Name:

 ________________________________________________   Section:____________  
 
EAS 1600 – Fall 2018
Lab 02: Solar Radiation and Beyond

Lab  Objectives:  
In  the  first  part  of  this  lab  we  will  investigate  radiation  laws  and  learn  how  they  apply  to  
the  Earth  as  a  planet,  while  the  second  part  will  explore  the  influence  on  this  by  the  
greenhouse  effect.  We  will  study  dependence  of  energy  flux  on  the  distance  from  the  point  
source.  We  also  will  discuss  characteristics  of  an  ideal  blackbody  and  concepts  of  albedo,  
absorbed  and  radiated  energies  and  how  these  combine  to  produce  the  effective  planet  
temperature.  Finally  we  will  address  how  greenhouse  gases  affect  this  value.  
   
At  the  end  of  this  lab,  you  should  be  able  to:  
• Solar  Radiation:  
o Define  a  perfect  blackbody;  
o Understand  the  Earth’s  energy  balance;    
o Relate  radiative/solar  flux  and  albedo  to  the  Earth’s  effective  temperature;  
o Calculate  the  solar  (energy)  flux  under  experimental  conditions;  
o Describe  and  explain  what  effects  laboratory  conditions  and  parameters  of  
the  experimental  setup  have  on  Earth’s  effective  temperature  in  this  
experiment.  
• Additional,  via  short  activity  and  demo:  
o Briefly  explain  seasons    
o Briefly  explain  the  greenhouse  effect  and  how  greenhouse  gasses  affect  
temperatures    

Theoretical  background:  Radiation  

Electromagnetic  radiation.    One  of  the  ways  to  transfer  energy  from  one  body  to  
another  is  through  radiation  or,  more  precisely,  electromagnetic  radiation.  Unlike  in  the  
case  of  conduction  and  convection,  electromagnetic  radiation  does  not  require  direct  
contact  of  the  bodies  or  the  presence  of  a  medium  between  them.  Electromagnetic  
radiation  is  a  propagating  wave  that  has  alternating  electric  and  magnetic  components.  
Like  all  waves,  an  electromagnetic  wave  can  be  described  by  its  wavelength  or  frequency.  
The  variety  of  the  electromagnetic  waves  that  exist  in  nature  is  shown  in  Figure  1.  
 
Radiation  laws.  The  intensity  and  wavelength  of  the  electromagnetic  radiation  emitted  
by  all  bodies  is  described  by  radiation  laws.  All  bodies  generate  electromagnetic  radiation,  
but  they  do  it  differently.  Some  materials  are  very  efficient  in  both  radiating  and  absorbing  
radiation  and  some  are  not.  An  ideal  body  that  is  a  100%  -­‐  efficient  emitter  and  absorber  is  
called  a  blackbody.  The  Stefan-­‐Boltzmann  law  states  that  a  blackbody  that  has  temperature  
T  radiates  electromagnetic  energy,  and  the  flux  of  this  energy  (amount  of  power  passing  
through  a  unit  area)  is  equal  to  
 
S=σ  T  4  ,  
 
where  σ  is  the  Stefan-­‐Boltzmann  Constant,  σ  =    5.67x10-­‐8  W  m-­‐2  K-­‐4,  and  S  is  an  energy  flux  
(solar  irradiance)  in  Watts  per  square  meter,  W/m2.      
 

 
Figure  1.  The  classification  and  corresponding  wavelengths  of  electromagnetic  radiation  -­‐  the  
electromagnetic  spectrum.  Image  edited  from  http://hyperphysics.phy-­‐astr.gsu.edu  
 

 
Figure  2.  Blackbody  radiation  curves.  Image  from  http://hyperphysics.phy-­‐astr.gsu.edu  
 
Blackbodies  do  not  radiate  at  a  single  wavelength,  but  rather  over  a  wide  diapason  of  
frequencies  (wavelengths),  as  shown  in  Figure  2.  
 

  2  
 The  wavelength  at  which  this  radiation  has  a  maximum  flux  is  determined  by  Wien’s  
law:  
 
2898  µμm ∙ K
𝜆!"# =  
𝑇
 
where   λmax  is  the  wavelength  of  the  maximum  radiation  flux  in  micrometers  and  T  is  the  
temperature  of  the  body  in  Kelvins.  Wien’s  and  Stefan-­‐Boltzmann  laws  tell  us  that  the  
warmer  the  body  is,  the  more  it  radiates,  and  a  maximum  of  its  radiation  shifts  toward  a  
shorter  wavelength  as  the  temperature  of  the  body  increases.  
 
The  Inverse-­‐Square  Law.  Consider  the  point  source  radiating  total  power  P  at  distance  
R  from  the  point  of  observation.  We  can  assume  that  the  energy  from  the  source  is  evenly  
distributed  over  the  sphere  with  radius  R.  The  area  of  this  sphere  is  4π R2  ,    and  therefore,  
the  energy  flux  (solar  flux  or  solar  irradiance)  S  passing  through  the  point  of  observation  
will  be  equal  to  the  amount  of    power  passing  through  a  unit  area  (1m2)  of  this  sphere:  
   
total power
S= =P .                                                                (1)  
area this power is spread over 4πR 2

 
Figure  3.  Inverse-­‐Square  Law  demonstrating  the  distribution  of  energy  through  shells  o f  d ifferent  
radii,  R.  
 
Now  consider  a  different  sphere,  with  radius  R0.  The  total  power  P  has  not  changed,  
while  the  area  this  energy  is  distributed  over  is  equal  to  4π R02,  and  therefore  the  flux  at  
this  sphere  (at  a  distance  R0    from  the  source)    is     S 0 = P 2  
4πR0
Comparison  of  the  expressions  for  S  and  S0  yields  an  inverse-­‐square  law:  
 

  3  
 2
⎛ R ⎞
S = S 0 ⎜ 0 ⎟ ,  
⎝ R ⎠
that  relates  unknown  flux  S  at  distance  R  to  the  known  flux  So  at  some  reference  distance  
Ro.  Basically,  it  says  that  the  intensity  of  radiation  decreases  as  an  inverse  square  of  the  
distance  from  the  source.  
 
Energy  budget  and  planet  effective  temperature.  According  to  the  principle  of  
conservation  of  energy,  the  net  radiative  energy  gained  by  arbitrary  body  in  a  unit  time  
(Enet)  is  defined  by  the  difference  of  incoming  (Ein)  and  outgoing  (Eout)  energy.  
 
Enet  =  Ein  –  Eout  
 
 The  incoming  energy  Ein  due  to  some  distant  source  depends  on  energy  flux  S  (the  
amount  of  energy  passing  through  the  unit  area  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  
propagation,  W/m2)  impinging  the  body,  and  cross-­‐sectional  area  A  that  intercepts  this   ⊥

flux:  
 
Ein = A⊥ ⋅ S ⋅ (1 − a )  
 
where  a  is  the  albedo  of  the  body.  The  albedo  is  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  energy  lost  via  
reflection  or  scattering  to  the  total  incident  energy  (perfectly  reflecting  requires  a  =  1,  
while  perfectly  absorbing  requires  a  =  0):    
 
reflected energy
a=  
total incident energy
   
   
Total  outgoing  energy  of  the  body  according  to  Stefan-­‐Boltzmann  law  is  equal  to  
outgoing  radiative  flux  times  total  surface  area  of  the  body  𝐴! :  
 
Eout=   A∑ ⋅ σ ⋅ T 4                                                                                    (2)  
 
Putting  all  the  parts  of  the  energy  balance  together,  the  following  equation  could  be  
obtained:  
Enet = A⊥ ⋅ (1 − a) ⋅ S − A∑ ⋅ σ ⋅ T 4                                                                              (3)  
 
At  the  equilibrium  (or  steady  state)  case  Enet=0  and  absorbed  energy  should  be  equal  to  
radiated  energy,  otherwise  the  body  would  warm  or  cool  with  time.    Effective  body  
temperature  T  b  is  therefore  constant  in  time  when  Enet=0,  and  can  be  found  from  (1)  as    
 
!/!
𝐴! ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 1 − 𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜
𝑇!"" =  
𝐴! ∙ 𝜎
 

  4  
 For  the  case  of  the  spherical  body  with  radius  r,  the  ratio  of  the  cross-­‐section   A⊥ = π ⋅ r 2  
and  total  area   A∑ = 4 ⋅ π ⋅ r 2  is  equal  to  4.    Therefore,  equation  (2)  simplifies  to  a  common  
expression  for  the  planet  effective  temperature:  
 
!/!
𝑆 ∙ 1 − 𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜
𝑇!"" =  
4∙𝜎
 
(4)  
 

Theoretical  background:  Seasons  

Energy from the sun does not distribute equally across the Earth at a given time – the
curvature and tilt of the Earth means that while some areas get direct sunlight, most other areas
have that energy distributed across larger areas (see figures 4). Curvature of the Earth alone is
enough to cause a difference in radiative flux between the latitudes; however, it is Earth’s tilt that
allows for variations in this radiative flux distribution throughout the year – what we know as
seasons.

 
Figure 4. The same amount of sunlight covers different areas at Earth’s surface, producing less energy per
unit area at the polar latitudes than the equatorial latitudes.

Instead of rotating with a spin axis vertical relative to the direction of motion around the sun,
Earth’s spin axis is tilted by ~23.4° and with that spin axis pointed towards the North Star (this is
why if you look at long exposure pictures of the night sky you see a single point around which
all the other stars appear to rotate). As a result, depending on the location of Earth in its orbit
around the sun, different portions of the surface will receive direct sunlight as the northern end of
the spin axis is either pointed towards the sun (June 21, Northern Summer Solstice) or away
from the sun (Dec 21st, Northern Winter Solstice), as shown in Figure 5. Halfway between these,
on March 20th and September 22nd are the equinoxes, where the tilt is partway between this and
so neither points towards nor away from the sun. You can demonstrate this using your hands,
holding your left in a fist representing the sun and your right with only your thumb and pinky

  5  
stretched out, representing the axis of the Earth; then without changing the angle of your right
hand, move your right hand around your left, mimicking the orbital path of Earth around the sun
and you can see times when the axis points away, towards, and everything in between.
 

 
 

   
Figure 5. Sunlight distributed onto the surface of Earth at equatorial and polar latitudes for three different
times of the year: June 21, the equinoxes (March 20 and September 22), and December 21, with a
corresponding figure showing how often the sun is directly overhead for various latitudes.
 

Theoretical  background:  Greenhouse  Effect  

Greenhouse  gases  and  the  greenhouse  effect.    The  most  abundant  gases  in  Earth’s  
atmosphere  –  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  argon  –  neither  absorb  nor  emit  infrared  radiation  
(heat).  However,  certain  gases  –  known  as  greenhouse  gases  (including  carbon  dioxide  
(CO2),  methane  (CH4),  and  water  (H2O))  –  absorb  and  re-­‐emit  infrared  radiation.  As  such,  as  
earth  radiates  heat,  as  described  in  equation  2,  these  greenhouse  gases  absorb  this  
upward-­‐directed  infrared  radiation  and  reemit  it  in  a  random  direction,  some  of  which  is  
back  down  towards  Earth,  which  ultimately  contributes  to  warming  the  Earth’s  surface  
(Figure  4).  This  process  is  the  greenhouse  effect.  The  net  result  is  that  in  the  presence  of  
  6  
greenhouse  gases,  the  surface  temperatures  will  always  be  greater  than  the  effective  
temperature:  
𝑻𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 > 𝑻𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆  
 

Figure  6:  Comparing  direct  solar  radiation  and  reflection  back  into  space  with  the  greenhouse  effect,  by  which  
infrared  radiation  is  reflected  in  random  directions,  and  warming  the  lower  atmosphere  and  surface  of  the  
Earth.  Image  credit:  www.realscience.org.uk

Online  Resources  (exercises  and  activities)  

https://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/waves2.html  
http://www.cabrillo.edu/~jmccullough/Applets/Applets_by_Topic/EM_Waves.html    
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/blackbody-­‐spectrum  
http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/light/bbexplorer.html  

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Name:  ________________________________________________   Section:____________  
 

Part 1: Solar Radiation

Safety  precautions  
There  are  several  things  to  remember  in  order  to  stay  safe  during  this  lab:    
- First,  as  always,  please  be  careful  with  the  electric  power  cords.  Do  not  pull  
the  cord  and  do  not  move  the  equipment.    
- There  should  be  no  water  spills  on  the  table  where  the  equipment  is  set  up.    
- There  should  be  no  metal  objects  close  to  the  equipment  that  can  get  trapped  
underneath.    
- The  electric  bulb  can  get  very  hot  during  the  operation,  so  make  sure  not  to  
touch  it.  Make  sure  the  bulb  is  not  directed  near  anything  that  has  the  
potential  to  melt.  
- Do  not  look  directly  at  the  bulb  –  it’s  very  bright.  
- Turn  off  the  bulb  as  soon  as  you  are  done  with  your  measurements.  Do  
not  leave  it  on  unattended.  
 

 
Experiment  set-­‐up  and  reference  data.  
The  set-­‐up  consists  of  four  blackened  spheres,  placed  at  the  specified  
distances  (rx)  from  150-­‐Watt  lamp,  as  shown  in  the  diagram  above.  Each  sphere  
represents  a  planet  and  the  lamp  represents  the  Sun.  In  the  set-­‐up,  Mercury  is  
placed  at  5  cm  away  from  the  lamp,  Venus  at  8  cm,  Earth  -­‐  at  11  cm,  and  Mars  -­‐  at  17  
cm,  which  is  proportional  to  the  actual  distances  between  planets  and  Sun.  Each  
sphere  has  a  thermistor  (temperature  sensor)  mounted  inside.  The  thermistor’s  
output  is  resistance  R,  measured  on  Ohms.  In  this  experimental  set-­‐up,  we  are  using  
the  physical  relationship  between  resistance  and  temperature  in  order  to  measure  
resistivity  and  convert  into  temperature  using  a  calibration  curve  or  a  formula.  The  
sensors  are  connected  to  a  multi-­‐position  switch  that  allows  independent  
temperature  measurements  for  4  planets,  one  at  a  time.    The  fifth  planet,  “High-­‐
albedo  Earth”  will  be  used  to  compare  the  effect  of  high  versus  low  albedo  of  a  
planet.    The  radius  of  each  “planet”  is  0.75  cm  
 
Question  1)    Using  your  own  life  experience  (e.g.  wearing  a  black  vs  white  shirt  on  a  
bring  day)  and/or  what  you’ve  learned  in  class,  write  an  hypothesis  that  uses  this  
experimental  set-­‐up  relating  temperature,  distance,  and/or  albedo/reflectivity  
(remember,  a  hypothesis  doesn’t  have  to  be  right,  just  testable):  (2  pts)  
 
 
 
 
Question  2.  Explain  briefly  why  we  can  measure  resistivity  to  determine  
temperature  (i.e.  why  measuring  resistivity  is  acceptable)  (1  pt).  
 
 
 
 

I.  Procedure:  
1. Connect  the  multimeter  probe  cable  to  the  red  and  black  terminals  of  the  lab  
board.  
2. Turn  the  multimeter  on,  and  switch  it  into  resistance  measuring  mode  (Ω).  
3. At  room  temperature  and  with  the  lamp  off,  record  the  resistance  of  the  sensor,  
at  time  0,  for  each  of  the  planets.  Record  your  results  in  Data  Table  1,  row  1.  
The  values  should  be  within  an  8  –  13  kOhm  range.  
4. Turn  the  multi-­‐position  switch  on  the  board  to  the  “Mercury”  position.  
5. Start  the  data  acquisition  by  recording  the  time  (t  =  0)  and  corresponding  
resistance  of  the  sensor  for  Mercury  in  Table  2.  
6. Turn  on  the  Sun  (lamp);  observe  and  record  in  Table  2  how  Mercury  
temperature  (resistance)  changes  with  time.  
7. In  approximately  10  –  15  minutes  the  system  should  come  into  steady  state  (the  
resistance  is  not  changing  any  more  or  is  changing  insignificantly).  You  don’t  
need  to  fill  all  columns  for  Table  2  if  you  have  reached  the  steady  state;  do  not  
spend  more  than  15  minutes  waiting  for  the  system  to  reach  steady  state,  even  
if  the  numbers  are  still  somewhat  changing.  At  this  point  (do  not  turn  the  bulb  off  
yet)  measure  the  resistance  for  all  the  planet  sensors,  consecutively  switching  
the  board  switch.  Let  the  switch  stay  in  each  position  for  at  least  10  seconds.  
Record  the  time  and  your  results  in  Data  Table  1.    
8. Turn  the  lamp  off.  

  9  
 9. Using  the  formula:    T  (°Celsius)  = 100 − 33 × ln( R )    (where  R  is  the  measured  
resistance  in  kOhm),  and  the  relationship  between  Kelvin  and  Celsius  scales      
(K=°C+273),  calculate  the  corresponding  temperatures  for  each  of  your  
measurements.  Record  the  results  in  Data  Table  3.    

 
Data  :  Questions  and  calculations  
Data  Table  1.    (5  points)  

High-­‐Albedo  
Planet   Mercury   Venus   Earth  
Earth  
Mars  

Distance  from  
rMe  ~5cm   rV  ~8cm   rE  ~11cm   rHAE  ~11cm   rMa  ~17cm  
the  “Sun”  
Time,  min   Measured  Resistance,  kOhm  
0          (lamp  off)            

______    (steady  state)            

 
Table  2  (no  points,  but  required  to  be  filled  in  for  credit  for  lab)  
Resistance,  
                               
kOhm  
Time,  min.   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15  

 
Data  Table  3        (5  points)  

Planet  Temperature  
 

Mercury   Venus   Earth   High  Albedo   Mars  

  (TMe)     (TV)     (TE)     Earth  (THAE)   (TMa)    
T,  °C   T,  K   T,  °C   T,  K   T,  °C   T,  K   T,  °C   T,  K   T,  °C   T,  K  

t  =  0                      

____  
(Steady                      
State)  
 
 

  10  
Results:  Questions  and  calculations  
On  a  blank  EXCEL  spreadsheet,  enter  two  columns,  one  for  the  distance  of  each  
planet  (except  high-­‐albedo  Earth)  from  the  Sun  and  the  second  for  the  
equilibrium  steady-­‐state  temperature  (in  Kelvin)  of  the  planet.  Make  a  scatter-­‐
plot  graph  the  effective  temperatures  (Y  axis)  as  a  function  of  distance  (X  
axis),  and  label  your  axes.    
 
 
Question  3.      How  would  you  describe  the  effective  temperature  versus  distance  
dependence?  Circle  the  correct  relationship:      linear        vs        nonlinear;     decreasing          
vs     increasing)  (1  pt).  
 
Question  4.        Use  the  formula  for  effective  planet  temperature  and  solar  flux  (from  
prelab  or  lecture  notes)  to  derive  the  dependence  you  expect  to  find  for  the  effective  
planet  temperature  versus  distance  from  the  sun.  Hint:  Combine  the  equations,  
convert  all  constants  into  a  single  variable  or  use  a  proportional  sign  instead  of  an  
equals  sign,  and  simplify.  Show  your  work!  (6  pts).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
Fit  an  appropriate  trend  line  to  your  experimental  data;  include  the  equation  on  
the  plot.  Have  your  TA  sign  off  on  your  plot  with  the  trendline  and  equation  (4  
pts  for  plot+axes,  2  pts  for  trendline+equation  =  6pts)  
 
 
                    ____________________  
 
 
The  total  power  of  the  “Sun”  in  this  experiment  is  the  wattage  of  the  light  bulb  (150  
W).  You  may  assume  that  these  150  Watts  of  power  are  generated  at  the  exact  
center  of  the  bulb.    
Question  5.      In  your  experiment,  the  flux  of  the  electromagnetic  energy  received  by  
the  “planet”  is  dependent  on:  (Please  write  in  the  space  provided  below)  (2  pts)    
 
1)             and       2)    
 

  11  
Theoretical  Calculations:    These  calculations  provide  the  values  of  what  we  
would  expect  to  get  during  an  experiment  using  known  equations  and  starting  
values  (such  as  the  lightbulb  wattage).  
 
Question  6.    For  your  experiment,  calculate  the  energy  flux,  S,  reaching  “Mercury”.    
Use  the  respective  distance  (Show  your  work,  and  include+check  your  units!).  (5  
pts.)  
   
 
 
 
 
Question  7.      For  your  experiment,  report  the  energy  flux  reaching  “Venus”,  
“Earth”,  and  “Mars”.    Use  the  respective  distances  (include  your  units!).  (1  pt  ea.)  
   
  Venus:      
 
 
  Earth:        
 
 
  Mars:      
 
Question  8.      We  are  assuming  that  the  planets  (spheres)  are  perfect  blackbodies.  How  
would  planet  temperatures  change  if  planets  were  not  blackbodies?  Explain.    (2  pts).  
 

 
Question  9.      How  does  the  energy  flux  at  the  “Earth”  location  (calculated  in  
question  7)  compare  to  the  actual  solar  energy  flux  impinging  the  real  planet  Earth  
(~1370  W/m2)?  What  percentage  is  the  experimental  to  real?  (2  pts.)  
 

 
Question  10.    What  are  the  possible  reasons  for  the  differences  between  the  
theoretical  effective  temperature  and  measured  values?  Are  these  significant?  (2  
pts).  
 
 
 
 
 

  12  
Question  11.  Using  your  result  above  for  Mercury,  calculate  the  theoretical  effective  
temperature  for  “Mercury”  (assumes  the  electric  bulb  as  a  point  source,  spheres  as  
perfect  blackbodies,  and  the  power  of  the  lamp  as  150  W).    Show  your  work  and  don’t  
forget  to  include  units  in  your  formulas.  (5  pts)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Question  12.    Repeat  the  calculation  from  Question  10  and  report  the  value  here  for  
“Venus”,  “Earth”  and  “Mars”.  (1  pt  ea.)  
 
  Venus:        
 
  Earth  (low  albedo  /  black  sphere):      
 
  Mars:        
 
Question  13.    For  the  spheres  (planets)  used  in  your  experiment,  calculate  the  area  
that  intercepts  the  energy  flux  (solar  irradiance)  emitted  by  the  light  bulb  (in  m2).  
Spheres  are  the  same,  so  calculate  just  one  value.  (2  pts)  
 

 
Question  14.    Calculate  the  amount  of  energy  per  unit  time  (in  Watts)  that  is  received  
(Ein)  by  the  “Earth”  sphere  in  your  experiment,  assuming  it’s  a  black  body.  Use  the  flux  
from  question  8  and  the  intercepting  area  from  17.  (2pts)  
   

 
Question  19.  Calculate  the  total  surface  area  of  any  of  the  spheres  (planets)  in  
your  experiment  (in  m2).  (2  pts).  
 

  13  
Question  20.      Calculate  the  energy  emitted  (Eout)  by  the  blackbody  “Earth”  sphere  in  
your  experiment.  Use  the  temperature  from  your  experiment.      (2  pts)  
 

 
Question  21.  On  the  real  Earth,  what  could  lower  the  albedo  and  increase  the  
planet  effective  temperature?      (2  pts)  
       

 
Question  22.  On  the  real  Earth,  what  could  serve  as  high-­‐albedo  shield  to  lower  the  
planet  effective  temperature?      (2  pts)  
       

 
Question  23.      Most  of  the  energy  is  radiated  by  the  Earth  into  the  outer  space  in  
form  of  (choose  one  from  the  following)  (1  pts):      
 
A.  X-­‐ray    
B.  Radiowaves  
C.  Infrared    
D.  Visible  light    
E.  Ultraviolet  
 
Question  24.      Write  a  simple  qualitative  total  energy  balance  equation  for  an  arbitrary  
planet,  which  would  include  incoming  and  outgoing  energy.  Assume  that  the  
temperature  of  the  planet  is  not  changing  in  time  (steady  state).  Draw  a  simple  
Diagram/Figure  of  another  real  world  application  of  energy  balance.  (2  pts):      
 

 
 
 
Part 2: Seasons
Use Figures 4 and 5, as well as any lecture notes, to assist with the following.

Question 25: Draw an approximate comparative area distribution (in the form of a circle
or ellipse) f for 23.5°N latitude (Tropic of Cancer), the equator, and 23.5°S latitude

  14  
(Tropic of Capricorn). Note these do not correspond exactly to the three rays shown in
Figure 5. One is completed below for you to see.

Northern Hemisphere Summer Solstice:

23.5°  
0°  (eq.)   23.5°  S  
N  

Equinox (3 pt):

Northern Hemisphere Winter Solstice (3 pt):

Question 26: Explain how the difference in flux (where the same energy is spread across
different areas) at different times of the year influences what we come to know as
seasons. (4 pt)

Question 27: How might sunlight passing through the atmosphere further affect the
above? (2 pt)

Question 28: Give a hypothesis of how changing a planet’s tilt will affect the seasons
and a simple test or set of measurements that could be done to verify this. (3 pts)

  15  
 Part 3: Introduction to Greenhouse Gasses Demo
 

Greenhouse  Demo:  
In  this  short  demo,  you  will  be  comparing  three  flasks  of  air,  one  with  standard  
air  acting  as  a  control,  a  second  containing  extra  carbon  dioxide  (CO2),  and  a  third  
with  both  extra  CO2  and  H2O.  This  will  test  for  any  difference  in  temperature  when  
heat  is  applied  to  each  system.    We  will  use  vinegar  and  baking  soda  to  acquire  our  
CO2  for  this  demo.  
Vinegar  and  Baking  Soda  react  when  they  come  in  contact  with  one  another,  
causing  a  fizzing  reaction  that  you  may  have  observed  before.    The  fizzing  and  
bubbling  indicates  that  a  gas  is  being  produced  as  the  solid  baking  soda  and  liquid  
vinegar  react.    Chemically,  here  is  the  process:  
 
Vinegar  (acetic  acid):    CH3COOH  
Baking  soda  (sodium  bicarbonate):    NaHCO3  
      CH3COOH    +    NaHCO3    -­‐-­‐-­‐>    CH3COONa    +    H2CO3  
That  last  product  is  carbonic  acid  which  quickly  decomposes  (falls  apart)  into  
carbon  dioxide  and  water:  
      H2CO3    -­‐-­‐-­‐>    H2O    +    CO2  
The  CO2  is  what  you  see  foaming  and  bubbling  in  this  reaction.  
 
CO2  gas  is  more  dense  than  air.    It  will  stay  in  the  beaker,  forcing  out  the  air.    You  
can  pour  CO2  gas  out  the  beaker,  just  like  you  would  pour  a  liquid.    You  can  feel  the  
CO2  being  poured  out  of  the  beaker  because  it’s  cold.    The  reaction  with  baking  soda  
and  vinegar  is  “endothermic”  meaning  it  requires  energy,  leaving  the  products  of  the  
reaction,  including  CO2,  cold.      

Room Temperature:
Table 4. Temperature change for “typical” air vs increased CO2 and H2O+CO2.
Temperature Readings at…

1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min 5 min

“Typical” Air

High-CO2

H2O + CO2

  16  
Results:
Question 29: What conclusions can you reach given the results from this experiment?
Specifically, how does the “typical” air compare with high-CO2 and CO2 + H2O? (5 pts)

Question 30: In what ways do you need to be careful in comparing the results from CO2
only with the results from the flask that contained the full reaction? (5 pts)
 

  17