Minor Project Report

On

Solar Cells and Applications

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Information Technology

Under the guidance of

Prof. Dr. Rakesh Sohal

Submitted by

RIPUDAMAN SINGH RAJAWAT

(0902ME191042)

Department of Physics
RUSTUMJI INSTITITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BSF ACADEMY – TEKANPUR, GWALIOR (MP)
October 2018
Solar cells
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device which generates electricity directly from visible light
by means of the photovoltaic effect. In order to generate useful power, it is necessary to connect a
number of cells together to form a solar panel, also known as a photovoltaic module. There is more
about the the different types of solar cell . The nominal output voltage of a solar panel is usually
12 Volts, and they may be used singly or wired together into an array. The number and size
required is determined by the available light and the amount of energy required.
Conversion of light into electricity: Silicon is what is known as a semi-conductor, meaning that
it shares some of the properties of metals and some of those of an electrical insulator, making it a
key ingredient in solar cells. Let’s take a closer look at what happens when the sun shines onto a
solar cell.

Sunlight is composed of miniscule particles called photons, which radiate from the sun. As these
hit the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they transfer their energy to loose electrons, knocking them
clean off the atoms. The photons could be compared to the white ball in a game of pool, which
passes on its energy to the coloured balls it strikes.

Freeing up electrons is however only half the work of a solar cell: it then needs to herd these stray
electrons into an electric current. This involves creating an electrical imbalance within the cell,
which acts a bit like a slope down which the electrons will flow in the same direction.

Creating this imbalance is made possible by the internal organisation of silicon. Silicon atoms are
arranged together in a tightly bound structure. By squeezing small quantities of other elements into
this structure, two different types of silicon are created: n-type, which has spare electrons, and p-
type, which is missing electrons, leaving ‘holes’ in their place.

When these two materials are placed side by side inside a solar cell, the n-type silicon’s spare
electrons jump over to fill the gaps in the p-type silicon. This means that the n-type silicon becomes
positively charged, and the p-type silicon is negatively charged, creating an electric field across
the cell. Because silicon is a semi-conductor, it can act like an insulator, maintaining this
imbalance.

As the photons smash the electrons off the silicon atoms, this field drives them along in an orderly
manner, providing the electric current to power calculators, satellites and everything in between.

Solar cell working Operating diode in fourth quadrant

 Dye Sensitized Solar Cell

Efficiency: Solar cell efficiency is the ratio of the electrical output of a solar cell to the incident
energy in the form of sunlight. The energy conversion efficiency (η) of a solar cell is the percentage
of the solar energy to which the cell is exposed that is converted into electrical energy. This is
calculated by dividing a cell's power output (in watts) at its maximum power point (Pm) by the
irradiance (input light), G, in W/m2 and the surface area of the solar cell (Ac in m2).

Factors affecting solar cell efficiency

Temperature:- High temperature can severely reduce the solar panel’s production of power. Higher
temperature increases the conductivity of the semiconductor; charges become balanced
 within the material, reducing the magnitude of the electric field, inhibiting the charge
separation, which lowers the voltage across the cell. Depending on the location, heat can
reduce the output by 10% to 25%.

Solar Panel Pitch and Orientation

Non-tracking PV systems in the Northern Hemisphere should face true south. The positioning
angle directly relates to the angle of latitude, if you live at 35.2 degrees North of the equator
(Flagstaff, AZ), your panel should face directly South at a 35.2-degree angle. Remember that if
the solar panels are installed on a roof, take into account the pitch of the roof.

Front surface soiling: Solar cells cannot absorb light as effectively when the surface of the solar
panels are covered with dirt or pigeon droppings, which doesn’t get washed by the rain. Making
frequent physical inspections and spraying water on your modules can help reduce the problem.

Shade

Shade can be the enemy of solar power. The way solar is designed even a little shade on one panel
can shut down solar production on all the other panels. Solar cells are connected in series, and will
operate at the current level of the weakest cell, if one solar cell is shaded it will adversely influence
the output of all other cells. When deciding on a location for your solar panels do a shading
analysis, make sure no shadows will fall on the solar panel array during peak sunlight hours. This
may mean trimming a few trees.

How to improve solar cell efficiency

Solar cell efficiencies can be improved by as much as 50% with the use of a new optical element
designed by engineers from the University of Utah, according to recent reports.

The “optical element” which is essentially just a thin layer of transparent plastic or glass that can
sort and concentrate light — can be readily integrated into the glass covering of a solar panel. As
a result, the new “polychromat” appears to represent a fairly cheap means of boosting solar cell
performance — though, as always, until the technology is commercialized, there are no certainties.
 Optical element solar panel

Currently, high-efficiency solar cells are very expensive because they have to be carefully
manufactured in a complex environment and are only cost-effective for space or defense
applications like the Mars Rover,” states Rajesh Menon, a Utah Science Technology and Research
(USTAR) assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering at the U. “We have designed
a very cheap optical element that can be incorporated into the cover glass of a solar panel that will
separate sunlight into various colors.”

The polychromat was 50 millimeters wide by 10 millimeters long, with 3 micrometer wide grooves
to sort incoming light. The polychromat was made using photolithography for this study, but
Menon says it can now be made cheaply by creating a mold of the polychromat and then stamping
it out like a DVD. The team placed the polychromat on top of a photovoltaic device, which is a
device that generates a voltage when exposed to energy, especially light. The photovoltaic device
is made of two absorber layers: gallium indium phosphide to absorb visible light, and gallium
arsenide to absorb infrared light. When the University of Utah polychromat was added, the power
efficiency increased by 16%.
Reduction of solar cell cost

Researchers developing the technology say that it could lead to solar panels that cost just 10 to 20
cents per watt. Solar panels now typically cost about 75 cents a watt, and the U.S. Department of
Energy says 50 cents per watt will allow solar power to compete with fossil fuel.

The new material may make it possible to get the best of both worlds—solar cells that are highly
efficient but also cheap to make. The material is dirt cheap

Martin Green of the University of New South Wales, Australia, says the rapid progress has been
surprising. Solar cells that use the material “can be made with very simple and potentially very
cheap technology, and the efficiency is rising very dramatically,” he says.

Perovskites have been known for over a century, but no one thought to try them in solar cells until
relatively recently. The particular material the researchers are using is very good at absorbing light.
While conventional silicon solar panels use materials that are about 180 micrometers thick, the
new solar cells use less than one micrometer of material to capture the same amount of sunlight.
The pigment is a semiconductor that is also good at transporting the electric charge created when
light hits it.

A challenge may be the fact that the material includes a small amount of lead, which is toxic. Tests
will be needed to show how toxic it is as part of the perovskite material. Steps can also be taken to
ensure the solar cells are collected and recycled to prevent the materials from getting into the
environment—the approach pursued now with the lead-acid starter batteries used in cars. It may
also be possible to substitute tin or some other element for lead in the cells.

Solar cells as environmental friendly

1). Of all the renewable energy sources available, solar cells have the smallest environmental
impacts. Electricity produced from photovoltaic cells does not result in air or water pollution,
deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health. The only potential negative impacts
are associated with some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, that are used in the production
process. These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling
and proper disposal."

2.) In our plan, by 2050 photovoltaic technology would provide almost 3,000 gigawatts (GW), or
billions of watts, of power. Some 30,000 square miles of photovoltaic arrays would have to be
erected.

3). "Few power-generation technologies have as little impact on the environment as photovoltaics.
As it quietly generates electricity from light, PV produces no air pollution or hazardous waste. It
doesn't require liquid or gaseous fuels to be transported or combusted..."

Solar cell as Harming the environment

Producing 50 megawatts of electricity using a gas-fired generating plant requires between 2 and 5
acres of land. Getting the same amount from photovoltaics means covering some 1,000 acres with
solar panels (assuming a very optimistic 10 watts per square meter (W/m2) or 5 percent peak
efficiency), plus access for trucks to clean the panels. Using the sun to meet California's energy
needs would require paving over tens of thousands of acres of desert habitat, sacrificing what the
Wilderness Society calls 'some of the most beautiful landscapes in America,' and with it their
resident plant and animal life."

"The production of photovoltaic devices can involve the use of some toxic and explosive gases,
corrosive liquids, and suspected carcinogenic compounds. The magnitude of potential effects will
vary based on the materials’ toxicological properties, and the intensity, frequency, and duration of
human exposure...

"The Solar Two site [a solar installation in Barstow, CA] occupies 52.6 hectares (130 acres) and
produces 10 MWe (megawatt electrical) peak. Its capacity factor is about 16%. For a Solar-Two
installation to produce as much energy as a typical 1000-MWe power plant [approximately 0.6
square miles] does in a year, it would have to cover about 33,000 hectares (127 square miles). That
is environmental impact!”