PHYSICAL LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER

Physical layer provides its services to Data Link Layer.

Data Link Layer hands over frames to physical layer.
Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which
represents binary data. The binary data is then sent over the
wired or wireless media

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SIGNALS
When data is sent over physical
medium. It needs to be first converted
into electromagnetic signals.

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Digital Signals Analog Signals

Digital signals are discrete in analog signals are in continuous

nature and represent sequence of wave form in nature and represented
voltage pulses. Digital signals are used by continuous electromagnetic waves.
within the circuitry of a computer
system.

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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may
have many reasons as given.
▪ Attenuation
▪ Dispersion
▪ Delay distortion
▪ Noise
- Thermal Noise
- Intermodulation
- Crosstalk
- Impulse
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ATTENUATION

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DISPERSED

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DISTORTION

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NOISE

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The media over which the information between two computer systems is
sent, called transmission media. Transmission media comes in two forms.
▪ Guided Media
▪ Unguided Media

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Guided Media
▪ Guided media are physical transmission media that provide a
physical path along which signals can be transmitted.
▪ Guided media can be classified into two types:
Copper cables
Fiber Optic cable

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Unguided Media
▪ Unguided media are physical transmission media that do not
provide a physical path along which signals can be
transmitted

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CHANNEL CAPACITY

The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel

capacity. We count it as data rate in digital world. It depends on numerous
factors such as:
▪ Bandwidth
▪ Error-rate
▪ Encoding

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MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a

single medium. This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer
(MUX) for multiplexing the streams and sending them on a medium, and de-
multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information from the medium and
distributes to different destinations.

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SWITCHING
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source
towards destination which are not directly connected. Networks have
interconnecting devices, which receives data from directly connected sources,
stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next interconnecting device
closest to the destination.

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Protocols of Physical Layer
▪ RS-232: A standard for serial communication between devices, commonly
used for connecting modems and computer peripherals.

▪ Ethernet: A family of networking technologies used to transmit data over

twisted-pair or fiber-optic cables.

▪ Bluetooth: A wireless protocol used for short-range communication

between devices.

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▪ Wi-Fi: A wireless protocol used for local area network (LAN)
communication.

▪ SONET/SDH: A family of standards used for transmitting

digital signals over optical fibers.

▪ DSL: A technology used for transmitting high-speed digital

data over existing telephone lines.

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TCP/IP MODEL
 TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP model is a network protocol suite that

defines how the devices communicate over the
internet.
FOUR LAYERS OF TCP/IP MODEL
• Network Access Layer
• Internet Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer
 Network Access Layer

This layer is the combination of data-link and physical

layer,
where it is responsible for maintaining the task of sending
and receiving data in raw bits, i.e., in binary format over the
physical communication modes in the network channel.
 Sub layers of Network
Access Layer

• Data Link Layer

• Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer

This layer is responsible for

providing error-free transmission of
data over a physical link. It performs
functions such as framing, error
detection and correction, and flow
control.
 Physical Layer

This layer defines the physical

characteristics of the network, such as the type
of cable or wireless technology used to connect
devices. It specifies the voltage, timing, and
other physical aspects of the network.
 Network access Layer
The network access layer provides three basic types of services to the
layers above it:

Framing: The network access layer encapsulates data from the layer
above it into frames, which are then transmitted over the physical medium.

Access control: The network access layer controls access to the physical
medium, ensuring that only one device at a time is allowed to transmit
data.

Error detection and correction: The network access layer detects and
corrects errors that may occur during transmission, ensuring that the data
 Transmission modes

Transmission mode refers to the

direction and timing of data transmission
between devices on a communication
network. There are three main
transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex,
and full-duplex.
 Protocols of Network Access
Layer
• Ethernet: A wired LAN protocol that defines how data is transmitted over a
wired network using a physical medium such as copper or fiber optic cable.

• Wi-Fi: A wireless LAN protocol that defines how data is transmitted over a
wireless network using radio frequencies.

• Bluetooth: A wireless protocol used for short-range communication between

devices.

• Token Ring: A LAN protocol that uses a token to control access to the
transmission medium and prevent collisions.
 Protocols of Network Access
Layer
• FDDI: A fiber-optic LAN protocol that uses a token to
control access to the transmission medium.

• ISDN: A digital communication protocol used to transmit

voice, video, and data over a telephone network.

• PPP: A protocol used to establish a direct connection

between two network nodes over a serial connection.
 Transmission modes

Simplex mode:
In simplex mode, data can be transmitted in only
one direction. For example, a television broadcast is
an example of simplex mode because the
information is transmitted in one direction only - from
the broadcasting station to the television sets.
 Transmission modes

Half-duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, data can be
transmitted in both directions, but only one
direction at a time. This mode is commonly
used in walkie-talkies or CB radios, where
two users can take turns transmitting and
receiving data.
 Transmission modes

Full-duplex mode:
In full-duplex mode, data can be
transmitted in both directions
simultaneously. This mode is commonly
used in telephone conversations, where
both parties can speak and listen at the
same time.
Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Physical layer of OSI
Model
 Advantages of Physical Layer
Simple and Efficient: The physical layer is simple
and efficient in terms of transmitting bits over a
communication channel. It ensures that data is
accurately transmitted over the channel using simple
and reliable mechanisms.

Hardware-Based: The physical layer is implemented

in hardware, which means that it can handle data
transmission at high speeds with low latency.
 Advantages of Physical Layer

Compatibility: The physical layer ensures that

devices from different manufacturers can
communicate with each other by defining standard
electrical and mechanical specifications for
connectors and cables.
 Disadvantages of
Physical Layer
Limited Error Detection and Correction: The
physical layer is limited in its ability to detect and
correct errors that may occur during transmission.

Security: The physical layer is vulnerable to physical

attacks, such as tapping, which can be used to
intercept data being transmitted over a communication
channel.
Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Network Access Layer
 Advantages of Network
Access Layer
Provides Error Detection and Correction: The
network access layer provides error detection and
correction, which ensures that data is transmitted
accurately over the communication channel.

Provides Access Control: The network access layer

provides access control, which ensures that only one
device at a time is allowed to transmit data, preventing
data collisions.
 Advantages of Network
Access Layer

Provides Addressing: The network access

layer provides addressing, which ensures
that data is delivered to the correct recipient
on the network.
 Disadvantages of Network
Access Layer
Limited Compatibility: The network access layer is
specific to a particular type of network technology,
which means that devices using different network
technologies may not be able to communicate with
each other.

Limited Scalability: The network access layer may

not be scalable to support large networks with many
devices, leading to performance issues and