OSI REFERENCE MODEL

PHYSICAL LAYER
OSI Physical Layer

Network Fundamentals
Objectives
 Explain the role of Physical layer protocols and
services in supporting communication across data
networks.
 Describe the role of signals used to represent bits as
a frame as the frame is transported across the local
media.
 Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and
encoding as they are used in networks.
 Identify the basic characteristics of copper, fiber and
wireless network media.
 Describe common uses of copper, fiber and wireless
network media.
Physical Layer Protocols & Services

 The role of the OSI physical layer is to

encode the binary digits that represent data link layer frames
into signals and
to transmit and receive these signals cross the physical media
—copper wires, optical fiber, and wireless that connect network
devices.

 The physical medium is capable of conducting a signal

in the form of voltage, light, or radio waves from one
device to another.
Purpose of the Physical layer
Physical Layer Protocols & Services
 The delivery of frames across the local media requires
the following physical layer elements:
■ The physical media and associated connectors
■ A representation of bits on the media
■ Encoding of data and control information
■ Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the network devices
Physical Layer Protocols & Services
Physical Layer Operation
 Each medium has unique signaling used to represent
the bits in the data-link frames.
 IP is media independent, so the frames remain
unchanged as they cross to the next device.
Physical Layer Operation

 When the physical layer puts a frame out onto media, it

generates a set patterns of bits, or signal pattern, that
can be understood by the receiving device.
 Many OSI Layer 1 technologies require the adding of
signals at the beginning and the end of frames.
 To mark the beginning and end of frames, the
transmitting device uses a bit pattern that is unique and
is only used to identify the start or end of frames.
Physical Layer Operation
Physical Layer Standards
 Physical layer performs functions very different from the
other OSI layers.
 The upper layers perform logical functions carried out
by instructions in software.
 The upper OSI layers were designed by software
engineers and computer scientists who designed the
services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite as part of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Physical Layer Standards
 By contrast, the physical layer, + data link layer, defines
hardware specifications, including electronic circuitry,
media, and connectors.
 Physical layer specifications were defined by electrical
and communications engineering organizations.
 Some of the key organizations:
■ The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
■ The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
■ The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
■ The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
■ The Electronics Industry Alliance/Telecommunications
Industry Association (EIA/TIA)
■ National telecommunications authorities such as the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
 Three components of Layer 1 communication are key
to understanding how the physical layer functions:
■ Physical components
■ Encoding
■ Signaling

 There is some parallel between human communication

and the processes of the physical layer
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
 A person wants to communicate an idea -> processes
an abstract thought into words (signaling)-> encoded
into speech sounds (encoding) -> sent out through the
medium of air (physical).
 At the other end, the receiver interprets the signal of
sound, recognizes patterns in the sound that denote
words, and then processes the meaning of the words
into the original idea
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
 Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding
 There are several different methods of
representing binary digits on physical media as
a signal.
 Each method finds a way to convert a pulse of
energy into a defined amount of time known as
a bit time.
 Bit time is the time it takes for a NIC at OSI
Layer 2 to generate 1 bit of data and send it out
to the media as a signal.
 Ex: network interface card (NIC) at a
determined speed, such as 10 Mbits/s.
 Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding
 Different signaling methods vary in the way they
represent bits in the bit time.
 Three possible variations of a signal that can
represent encoded bits are
■ Amplitude
■ Frequency
■ Phase
Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding
 Explain that network communication at this layer
consists of individual bits encoded onto the Physical
layer and describe the basic encoding techniques
Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding

 Signaling methods can be very complex.

 Two methods
•nonreturn to zero (NRZ) and
•Manchester encoding

 provides a fundamental for understanding of their

function in the physical layer.
Nonreturn to Zero
 The signaling method known as nonreturn to zero
(NRZ) samples the voltage level on the medium during
a bit time.
 A low voltage being 0 and a higher voltage representing
a 1.
Manchester Encoding
 Manchester encoding is a signaling method that looks
for a change in voltage in the middle of a bit time.
 A voltage change from low to high within the bit time
represents a 1.
 Conversely, a voltage drop within the bit time from a
high to a low voltage represents a 0.
Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding
Modulation
A technique for processing signals in which two waves are
combined to produce a wave that possesses characteristics of
both and can be decoded to separate these characteristics.

 Information wave - the wave containing the signal you want to

transmit.

 Carrier wave - the wave that is modulated, and whose properties

are constant and known to both the sender and receiver.

 Guided waves - waves that are bound to a carrier wave’s

frequency.
Modulation

 Modulator - the device that imposes the message

signal on the carrier signal at the transmission end.

 Demodulator - separates the message from the carrier

signal at the receiving end.

 Modem - a device used to convert digital into analog

signals and analog into digital signals.
Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation

t =>
Frequency Modulation

A method of modulation in which the frequency of the

carrier signal is modified by the addition of the message
signal.

 Frequency shift keying (FSK) - when FM signals are

converted into digital signals, the differing frequencies
are conveyed as either 0s or 1s.
Frequency Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

The process of converting analog signals into digital

signals

 Sampling - the first step in converting analog signals to

digital signals is to measure the amplitude of an analog
signal at multiple instants.

The higher the sampling rate, the more closely the digital signal
resembles the original analog signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Data-Carrying Capacity
 Each physical layer medium carries data at a different
speed.
 There are three different ways to analyze the transfer
speed of data on a medium:
■ Theoretically as bandwidth
■ Practically as throughput
■ Qualitatively as goodput
 Data-Carrying Capacity
 Bandwidth - Theoretically
•Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data in a given
amount of time.
•The standard measure for bandwidth is in bits per second
(bps).
•As the technologies have improved over the years, it has
become more practical to refer to bandwidth in kilobits, or
thousands of bits per second (kbps), and megabits, or millions
of bits per second (Mbps).
 Data-Carrying Capacity
 Throughput - Practically
•Throughput is the actual transfer rate of data over the medium
in a period of time.
•Throughput, like bandwidth, is measured in bits per second.
•Many factors influence throughput, including the following:
• The amount of traffic
• The type of traffic
• The number of network devices encountered on the
network being measured
 Data-Carrying Capacity
 Goodput - Qualitatively
•Goodput is the transfer rate of actual usable data bits.
•The difference between goodput and throughput can vary
greatly depending on the quality of network connections and
devices.
•Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing
sessions, acknowledgments, and encapsulation.
•As an example,
•The bandwidth of the LAN is 100 Mbps.
•Because of the sharing and media overhead, the throughput is
only 60 Mbps.
•With the overhead of the encapsulation process of the TCP/IP
stack, goodput, is only 40 Mbps.
Data-Carrying Capacity
Physical Media: Connecting Communication
 The physical layer defines how bits are presented in the
form of voltage, light pulses, and radio signals.
 Several different Ethernet standards for copper and
fiber-optic media:
Copper Media
 The most pervasive media in use for data transfer in
local networks is copper.
 There are different types of copper cable designed to
meet the specific needs of different networks.
 The most common is unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs.
 Others are coaxial cable and shielded twisted-pair
cables.
 Copper is an effective medium because it conducts
electrical signals very well, but it has its limitations.
Copper Media : Limitations
 Data travels on copper cables as small pulses of
electrical voltage.
 The voltage is quite low and easily distorted by outside
interference and signal attenuation.
 Attenuation is the loss of energy in a signal as it travels
longer distances.
 Signals are susceptible to interference or noise from
outside the communications system.
 Radio waves and electromagnetic devices, such as
fluorescent lights, electric motors, and other devices,
are potential sources of noise.
Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send

the multiple data streams over a single medium.
 The process of combining the data streams is known
as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is
known as a multiplexer.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Multiplexer (MUX).
 Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
Why Multiplexing?

 The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender

to receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some
portion of the available bandwidth.
 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a
possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such
collision.
 Transmission services are very expensive.
Concept of Multiplexing

• More than one signal can be sent over a single

medium.

• The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized

effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels.
Mux Demux bandpass
filters
Modulator: carrier f1 Demodulator: carrier f1

FDM
Modulator: carrier f2 sub-channel 1 Demodulator: carrier f2
sub-channel 2
sub-channel 3

Modulator: carrier f3 Demodulator: carrier f3

Channel

One physical channel:

Multiple logical sub-channels
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate

at the same time with different frequency, but in case of Time
Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time.

Mux: with
Input data interleaving Demux Output data
a2 a1 a1

TDM
b1 b1

c1 c1

Channel

One physical channel:

Multiple logical sub-channels
Synchronous TDM
Concept Of Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
Characteristics & Uses of Network Media
UTP
 The most common copper network media is unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP) cable.
 UTP in Ethernet consists of eight wires twisted into four
color-coded pairs and then wound inside a cable jacket.
UTP
 The colored pairs identify the wires for proper
connection at the terminals.
 There are several categories of UTP cable. Each
category indicates a level of bandwidth performance as
defined by the IEEE.
 Category 3 (Cat 3) to Category 5 (Cat 5), 100-megabit
transmissions.
 In 1999, Cat 5e, full-duplex Fast Ethernet gigabit
 In 2002, Category 6 (Cat 6). Allow higher performance
and less crosstalk.
UTP : Connector
 The most common UTP cable connector in LAN
devices is an RJ-45 connector.
 Most computers accessing a network through cable use
an RJ-45 connector plugged into the computer network
interface card at one end and a hub or switch device at
the other.
Coaxial cable
 One of the first types of copper cable used
 Has a single, coated copper wire center and an outer
metal mesh that acts as both a grounding circuit and an
electromagnetic shield to reduce interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair
 Technology that has become less commonly used in
recent years.
 STP cable combines two methods of noise reduction by
twisting the pairs of wire inside the cable to reduce
interference and then shielding the cable in a wire
mesh.
Copper Media Safety
 Because copper carries electrical current, there is an
inherent risk in using it.