Juan Carlos Muhi

BPED

Being a Woman (Feminity)

Femininity is not merely a psychologically or biologically defined attribute. Despite the

significance of biological and psychological mechanisms in the formation of gender, it is
important to define it as a non-essentialist concept formed through socio-cultural processes.
Margaret Mead was one of the prominent anthropologists who questioned the essentialist
understanding of gender attributes. In her pioneering work, she indicated that modern
perceptions of femininity and masculinity were not generalizable concepts (Kotak 2007, p. 621);
the idea that femininity is based on both sex and gender, is against essentialist approaches, which
define it as a biological matter, and take it for muliebrity (Qarakhani 2007, p. 75).
Anthropologists have long discussed that femininity is rooted in an intricate system of socio-
cultural contexts rather than mere psycho-biological factors (Borgata and Montgomery 2000).
General understandings of femininity have formed around biological roles such as giving
birth and breastfeeding consecrated by a halo of cultural norms. As anthropologist Rosaldo
(1974) suggested, women’s roles have long been affected, but not defined by their sexual
functions. Garrett (1987) has also discussed that femininity is considered a package of roles and
responsibilities related to the biological sex, and concepts that form around these functions such
as motherhood, marriage and child rearing. She also suggested that these ideas about women,
falsely depicted them as beings that were unable to live on their own and relied on men to
support them (Garrett 1987, p. 44). These ideas have formed in social contexts that gave a
greater cultural value to masculinity.
Gendered roles are practices expected from people merely because of their gender (Eagly
1987). Gendered division of labour has been an essential prerequisite of formation of gender
relations (Walby 2001). Roles such as taking care of children and the elderly, and keeping peace
in the family have been widely considered feminine (Ferrant et al. 2014; OHCHR 2016). In the
patriarchal traditional division of labour in Iran, women were expected to be in carer roles rather
than work as providers for the family. They were expected to adapt to their societies’
expectations reflected in their husbands’ demands. They provided services for their families,
while organizing the household and easing the way for a better family environment (Ezazi 2006).
Internationally, Wolf (2002) among others (from early feminists such as Wollstonecraft
1796 to later studies such as (Davis 1994; Hollows 2000; Jeffreys 2005)) have discussed that the
current aesthetics of female beauty are socially constructed. Studies in Iran have shown that
women care more about their appearance than men (Rezaei et al. 2010, p. 11). Beauty is an
important part of Iranian women’s everyday life. Enacted dress codes, including regulations that
enforce head and full body covering, the patriarchal system of the society, and the globalized
mass media’s portrayal of women have all affected Iranian women’s tendencies to undergo body
modification and beauty practices (Sadrnabavi and Fooladian 2014), to attain standards of
feminine beauty, and marriageability (Motamedi et al. 2016).
Findings of our study showed that ‘beauty’ as a concept was perceived to be essentially
of a feminine nature. Maryam (a Mazandarani respondent) gave examples from nature to prove
that among the human beings, opposite to animals, feminine beauty served different social and
biological purposes. There was a general perceived difference between what was considered the
natural beauty (with which one is born), and what was called the ‘artificial’ beauty (that could be
created by cosmetic interventions). The latter was looked down upon by some of the participants
and justified by others, while the former was considered an intrinsic part to the state of being
feminine. The idea of female beauty was linked to other concepts such as ‘delicacy’ by the
respondents. As well as natural beauty, ‘artificial’ beauty or the socially constructed processes of
beautification and body management were also considered feminine. Most forms of body
management were attributed to femininity.
Ann Oakley in her book, sex, gender and Society written in 1972 explores the term
gender. Oakley says that in the Western culture women play the roles of the „housewife‟ and
„mother‟. This is because women are made to play these roles because of their biology. The
western culture also believes that any effort to change the traditional roles of men and women in
the society can cause damage to the social fabric of the society. Oakley concludes that this view
regarding the roles of men and women helps to support and maintain the patriarchal society.
There are two main ways that women perform gender to demonstrate their womanliness;
both ways are difficult not “essential” and they require both achievement and restraint. The first
is the pursuit of beauty and demonstration of sexiness; the second is the “good” mother. I only
have room here to discuss these in brief, but readers should be aware that feminist psychologists
have written extensively on both topics; thus, my remarks are based on a voluminous literature.
Although there are some who say that every woman is beautiful in her own way, women
everywhere, but especially In developed nations, are reminded every day that beauty is
ephemeral and must be actively pursued and maintained. One result of globalization is that the
Western beauty ideal is now admired and pursued by women around the world, even those
whose body and hair types are not reflected in the ideal. The ideal is unnatural and extremely
difficult for most women to achieve.
Femininity, or womanhood is also precarious requires achievement, competition, and
self-restraint and can motivate risky behaviors (let us not forget that women can. And do, die
from giving birth and from pregnancy related and postpartum complications, as well as from
eating disorders, cosmetics surgeries, and risky health behaviors related to the pursuit beauty).
 The definition of womanhood. The majority of scholarship devoted to how womanhood
is defined has primarily done so through the lens of femininity, or what is commonly referred to
as hegemonic femininity. Under ‘hegemony’, members of a particular social group or class
mirror the views that are most prevalent in society(Connell, 2002; Dyer, 1993), and ‘femininity’
is a socially constructed standard for women’s appearance, demeanor and values’ (Bordo, 1993:
316). Taken together, hegemonic femininity necessitates that women, individually and
collectively, sup-port men’s dominant place in society by being nurturing, emotional, caring and,
most of all, physically attractive. Essentially, hegemonic femininity focuses on how women look
as they navigate the world as partners, wives and mothers. Although Robert Connell (2002)
believed that the ascendant position of men in society makes true hegemonic femininity
impossible, it could hardly be argued that manhood cannot exist without its well-defined
counterpart, womanhood. Although European notions of hegemonic femininity, or womanhood,
promote the thin and toned female form as the ideal, several studies have noted that African
American women do not necessarily subscribe to this particular standard of physical
womanhood. For example, Stevens et al. (1994) found that African American women who are
obese are less concerned about weight than white women. This finding was later supported by
Hebl and Heatherton (1998), who revealed black women to be more satisfied with their weight
and to view larger women as attractive in relation to white women.
Intrinsic to The Dawn's new womanhood was the push for a 'better brand' of women, who
would improve the world. The magazine was not only committed to portraying how women's
moral and physical improvement could benefit society, as was shown in the previous two
chapters, but also to revealing how women were already contributing to the typically masculine
spheres of work, academia and invention. The call to 'betterment' extended beyond moral lessons
and beauty tips; the improvement of mind and skill was also encouraged regularly. Many articles
attested to the capacity of women to contribute to the nation in ways beyond motherhood and
benevolence by presenting readers with stories of female success in intellectual and
entrepreneurial pursuits. Historians believe that the journal's bold announcements of “the
achievements of women in any extra-domestic activities,” were a key source of inspiration and
encouragement to its readers.2 This chapter will examine various stories of educated, working,
and inventive women which further highlight the relationship between women's rights, new
womanhood and nation in The Dawn.
It has been clear that women have equal position to attempt and to work, but culture of
society has suppressed women to stay at home and to keep the house. However, time is changing
where men and women can cooperate in various areas of life. Simply put, women shall be given
a chance to tell us that they are capable of developing nation in conformity with our ideals. As
proposed by stating that women’s capability is more apparent in various kinds of jobs and
professions. Almost all women are able to work as good as men can do, or none of jobs are
impossible for women. Their works are not worse than men, with an exception if the job require
a lots of energy, such as harbor porter. On the contrary, there is an occupation which will be
more effective if it is performed by woman as it requires womanhood.
Progress and career achieved by woman are not given on the basis of sympathy; it is a
matter of struggle with no gender discrimination or distinction. Greenstein, suggests that women
themselves shall work hard in cooperation to let their voice be heard and to reveal their
perspective on conference table while making decision. Woman have to be ready to meet the
new challenge including making decision by her own consideration. Specifically, it applies to
knowledge, engineering, mathematics, and technology to allow woman move forward. Equality
of women and men will not be wasted away if the women are mobilized their abilities to achieve
it. When women’s abilities are same as men, they shall be in competition against men to live,
without losing their womanhood. Emancipation owned by Indonesian woman has covered
women’s political participation and leadership. Having the same right as the man has does not
mean that the person concerned has to get out of her responsibilities as a housewife.
The Role of Women in the Household Woman in her life has more responsibilities than
men. Double play of a woman today has not only responsibilities at home as a housewife, but
also out of door as career woman. In a simple way, Suwondo (1981) suggests that roles of
women are:
a. Being member of a country in regard to civil rights and politics; it includes fair deal to
female labor force participation, also called as external function.
b. Being a mother in a family and wife in the husband-wife household, also called as
internal function.
These internal and external functions are foundation for woman, especially for those who
have career, so woman has to be capable of managing roles to prevent two-side roles negligence.
Negligence will bring imbalance when some women frequently prefers one role and leave the
others. If career is preferred, some of them face threat of broken home or worse, i.e. divorce.
There are also women who prefer their career than marriage where that the person concerned
lives alone or remain unmarried. For those married women who prefer the second role, they
sacrificed their career or resigned from an occupation to be a housewife who keep staying at
home. It is regrettable since inner potential ability of these women will be sunk or buried forever.
Therefore, woman who takes one role only is not so favorable for life establishment. For this
reason, those outstanding and unbeatable women shall fight for meeting the challenge if they
take both roles. However, there must be mutual understanding between husband and wife and
they have to complement each other in their family.
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