DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

Chapter 4: Physical Layer

Upper OSI layer protocols prepare data from the human network for transmission to its
destination. The Physical layer controls how data is placed on the communication media. The
role of the OSI Physical layer is to encode the binary digits that represent Data Link layer
frames into signals and to transmit and receive these signals across the physical media - copper
wires, optical fiber, and wireless - that connect network devices.

The Physical Layer – Communication Signals

The OSI Physical layer provides the means to transport across the network media. This
layer accepts a complete frame from the Data Link layer and encodes it as a series of signals
that are transmitted onto the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame are received
by either an end device or an intermediate device.
The delivery of frames across the local media requires the following Physical layer elements:
• The physical media and associated connectors
• A representation of bits on the media
• Encoding of data and control information
• Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the network devices
The Physical Layers purposes:
1- To create the electrical, optical, or microwave signal that represents the bits in each frame.
These signals are then sent on the media one at a time.
2- To retrieve these individual signals from the media, restore them to their bit representations,
and pass the bits up to the Data Link layer as a complete frame.

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The Physical Layer – Operation

There are three basic forms of network media on which data is represented:
• Copper cable: the signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
• Fiber: the signals are patterns of light.
• Wireless: the signals are patterns of radio transmissions.

Figure 3: Representations of signals on the physical media.

Identifying a Frame
When the Physical layer encodes the bits into the signals for a particular medium, it must
also distinguish where one frame ends and the next frame begins. As described in the previous
chapter, indicating the beginning of frame is often a function of the Data Link layer. However, in
many technologies, the Physical layer may add its own signals to indicate the beginning and
end of the frame.
The Physical Layer – Standards
The Physical layer consists of hardware, developed by engineers, in the form of electronic
circuitry, media, and connectors. Therefore, it is appropriate that the standards governing this
hardware are defined by the relevant electrical and communications engineering organizations.

Physical Layer Technologies and Hardware

The technologies defined by these organizations include four areas of the Physical layer
standards:
• Physical and electrical properties of the media
• Mechanical properties (materials, dimensions, pinouts) of the connectors
• Bit representation by the signals (encoding)

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

Definition of control information signals :Hardware components such as network adapters

Network Interface Cards (NICs), interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs
are all specified in standards associated with the Physical layer.

8.1.4 Physical Layer Fundamental Principles

The three fundamental functions of the Physical layer are:
• The physical components
• Data encoding
• Signaling
Encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code.
1. To provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the sender and the
received.
2. To distinguish data bits from control bits and provide better media error detection.
3. To provide codes for control purposes such as identifying the beginning and end of a
frame. Signaling, the Physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless
signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media.

Physical Signaling and

Encoding: Representing
Bits
Signaling Bits for the
Media
Each signal placed onto the
media has a specific
amount of time to occupy
the media. This is referred
to as its bit time. Signals are
processed by the receiving device and returned to its representation as bits. At the Physical
layer of the receiving node, the signals are converted back into bits. The bits are then examined
for the start and end of frame bit patterns to determine that a complete frame has been
received. The Physical layer then delivers all the bits of a frame to the Data Link layer.
Successful delivery of the bits requires some method of synchronization between transmitter
and receiver. In LANs, each end of the transmission maintains its own clock.
Signaling Methods: Bits are represented on the medium by changing one or more of the
following characteristics of a signal:
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

Non Return to Zero (NRZ) Signaling Method

The bit stream is transmitted as a series of voltage values, as shown in the figure. A low
voltage value represents a logical 0 and a high voltage value represents a logical
1. NRZ is only suited for slow speed data links.
 NRZ signaling uses bandwidth inefficiently and is susceptible to electromagnetic
interference.
 The boundaries between individual bits can be lost when long strings of 1s or 0s are
transmitted consecutively. In that case, no voltage transitions are detectable on the
media.

Manchester Encoding Method

Bit values are represented as voltage transitions. For example, a transition from a low voltage to
a high voltage represents a bit value of 1. A transition from a high voltage to a low voltage
represents a bit value of 0 (Figure 9). Although Manchester Encoding is not efficient enough to
be used at higher signaling speeds, it is employed by 10BaseT Ethernet (Ethernet running at 10
Megabits per second).

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

Encoding – Grouping Bits

Encoding is grouping of bits prior to being presented to the media.
 To improve the efficiency at higher speed data transmission
 To detect errors.
 To represent more data across the media, by transmitting fewer bits.
The stream of signals being transmitted needs to start in such a way that the receiver
recognizes the beginning and end of the frame.
Signal Patterns
One way to provide frame detection is to begin and end each frame with a pattern of signals
representing bits.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
1. Explain the role of Physical layer protocols and services in supporting communication
across data networks.
2. Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and encoding as they are used in
networks.
3. Describe the role of signals used to represent bits as a frame that is transported across
the local media.
4. Identify the basic characteristics of copper, fiber, and wireless network media.
5. Describe common uses of copper, fiber, and wireless network media

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
1. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer?
2. Discuss each the services of data link layer.
3. What is the difference between parity checking and error correction code?
4. Discuss the three types of links.

CHAPTER 6: TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between

the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals

being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

 Features: 1) High Speed 2) Secure 3) Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound
about each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective
sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two
types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages: Least expensive, Easy to install, High Speed Capacity
Disadvantages: 1. Susceptible to external interference 2. Lower capacity and performance in
comparison to STP 3. Short distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:
 Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having
a separate insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(ii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is
used for transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
 unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication

2. Unguided Media: It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No

physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
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 DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODULE (Final Term) 2 nd Semester

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i) Radiowaves –These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
(ii)Microwaves –It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
(iii)Infrared –Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Some Factors

The following factors must be considered to design the transmission media like the following:

1.Bandwidth
The bandwidth mainly refers to the capacity of data-carrying in a medium otherwise a channel. So,
high BW communication channels mainly support high data rates.

2. Radiation
The radiation refers to the signal leakage from the medium because of its unwanted electrical
characteristics.
3. Absorption of Noise
The absorption of noise refers to the vulnerability of the media to exterior electrical noise. This noise
can cause data signal distortion.
4. Attenuation
Attenuation refers to the energy loss when signal broadcasts externally. The loss of energy amount
mainly depends on frequency. Radiation, as well as physical media characteristics, contributes to
attenuation.

Transmission Impairment Causes

The transmission impairment mainly causes because of the following reasons.

A. Attenuation
It is the loss of energy which can be occurred due to the decrease in signal & increase in the
distance.

B. Distortion
Distortion mainly occurs because of the change in signal shape. This kind of distortion can be
observed from various signals which have different frequencies. Every frequency component has its
separate propagation speed because they arrive at a different time which leads to the delay in
distortion.

C.  Noise
When data is transmitted above a transmission medium, an unwanted signal can be added to it. So
the noise can be created.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Why is transmission media essential in data communication?

2. Differentiate the two types of transmission media?
3. Differentiate the two types of twisted pair cables. Among the two? Which is better? Explain.
4. What are the most commonly used transmission media in
a. Home? Explain why you said so.
b. Offices? Explain why you said so.

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