflected from the surface

of the cell (only absorbed light can produce electricity)

•Impurities can cause the charge to “recombine” and

therefore, not generate electricity

•Angle of incidence of the sun

•Cloud cover

•Shading (even a small amount of shading reduces

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output dramatically)

•Dirt, dust, or other impurities on cell surface

•Efficiency goes down as the cell gets hotter

Silicon Base Solar Cell

Silicon atom has 14 electrons and 14 protons. The outer 4 electrons,

together with the 4 from their adjacent atoms, form “octets” which is a
stable structure. Electrons don’t “wandering off” (i.e., free) from this
structure.

Octet structure
(Only outer orbit electrons are shown)

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When sunlight strikes a piece of Silicon, however, the solar energy knocks
and frees electrons from their atom structure (the octets structure)

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For simplicity, we only show the charge of free electrons (-1) and the
corresponding positive charges (14-13= +1) at the nucleus.

The freed electrons randomly move within the material. This random motion
of charge cannot be utilized for power generation. In order to utilize the
energy from the sun, this flow of charges must be directed in one direction.

N-type (Negative Type) Semiconductor

A small amount of impurity (doping) such as Phosphorus, arsenic,

or antimony is mixed into a Silicon base and this forms an N-type

material. Phosphorus has 5 outer orbit electrons. Therefore, when

bonded with Silicon, there is one electron extra to form the stable

octet configuration. This extra electron is loosely bonded.

These loosely bonded electron helps with conducting current. The

conductivity is not nearly as good as a true conductor. That’s why it

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is called a “semiconductor”.

P-type (Positive Type) Semiconductor

A small amount of impurity such as boron, aluminum or gallium is

mixed into a Silicon base. Boron has 3 outer orbit electrons.

Therefore, when bonded with Silicon, it is one electron short to

form the stable octet configuration. This type material can, on

the other hand, easily accept one electron.

For simplicity, this characteristic of ‘easily accepting electron’ is

represented by a “hole” with a positive charge and a

corresponding negative charge at the nucleus.

• Although there are free electrons and holes in N-type and P-

type materials, they are charge neutral.

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• N-type materials conduct electric current (supports

movement of charge) by the free electrons ----- just like metal

but with fewer free electrons than that in metal.

• P-type materials conduct electric current (supports

movement of charge) by electric “holes”. When electrons

jump from hole to hole in one direction, the holes appear

moving in the opposition direction.

Interesting things happen when you put an N-type material in

contact with a P-type material.

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In the boundary layer, the free electrons in the N-type materials combine

with the holes in the P-type. Consequently, the P-type side of the

boundary layer is negatively charged and N-type side is positively

charged.

Negative charge in P-type material prevents the free electrons in the rest

of the N-type material to continue to migrate into the P-type. (Negative

charge repels negative charged free electrons.)

The boundary lay is called PN-junction or depletion region.

n-type and p-type materials brought together.

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When sunlight strikes atoms in the P-N Junction and knocks

out more electrons (and creates corresponding holes), the

free electrons are expelled by the negative charge on the

P-type side and hence move towards the N-type side.

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If a load is connected across the cell, electric current is formed

and the energy is transmitted to the load.

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 NEEDS OF SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Global warming has increased the demand and request for green energy
produced by the renewable sources like solar power. The end user will prefer
the tracking solution rather than a fix ground system because:

• The efficiency increases by 30 to 40% (= more money).

• The space requirement for a solar park is reduced, and they keep the
same output.
• The return of the investment timeline is reduced.
• The tracking system amortizes itself with four years (on average.).
Tracking the sun from east in the morning to the west in the evening will
increases the efficiency of the solar panel by 20 to 62% depending on
whom you ask and where you are in the world. Near the equator, you will
have the highest benefit of tracking the sun.

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TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS BASED ON DRIVE TYPES

A. Passive trackers
The passive solar trackers work on basic thermo hydraulic principles. It
consists of two tube tanks attached along the side of the PV panel. The
working principle is not as complex as active trackers; When the PV panel is
not aligned towards the sun, the fluid (low boiling point compressed gas
fluid) inside the tube tank heats up resulting in formation of uneven pressure
within the tube. This pressure allows the fluid to move from one side of the
tube to another causing movement of PV panel towards the sun. On the
bright side passive trackers are less expensive and also are less prone to get
damaged because of lighting. They might not be as compelling as active
trackers but they do offer promising results. But a look at the downside
reveals that they tend to be sluggish in morning.

B. Active trackers

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 Active trackers are comprised of motor and gear assembly which is
controlled by means of controller that responds to the suns position. Because
they consist of motors and moving parts, regular maintenance is required.
But they do offer better utilization of solar energy compared to passive
trackers.

TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS BASED ON AXIS

A. Single axis trackers:

Single axis solar trackers rotate along one fixed axis. The first solar trackers
were single axis trackers and a peek into efficiency reveals that they produce
20 to 25% more electricity as compared with mounted solar panels with no
tracker. There is plethora of single axis trackers that are available for
tracking purposes based on place and requirements,

1. Horizontal single axis trackers, HSAT (which has axis of Rotation along
horizontal axis).

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2. Horizontal single axis tracker with tilted modules, HTSAT (Which has axis
of rotation along horizontal direction with tilted PV panel).

3. Polar aligned single axis trackers, PSAT (which are aligned Along polar
direction)

4. Tilted single axis tracker, “TSAT”

5. Vertical single axis trackers, VSAT (which has axis of rotation Along
vertical axis).

B. Dual axis trackers:

Dual axis trackers have two degrees of rotation i.e. azimuth rotation (which
allows the panel to move in a circular path parallel to the surface) and
horizontal rotation, also called elevation angle rotation (which allows the
panel to move up and down). The dual axis trackers are able to orient
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themselves towards the sun so that the panel can be in direct contact of the
sun for maximum power generation.

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 CHAPTER -2
Main component of solar tracking system
“HARDWARE COMPONENTS”
• Solar panel
• Motor
• Sensors
• Solar Tracker
• Microcontroller
• Arduino UNO

Solar panel:

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called
solar after the sun or "Sol" because the sun is the most powerful source of
the light available for use. They are sometimes called photovoltaic which
means "light-electricity". Solar cells or PV cells rely on the photovoltaic
effect to absorb the energy of the sun and cause current to flow between two
oppositely charge layers.

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A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Although each solar cell provides a
relatively small amount of power, many solar cells spread over a large area
can provide enough power to be useful. To get the most power, solar panels
have to be pointed directly at the Sun.

The development of solar cell technology begins with 1839 research of French
physicist Antoine-Cesar Becquerel. He observed the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution. After that he
saw a voltage developed when light fell upon the electrode.

According to encyclopedia Britannica the first genuine for solar panel was
built around 1883 by Charles Frits. He used junctions formed by coating
selenium (a semiconductor) with an extremely thin layer of gold.

Crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of materials for
solar panels. Gallium arsenide crystals are grown especially for photovoltaic
use, but silicon crystals are available in less-expensive standard ingots, which
are produced mainly for consumption in the microelectronics industry.
Norway’s Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) has confirmed that it will build a solar
manufacturing plant in Singapore by 2010 - the largest in the world. This plant will be

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able to produce products that can generate up to 1.5 gigawatts (GW) of energy
every year. That is enough to power several million households at any one
time, Last year, the world as a whole produced product that could generate
just 2 GW in total.

Sensors:
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument.

Light Dependent Resistor:

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made of a high-resistance
semiconductor. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor. If light falling
on the device is of the high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance. Hence, Light Dependent Resistors
(LDR) is very useful in light sensor circuits. LDR is very high-resistance,
sometimes as high as 1000 000Ω, when they are illuminated with light
resistance drops dramatically.

Light dependent resistors “LDR”

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Solar Tracker:

Solar Tracker is basically a device onto which solar panels are fitted which
tracks the motion of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount
of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day. After finding the sunlight,
the tracker will try to navigate through the path ensuring the best sunlight is
detected.

The design of the Solar Tracker requires many components. The design and
construction of it could be divided into six main parts, each with their main
function.

Motors:
Motors are used to drive the Solar Tracker to the best angle of exposure of
light. For this section, we shall look at some of the motor types available on
the market.
Stepper Motors:
Stepper motor has relatively limited power which means that wheel spin will
not be a problem. It is not fast but it will work. The driver chips are operated
by two signals. One signal determines the direction of rotation, plus for
forward and minus for backwards. The other moves the stepper by one step
each time it goes from minus to plus.
Stepper motors move in steps, 200 or 400 steps per revolution to be precise.
To move them, the stepper driver firmware had to have a smooth pulse. If the
pulse timing is out, the motor would just stop and not move. They can also
produce precise motor rotation if the correct motor driver firmware signals are
obtained.

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 Stepper motor

DC Motors:

DC motors are cheaper to buy, and simple to drive but they need feed-back
sensors to allow control of the speed. It is necessary to detect the rotation of
the wheels, usually by means of sensors better controlled by pulling the motor
supply that uses less battery power than the analogue/resistor methods. Low-
inertia, efficient servo-motors bring advantages of fast response and
efficiency, but add cost.

The advantages of the DC motor are the torque and their speed is easier to
control. The drawbacks of DC motors are that they consumed huge amounts
of power. They would have consumed the battery power in no time and power
saving techniques must be employed to ensure the mouse do not stop halfway
while navigating. They are also prone to dust and harder to maintain.

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 DC MOTOR

Servo Motors:

Servos contain a small DC motor, a gearbox and some control circuitry, and
feed on 5 volts at about 100mA maximum, and about 10-20mA when idle.
They have a three-wire connector, one common wire (0 volt, usually black),
one +5v wire (usually red), and one signal wire. In normal use they are
controlled by pulses of about 1 to 2 mile-seconds at a repetition rate of about
50 per
Second. A short pulse makes the servo drive to one end of the travel, a long
pulse makes it drive to the other end, and a medium one puts it somewhere
proportionally between. Some servos have gear components that allow them
to rotate continuously. This method needs the servo to have a feedback
potentiometer used by internal circuits to measure the position of the output
shaft. If this is disconnected and the wires taken to an external pre-set
potentiometer, the servo will drive continuously in one direction if fed with
short pulses and vice-versa. If there are no pulses, the Servo
stops.

It is uses to drive the Solar Tracker Eastward and Westward. The pulses are at
normal TTL levels. The speed though, is not greatly affected by the pulse
repetition rate, as long as it is above about 30 per second. These pulses can
easily be provided by an output port of just about any computer, for instance
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the data or control lines of a printer port or a serial port, or a simple addressed
latch added to the memory circuits. A possible configuration is the tricycle
described above, with one driving and steering-wheel at the front and two idler
wheels at the rear. Using a Radio Controlled (RC) servo for steering is a good
method, because the position of the steering mechanism is determined by the
length of the servo drive pulse, which can be generated by a software
countdown loop or a hard-ware counter. If an RC servo is used as a drive
motor, wheel motion sensors are needed on at least one wheel as in any DC
motor system. The use of an RC servo for driving only simplifies the
mechanics. In summary, servos are very small and precise motors.

SERVO MOTOR

Microcontroller (Atmega328):
Microcontroller is a single chip microcomputer made through VLSI
fabrication. A
Microcontroller also called an embedded controller because the
microcontroller and its support
Circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. A
microcontroller is available in different word lengths like
microprocessors
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(4bit,8bit,16bit,32bit,64bit and 128 bit

Microcontrollers are available today).

A microcontroller contains one or more of the following components:
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Input/output ports
• Timers and Counters
• Interrupt controls
• Analogue to digital converters
• Digital analogue converters
• Serial interfacing ports
• Oscillatory circuits
Microcontrollers need to be programmed to be capable of performing anything
useful. It then
Executes the program loaded in its flash memory the code comprised of a
sequence of zeros and ones. It is organized in 12-, 14- or 16-bit wide words,
depending on the microcontroller’s Architecture. Every word is considered
by the CPU as a command being executed during the operation of the
microcontroller.
ATmega328P:
The ATmega328P is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on
the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in
a single clock cycle, the ATmega328P achieves throughputs approaching 1
MIPS per MHz allowing the system designed to optimize power
consumption versus processing speed.

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 It has 28 pins. There are 14 digital I/O pins from which 6 can be used as
PWM outputs and 6 analog input pins. The I/O pins account for 20 of the pins.
The 20 pins can act as input to the circuit or as output. Whether they are input
or output is set in the software. Two of the pins are for the crystal oscillator
and are supposed to provide a clock pulse for the ATmega chip. The clock
pulse is needed for synchronization so that communication occurs in
synchrony between the ATmega chip and a device connected to it. Two of the
pins, VCC and GND are for powering the chip. The microcontroller requires
between 1.8-5.5V of power to operate.

Arduino Uno:
Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14
digital I/O pins, 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection,
a power jack, ICSP header and a reset button.

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 CONCLUSION

This project presents a solar tracking system. The tracking controller

based on the closed loop algorithm is designed and implemented with

Arduino UNO in embedded system domain. Set up on the solar tracking

system, the light sensitivity resistors are used to determine the night – day

vision. The proposed solar tracking power generation system can track the sun

light automatically. Thus, the efficiency of solar energy generation can be

increased. Experimental work has been carried out carefully. The result shows

that higher generating power efficiency is indeed achieved using the solar

tracking system. The proposed method is verified to be highly beneficial for

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