RESEARCH WRITING GUIDELINES

BY

DR. S. OBWATHO

MAY 2017
 TITLE FORMULATION

All scientific experiments share one central design characteristic, namely, the attempt to identify

a cause-effect relation. For example, an article bearing the title Drinking Alcohol and Driving

Impairment clearly advertises itself as a discussion on how drinking alcohol affects driving.

Drinking alcohol is the cause and impairment in driving is the effect. The phrase “Drinking

Alcohol” is the Independent Variable (IV) while “Driving Impairment” is the Dependent

Variable (DV). A “variable” is anything that can be measured or quantified. In this case, if we

assume that the article is reporting an experiment, we can infer that some treatment was

administered (IV), such as the measured intake of alcohol, and some driving test score was

obtained for every subject (DV).

It helps to remember that experimenters think in terms of DVs and IVs just as librarians think in

terms of subject headings. It is a natural and automatic focus, though it takes some practice to

attain it. Inspecting the titles of scientific articles reveals that the majority of those that report

experiments are based on the IV-DV format. Decoding this structure in titles is sometimes a

problem because there are a variety of stylistic ways of expressing this simple underlying cause-

effect relationship. For instance, it takes a little more processing to decode the title Alcohol

Consumption Rates and Highway Fatalities since the phrase "Alcohol Consumption Rates" must

be translated into "Drinking Alcohol" and "Highway Fatalities" must be paraphrased as "Driving

Impairment." Note that variables in titles are also keywords in a field.

Some frequently used formats for titles of experimental research are summarized by the

following sentence frames:

 The Effect of IV on DV

The Role of IV on DV (or in DY)

DV as a Result of IV

IV and DV (or DV and IV)

IVl and IV2 as determinants of DVl, DV2, and DV3

DV characteristics of IV Systems

DV1 and DV2 in IVl

The IV always refers to an experimental treatment or intervention. The DV always refers to

the measured consequences of the intervention or manipulation.
 RESEARCH FORMAT
1) All preliminary pages should STRICTLY follow the order given on this document (see
page 2, onwards).
2) Abstract is single spaced and not paragraphed
3) No project reports should be handed in for post-defense checking without permit and
letter of authorization from NACOSTI
4) Margins are as follows: -

 Top: one inch

 Bottom: one inch
 Right: one inch
 Left: one and a half inches

5) Page numbers should appear at the top right corner of the page
6) Chapter and section headings

- Centered

- At the very TOP of the page

- Capitalized

EFFECTS OF DRUG USE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONGST

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS WITHIN MOMBASA COUNTY: A CASE
STUDY OF SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KONGOWEA
 FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME SURNAME

09MMBA502

AN APPLIED RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION DEGREE IN THE BUSINESS SCHOOL OF AFRICA
NAZARENE UNIVERSITY

ii
OCTOBER 2017

DECLARATION

I declare that this applied research project or proposal is my original work and that it has not
been presented in any other university for academic credit
Signature: --------------------------------------------------------- Date:
---------------------------------------

Name of student: Phillip Kasusi

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION

This applied research proposal is submitted for examination with my/our approval as the
university supervisor(s)

Or

I/we confirm that the work reported in this applied research project was carried out by the
candidate under my/our supervision

Signature: --------------------------------------------------- Date: ---------------------------------

Name of supervisor: Dr. Nick Kaweli

AFRICA NAZARENE UNIVERSITY,

NAIROBI, KENYA

iii
DEDICATION

(Dedicate your work to whoever you want to, without many stories about those people)
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii
DEDICATION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv

ABSTRACT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF TABLES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF FIGURES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DEFINITION OF TERMS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.2 Background of the Study-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.3 Statement of the Problem -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4 Objectives of the Study -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4.1 General Objective -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.4.2 Specific Objectives ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.5 Research Questions/Hypotheses---------------------------------------------------------------------

1.6 Significance of the Study ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.7 Scope of the Study ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.8 Limitations of the Study -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.9 Delimitations of the Study ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.10 Conceptual Framework -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

v

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ---------------------------------------------------------

2.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.2 Theoretical Review --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.3 Empirical Review -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.4 Summary of the Reviewed Literature ------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5 Knowledge Gap -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY --------------------------

3.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.2 Research Design -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3 Research Site and Rationale -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.4 Target Population -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.5 Sampling Procedures -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.6 Sample Size -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.7 Data Collection Procedures -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.8 Research Instruments -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.8.1 Piloting of Research Instruments -------------------------------------------------------------

3.8.2 Validity of Findings --------------- ------------------------------------------------------------

3.8.3 Reliability of Research Instruments ---------------------------------------------------------

3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation -------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.10 Ethical Considerations ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS --------------

4.1 Introduction
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.2 Response Rate ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.3 Demographic Characteristics ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Data analysis and Presentation (based on research objectives, headings numbered accordingly) -- vi
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.1 Introduction
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.2 Summary of Major Findings (based on the research objectives) -----------------------------------

5.3 Discussion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.4 Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.5 Recommandations -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5.6 Areas for Further Studies ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

REFERENCES: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDICES: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDIX I:------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------

APPENDIX II:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDIX III: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPENDIX IV: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Key items to note regarding Table of Contents

1. It should be auto-generated and not manually typed

2. Students presenting proposals should include the following documents under appendices
(I) Research budget and (II) Research Schedule showing clear timelines and milestones
3. Students presenting final project reports should include the following documents under
Appendixes-(1) Introduction letter, (2) Research instruments, (3) ANU letter of Research
Authorization (4) NACOSTI letter of Research Authorization and (5) NACOSTI letter
permit
 APA CITATION AND REFERENCING

KEY POINTS

1. Ensure that all references used in-text are also listed on the reference list.
2. Ensure that your reference list conforms EXACTLY to the example given below
including ALL PUNCTUATIONS, ALL FONT STYLES and ALL SPACES.
3. Table headings appear above the table while figure headings appear below the figures
4. For any table or figure, heading numbering is formatted using chapter number followed
by figure/table identifier. Example the 1st figure in chapter 4 should be Figure 4.1
meanwhile the 3rd table in chapter 2 will be Table 2.3

In-text Citations

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the
author’s last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, for
example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of
the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or
making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference. All sources
that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

CITING AN AUTHOR OR AUTHORS

A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses
(brackets) each time you cite the work. Use the word “and” between the authors’ names within
the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.

Within text (or with signal phrase)

Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports the argument that people are
inquisitive.

In parenthesis (or without signal phrase)

 People are inquisitive (Wegener & Petty, 1994).

A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the
first time you cite the source. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and
use the ampersand in the parentheses.

(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by “et al.” in the signal
phrase or in parentheses.

(Kernis et al., 1993)

In et al., et should not be followed by a period.

Six or More Authors: Use the first author’s name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in
parentheses.

Harris et al. (2001) argued...

or

…(Harris et al., 2001).

Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal
phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or
underlined; titles of articles, chapters, and web pages are in quotation marks.

An example from an article entitled “Using APA”

A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers (“Using
APA,” 2001).

Note: In the rare case the word “Anonymous” is used for the author, treat it as the author's name
(Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.
Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention
the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the
source.

According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...

If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first
time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations.

First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)

Subsequent citations: (MADD, 2000)

Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical citation includes two
or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-
colon.

(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)

Authors with the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names.

(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two sources by the
same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in
the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.

Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwords: When citing an Introduction, Preface,

Foreword, or Afterwords in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual.

(Funk & Kolln, 1992)

Personal Communication: For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person
communication, cite the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication, and
the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list.

(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).

or

A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style
(personal communication, November 3, 2002).

Citing Indirect Sources: If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original
source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the
secondary source in the parentheses.

Johnson argued that... (as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).

Note: When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above. However,
try to locate the original material and cite the original source.

Electronic Sources: If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by
using the author-date style.

Kenneth (2000) explained...

Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal
phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation “n.d.” (for
“no date”).

Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with
tutoring (“Tutoring and APA,” n.d.).

Sources without Page Numbers: When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try
to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic
document has numbered paragraphs, use the abbreviation “para.” followed by the paragraph
number (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes
headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note
that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their
browser to locate any passages you cite.

According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter section, para. 6).

Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication,
and the page number for the reference (preceded by “p.”). Introduce the quotation with a signal
phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses
(Brackets).

According to Jones (1998), “Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it
was their first time” (p. 199). 

Jones (1998) found “students often had difficulty using APA style” (p. 199); what implications
does this have for teachers?

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication,
and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, “Students often had difficulty using APA style” (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she
did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long Quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten lines,
and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left
margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph (if your paragraphs were
indented). Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any
subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-
spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark
(after the full stop).

Jones's (1998) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style,

especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to
 the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for

help. (p. 199)

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to
also provide the page number (although it is not required).

According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for

first-time learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998,
p. 199).

REFERENCE LIST EXAMPLES

Citing a Book: Two authors, in print

Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of Macro-Economics (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Journal article, two authors

Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing Disparities Consultation and Outreach Strategies

for University Settings. Consulting Psychology Journal, 59(4), 286-295.

 Journal article, two authors, accessed online with Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing Disparities Consultation and Outreach Strategies

for University Settings. Consulting Psychology Journal, 59(4), 286-295. doi:10.1037/1065-

9293.59.4.286

Journal article, two authors, accessed online without DOI

Kenneth, I. A., & Kammer, A. C. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature

of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8(2). Retrieved from

http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

Newspaper article, no author, in print

As Prices Surge, Thailand Pitches OPEC-style rice cartel. (2008, May 5). The Wall Street Journal, p.

A9.

Magazine article, in print

Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we Love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.

FONTS, STYLE AND LANGUAGE

- Research work must be: -

o Double spaced (Except abstract that is single spaced)
o Font 12,
 o Black font
o Times New Roman
- Language used must be: -
o British English
o Official language
o Simple language (avoid technical terms where simpler terms exist)
 GRADUATE RESEARCH ROADMAP
LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 LEVEL 4 LEVEL 5 LEVEL 6 LEVEL 7

NOT BEGUN SYNOPSIS SUPERVISOR PROPOSAL APPROVAL FOR FINAL AMENDMENTS

-ATTENDING WRITING ALLOCATION - DEFENSE DATA COLLECTION PROJECT UNDER THE DIRECTION
RESEARCH (Topic within BY CHAIR OF DEFENSE OF UNIVERSITY
TALK area of PROGRAM LIBRARIAN (MAIN
concentration) CAMPUS)
( FOR RESEARCH
PERMIT- ASK MR.
KANYI FOR LETTER)
A)
POST DEFENSE
PAYMENT OF STUDENT PROPOSAL WRITING -PROPOSAL DATA COLLECTION AMENDMENTS – SUBMISSION OF COPIES
FULL REQUESTS STAGE AMENDMENT AFTER WHICH + PAYMENT TO
RESEARCH FEE FOR STAGE SUPERVISOR LIBRARY (MAIN
+ ALLOCATION FILLS A CAMPUS) FOR BINDING
REGISTRATION OF NOTIFICATION
FOR RPJ 617 SUPERVISOR OF COMPLETION SUBMISSION OF A
– Allocation OF POST – PDF SOFTCOPY OF
takes 3 DEFENSE THE FINAL PROJECT 
WEEKS AMENDMENTS
B)
Plagiarism checking ALL COPIES
and pre-defense AMENDMENTS – DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTED TO SUBMISSION OF GRADE
AFTER WHICH REPORT WRITTING THE UNIVERSITY (BY DEPARTMENT) TO
evaluation: Students SUPERVISOR FILLS LIBRARIAN MUST EXAMS DEPARTMENT
submit one duly signed A NOTIFICATION BE DULLY AFTER RECEIPT OF
copy to the department OF COMPLETION SIGNED ONE DEPARTMENTAL
and await further OF POST –DEFENSE COPY OF THE BOUND
AMENDMENTS PROJECT
instructions regarding
C) plagiarism checking
SUBMISSION OF 4
DULLY SIGNED SUBMISSION OF 4 CLEARANCE WITH THE
COPIES (3 WEEKS DULLY SIGNED UNIVERSITY
BEFORE PROPOSAL COPIES (3 WEEKS DEPARTMENTS AND
DEFENSE) BEFORE PROJECT AWAITING
DEFENSE) GRADUATION

D)
 FINAL PROJECT CHECKLIST
A. Coherence

Pick on someone/other persons to help you with proof reading your work. No document will be bound with grammatical and

coherence issues

B. General Formatting

 Times New Roman

 Font 12

 Black Font

 Double spaced line spacing

 Page numbers are at the top-right

C. Cover Page

 Follow template on the guidelines accurately; ensure institutional affiliation is exact in wordings, to those of guidelines.

 Ensure it doesn’t read “proposal”

 Remove any full stops from all the parts of cover page

 All words must be vertically and horizontally distributed

 Names appear (in the order) as per your National ID or Passport

D. Preliminary Pages

 Ensure preliminary pages are ordered exactly as per guidelines

 Declaration page should not read “proposal”

 Figures and table should be numbered irrespective of the subheading numbers under which they fall. The first table in

chapter 2 will be "Table 2.1" similarly 14th table in chapter 4 will be "Table 4. 14"

E. APA Referencing

 For parenthetical citations, ensure that there is no full stop or comma before the opening bracket for any citations.

Example … strategy is enjoyable. (George, 2015). A full stop is only accepted if it comes after "al" as used in "et al."

 Use of "et al."

(a) There is no full stop after "et" (b) there is always a full stop after "al." For example “Passing is a fruit of hard work

(Mwangi et al., 2015).” Alternatively, we may use it as follows: "According to Mwangi et al. (2015), passing is a fruit

of hard work."

 Reference List

Ensure all spaces, punctuations, Italicization, brackets are checked ACCURATELY. This is the area where some

students experience a lot of back-and-forths.

F. Title Case

All subheadings, table headings (usually above the table) and figure headings (usually below the figure) should be written in

title case. Meaning the first letters of all key words on such headings are capitalized. For example: "Respondents Feelings on

the Growth of the Scheme."

G. Chapter Four

 The question is converted into subheading

 Explain what the question sought to find out and why the question was necessary

 Usher the figure or table

 Present the figure or table [Figure heading - below the figure. Table heading above the table]

 Discuss the findings presented on the figure/table

 When discussing findings, ensure the figure/table number mentioned in-text is EXACTLY the same as that on the

table/figure itself. Researcher could be pointing readers to “Table 4.3 below” when the table below the text is 4.7.

 There should be no table or figure without accompanying explanation.

 APA tables have only 3 lines (two above and one below)
 The following is an example of a figure and an APA formatted table

(1) How to Label and Present Figures

41-50 50 and Above

15% 2%
21-30
38%

31-40
45%

Figure 4.1 Age Distribution

Source: Author (Year).

 (2) How to Label and Present APA Tables

Table 4.1 Type of Occupation

 Employment Status Frequency Percentage %

Employed 51 85

Self Employed 3 5

Retired 3 5

Student 3 5

Total 60 100

Source: ANU, MBA Department (2016).

H. Paragraph Spacing

Apply correct paragraph spacing between paragraphs throughout the chapters. This should be also observed under dedication

page, acknowledgement page and especially in the chapters. Paragraph spacing should be standard: neither too narrow nor too

wide.

I. COMMON MISTAKES

 Missing Citations: Where in-text references are missing on the reference list (this is a serious omission).

 Empty pages
 Broken tables and figures (first half of a table/figure on one page while the second half is on the next page)

 Hanging subheadings (Subheading on one page while the text underneath is on the next page)

 Failing to include some subheadings on the table of contents

 Words without spaces between. For example, " Iamgoinghomenow"

 Failure to arrange reference list, list of abbreviations, or definition of terms alphabetically

 Numbering the first subheading under a chapter with a ".0" value (example: Introduction 2.0). All opening subheadings

have a value ".1" example: 1.1, 2.1, 3.1

 A figure/table shouldn’t ride on another figure/table. Explanation/discussion should cushion each figure/table

 “Et al.” should not be used on the reference list.