Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

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Gondwana Research
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GR focus review

A review of new interpretations of the tectonostratigraphy, geochemistry and

evolution of the Onverwacht Suite, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa
H. Furnes a,⁎, M. de Wit b, B. Robins c
a
Department of Earth Science and Centre for Geobiology, University of Bergen, Allegt.41, 5007 Bergen, Norway
b
AEON and Faculty of Science, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University 7701, Port Elizabeth, 6031, South Africa
c
Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegt.41, 5007 Bergen, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Paleoarchean (ca. 3.5–3.3 Ga) Onverwacht Suite (OS) of the Barberton Greenstone Belt consists of a
Received 13 February 2012 15‐km thick imbricate tectonic stack of seven complexes consisting predominantly of volcanic rocks and in-
Received in revised form 7 May 2012 trusions. Tectonostratigraphically from base to top they are the Sandspruit, Theespruit, Komati, Hooggenoeg,
Accepted 7 May 2012
Noisy, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes. The Hooggenoeg and Noisy Complexes in the middle of the OS are
Available online 22 May 2012
separated by a significant unconformity resulting from the uplift of the submarine lavas and deep erosion,
Keywords:
demonstrating the onset of tectonic accretion prior to 3455 Ma. The basic lavas of the tectonostratigraphic
Barberton Greenstone Belt lower (Theespruit, Sandspruit and Komati) and upper (Mendon) complexes are composed of komatiite,
Tectonostratigraphy komatiitic basalt and high-MgO basalt, whereas those in the middle part (Hooggenoeg and Kromberg) are
Geochemistry predominantly high- to low-MgO tholeiitic basalts. Felsic volcanic rocks and intrusions are important in
Archean komatiite and basalt two of the complexes (Theespruit and Noisy). The ultramafic to basaltic lavas show REE patterns that are
Tectonic environment almost flat and resemble those of modern MORB, whereas those of the felsic rocks are flat from Lu to Gd
and moderately to strongly enriched in LREE, similar to modern arcs. Average εNd (T) values are close to de-
pleted mantle growth curves. In MORB-normalised multi-element diagrams, the komatiitic to basaltic
rocks exhibit flat patterns from Lu through La and consistent relative enrichment in the elements Pb, U, Th,
Ba and Cs. Apart from the Komati Complex, the majority of the lavas show significant negative Nb and Ta
anomalies. Enrichment in non-conservative incompatible elements (Cs, Ba, Th, LREE) relative to conservative
elements (Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Ti, Y, HREE) shows that the komatiitic to basaltic magmas were generated from
metasomatised mantle above subducting altered oceanic crust. The geochemistry of the felsic rocks indicates
an origin by melting of subducted amphibolite and eclogite. The tectonostratigraphy and the geochemical
characteristics of the lavas and intrusions are consistent with successive obduction and accretion of segments
of oceanic crust formed in back-arc basins and volcanic arcs.
© 2012 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
2. General geology and tectonostratigraphy of the Onverwacht Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3. Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.1. Magma types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.2. Major and trace element characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.3. Nd-isotope geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
3.4. Mantle source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
3.5. Petrogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3.5.1. Komatiite and komatiitic basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3.5.2. Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
3.5.3. Felsic rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4. Tectonic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.1. Were plate-tectonics active at 3.5 Ga? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.2. An intracratonic igneous setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 47 5558 3530; fax: + 47 5558 3660.

E-mail address: harald.furnes@geo.uib.no (H. Furnes).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2012 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2012.05.007
404 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

4.3. Intra-oceanic settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

4.3.1. Igneous activity unrelated to subduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
4.3.2. Subduction-related igneous activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Appendix A. Supplementary Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

1. Introduction 2. General geology and tectonostratigraphy of the Onverwacht Suite

The 3.5–3.1 Ga supracrustal rocks of the Barberton Greenstone
Belt (BGB) within the Kaapvaal Craton of South Africa (Brandl et al.,
2006) (Fig. 1), include well-preserved Palaeoarchean volcanic rocks.
Since the classical work of Viljoen and Viljoen (1969), in which the
volcanic sequence of the BGB was subdivided into formations, collectively
defining the Onverwacht Group, there have been many investigations
of the stratigraphy, structural evolution, geochemistry, petrology and
geochronology of these, and related rocks (e.g. de Wit et al., 1987a;
Armstrong et al., 1990; de Wit et al., 1992; Lopez‐Martinez et al., 1992;
Kröner et al., 1996; Parman et al., 1997; Byerly, 1999; Lowe and Byerly,
1999; Lowe et al., 1999; Vennemann and Smith, 1999; Dann, 2000;
Chavagnac, 2004; de Wit et al., 2011; Furnes et al., 2011; Xie et al.,
2012). The ca. 3480 to 3330 Ma komatiitic and basaltic volcanic se-
quences and intrusives, about 15 km in total thickness, are, however,
cut by at least seven major shear zones, and a regional, angular unconfor-
mity (de Wit et al., 2011). Current subdivision of these sequences into
stratigraphically successive formations takes no account of these com-
plexities. Hence, the traditional ‘formations’ of the Onverwacht Group
of the Barberton Greenstone Belt have been redefined as tectonically-
separated complexes. Collectively these complexes form the Onverwacht
Suite (de Wit et al., 2011). The tectonostratigraphy of the Onverwacht
Suite is thus (from lowest to highest) as follows: Sandspruit, Theespruit,
Komati, Hooggenoeg, Noisy, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes. The
Onverwacht Suite is juxtaposed with the younger clastic sediments of
the Fig Tree and Moodies Groups (Fig. 1).
The geochemistry and petrological evolution of the Onverwacht
volcanic rocks are important for the light they may cast on the com-
position and thermal state of the ancient mantle and the tectonic pro-
cesses that took place at a youthful stage in the evolution of the Earth
(de Wit et al., 1987a; Parman et al., 1997; Byerly, 1999; Vennemann
and Smith, 1999; Chavagnac, 2004). However, most geochemical and
petrological investigations of the Barberton Greenstone Belt have fo-
cussed on the unusual komatiites (mainly from the Komati Complex)
that comprise less than 5% of the total volume of volcanic rocks (Brandl
and de Wit, 1997; Dann, 2000), and hence give a biassed picture of the
magmatic evolution.
Apart from the detailed field-based studies by Dann (2001) and
Dann and Grove (2007) of the tectonostratigraphically central part
of the Onverwacht Suite, relatively little attention has been paid to
the volcanological development of the lavas, particularly in the higher
tectonostratigraphic units. A detailed study of the volcanological
development of the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes and the
lower part of the Mendon Complex was presented recently (Furnes
et al., 2011) and this is complemented by a subsequent study of the
geochemistry and petrology of the lavas (Furnes et al., in press).
Here we provide a summary of new interpretations of the
tectonostratigraphy and the volcanological and geochemical evolu-
tion of the lavas and intrusives in the classic southwestern part of the
Barberton Greenstone Belt. We focus particularly on the upper part of
the Onverwacht Suite, i.e. the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes
and the lower part of the Mendon Complex (as represented in the
Ncakini section).
The tectonostratigraphy of the Barberton Greenstone Belt has
been reviewed recently (de Wit et al., 2011) and the volcanic anatomy
of the upper three complexes (Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes
and the Ncakini section of the lower part of the Mendon Complex) in
the Komati river gorge and its vicinity has been described in some detail
(Furnes et al., 2011). Below we give a summary of these observations,
and provide brief descriptions of each of the complexes. For further de-
tails the reader is directed to the papers by de Wit et al. (2011), Furnes
et al. (2011) and Furnes et al. (in press).
The Onverwacht Suite can be subdivided into seven complexes
separated by thrusts and slides marked by shear zones and in one
case by an angular unconformity (de Wit et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). The
complexes thus form an imbricate tectonic stack that was subse-
quently folded (e.g., by the Onverwacht and Kromberg folds) and
then refolded (e.g., by the Ekulindini and Steynsdorp folds) (Fig. 1).
These folds predate the 3216 Ma Dalmein pluton that cuts across
both limbs of the Kromberg fold (Fig. 1).
The structurally lowest units of the Onverwacht Suite are the
Sandspruit and Theespruit Complexes. The Sandspruit Complex con-
sists largely of basalt and komatiite, while the Theespruit Complex
contains basaltic to dacitic lavas and intrusions. Both complexes have
been extensively intruded by 3460–3440 and 3210–3240 Ma tonalite
to trondhjemite plutons and show higher-grade metamorphism than
the structurally overlying complexes (de Wit et al., 2011, and references
therein). Adjacent to the margins of the plutons the supracrustal rocks
of the Theespruit Complex exhibit amphibolite facies mineral para-
geneses that crystallised at 6–8 kbar and 500–600 °C (Kisters et al.,
2003; Diener et al., 2006; Lana et al., 2010a).
The structurally overlying unit, the Komati Complex, is separated
from the Theespruit Complex by an up to 500 m wide shear zone,
generally known as the Komati Fault (Fig. 2). The almost 3 km thick
volcanic sequence of the Komati Complex can be divided into a lower
part of alternating olivine–spinifex komatiite and mainly massive
komatiitic basalt and basalt, and an upper part of predominantly pillowed
basalt, pyroxene–spinifex komatiitic basalt and very subordinate
komatiite (Dann, 2000). Many of the komatiitic basalts are variolitic and
vesicles are generally rare, but Dann (2001) also showed that the
upper, spinifex textured parts of some thick, massive komatiites are in-
flated lava flows that contain up to 20–25% vesicles (Dann, 2000). The
lavas are invaded by ultramafic (generally wehrlite), mafic and felsic
minor intrusions, both concordant and discordant. Elsewhere in the
BGB, generally concordant, differentiated and layered ultramafic–mafic
intrusions are common. One such body (the Rosentuin Intrusion) is
emplaced into the central part of the Hooggenoeg Complex in the
south-western part of the belt. Some komatiites were also regarded
earlier as shallow sills (Viljoen et al., 1983; de Wit et al., 1987a;
Grove et al., 1997; Parman et al., 1997) but most seem to be flows
(Dann, 2000). The apparent extensive lateral continuity of distinctive
volcanic units suggests the lower part of the Komati sequence formed
a shallow-water volcanic plain. Metamorphic conditions recorded in
the upper part of the Komati Complex are 200–510 °C and 2–5 kbar
during a prolonged evolution from ocean-floor to burial metamorphism
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
Fig. 1. Maps showing the geographic location of the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa (A), the outline of the greenstone belt (B), and a simplified geological map showing
the distribution of the magmatic complexes defining the Onverwacht Suite, and the Fig Tree and Moodies Groups.
Modified after de Wit et al., 2011.
(Cloete, 1999). A discontinuous volcaniclastic bed up to 20 cm thick in
the lower part of the volcanic sequence, with igneous zircons, has
been U/Pb dated to 3481 ± 2 Ma (Fig. 2). This provides the best age con-
straint for the lower part of the complex, and felsic dykes dated to
3467 Ma that cut the Komati Complex provide a minimum age (Kamo
and Davis, 1994). The upper part of the Komati Complex is extensively
sheared throughout the region (Viljoen and Viljoen, 1969; de Wit,
1983; Dann, 2000). In the type area, the Mbjega Shear Zone (Fig. 2) is
up to 200 m thick and consists of anastomosing talc–chlorite–fuchsite
bands with quartz–carbonate veins (Dann, 2000; Dann and Grove,
2007). The Komati Complex is thus a tectonic sheet bounded both at
its lower and upper contacts by concordant shear zones.
The Hooggenoeg Complex (Fig. 2), situated above the Mbjega Shear
Zone, contains the best exposed and most continuous submarine vol-
canic sequence of the Onverwacht Suite. It is predominantly basaltic,
with minor komatiite and basaltic komatiite in its central part and
is up to 2700 m thick. Mapping within the complex reveals interdigi-
tating lavas and mafic to ultramafic sills. A ca. 9 km long NE–SW strike
section along the nearly vertical south-eastern limb of the Onverwacht
Fold reveals that the proportion of lava changes from almost 100% in the
northeast to about 50% in the southwest and this is accompanied by
an increase in total thickness from ca. 2 to 5 km (Fig. 3). The volcanic
sequence has been subdivided into 9 stratigraphic, volcanic units rep-
resenting the principal eruptive phases EP1‐9, as defined by Furnes
et al. (2011). The volcanic units are separated by thin sequences of
highly-silicified lapilli tuff and volcaniclastic rocks (now chert) named
HC1‐10 (Fig. 3). Detrital zircons from HC1 (the Middle Marker Chert,
Fig. 3) have yielded an U/Pb age of 3472 ± 5 Ma (Armstrong et al.,
1990; Kamo and Davis, 1994). The thicknesses of the volcanic units
vary from b100 m to ~700 m. Some are wedge-shaped and die out
over distances of a few km along strike. The 2700 m thick volcanic
sequence in the Hooggenoeg Complex consists of both pillowed and
massive lava flows (see detailed presentation of logged sections HV
1–15, Fig. 4 in Furnes et al., 2011). Low vesicularity in the pillow lavas
(0–3%) suggests that they erupted at a water depth of >2 km (Furnes
405
et al., 2011) (Fig. 4) according to the water depth–vesicularity relation-
ships established by Moore (1965) and Jones (1969). Some pillow ba-
salts exhibit conspicuous flow banding, particularly in the uppermost
part of the lava sequence (section HV15, see Fig. 3). This is a feature
resulting from the mingling and incomplete homogenization of simul-
taneously erupted and compositionally different basalt lava (Robins et
al., 2010). Pillowed and massive basalt displaying large and abundant
pale varioles are found at different places in the volcanic sequence
(see Fig. 4 of Furnes et al., 2011). Commonly their number and sizes
increase inwards from the margins of pillows and they commonly
impinge to form almost homogenous pale coloured pillow cores. The
varioles have been shown to be plagioclase spherulites that crystallised
rapidly from undercooled basalt melt and glass. Their unusual abun-
dance and size may be in part a consequence of the retention of volatiles
due to eruption in deep water (Sandstå et al., 2011). An important
angular unconformity forms the top of the Hooggenoeg Complex.
Over a horizontal distance of ca 5 km, the unconformity cuts down
through 1500 m of the underlying sequence from HC10 to just below
HC6. The unconformity also cuts through intrusions that are emplaced
into the volcanic rocks belonging to the Hooggenoeg Complex (Fig. 3).
The Noisy Complex overlies the deep-marine volcanic rocks and
associated intrusions of the Hooggenoeg Complex with a profound
unconformity that marks uplift and deep erosion. This rock unit con-
sists of dacitic intrusive and volcanic rocks associated with shallow
water clastic and volcaniclastic rocks and an up to 600 m thick chert
at the top (known as the Buck Ridge Chert). This sequence of volcanic
and sedimentary rocks was initially included in the upper part of the
Hooggenoeg Formation s.l. (Viljoen and Viljoen, 1969). Lowe and
Byerly (1999), on the other hand, placed the Buck Ridge Chert into
the lowest part of the overlying unit, the Kromberg Complex (see
below), whereas de Vries (2004) and de Vries et al. (2006) followed
the original definition of Viljoen and Viljoen (1969), but referred to
the sequence informally as “the Buck Ridge Volcano–Sedimentary
Complex (RVSC)”. However, this sequence of dacitic igneous rocks
and associated shallow-water clastic sedimentary rocks and cherts
406 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

Fig. 2. Tectonostratigraphy of the Onverwacht Suite (modified after de Wit et al., 2011). A. Generalised section of the Onverwacht Suite and Fig Tree and Moodies Groups. B and C.
Northwest and southeast limb sections of the Onverwacht Bend (see Fig. 1), after de Vries et al. (2006) and de Wit et al. (2011), respectively.

is lithologically very different from the underlying deep-marine lavas
within the Hooggenoeg Complex (Furnes et al., 2011) and upon which
it rests unconformably and in some places tectonically (de Wit et al.,
1987b; Lowe and Byerly, 1999; de Vries et al., 2006). Hence, de Wit et
al. (2011) elevated its status to a separate entity, the Noisy Complex
(Fig. 2). On the south-eastern limb of the Onverwacht Fold, where the
thick Buck Ridge Chert is absent, the Etimambeni section exposes an
~200 m thick sedimentary sequence of upward-fining diamictite, con-
glomerates, sandstones and minor bedded chert (see Fig. 13 of de Wit
et al., 2011). Within the upper part of this sequence there is a 1–2 m
thick yellowish tuffaceous bed that has yielded zircons that gave an
age of 3455 ± 8 Ma (Biggin et al., 2011). This corresponds with ages
between 3445 and 3458 Ma for felsic lavas, tuffs and volcanoclastics of
the Noisy Complex along the northwestern limb of the Onverwacht
Fold (de Wit et al., 2011; and references therein) and ages of 3445 ± 6
and 3451 ± 5 Ma for dacitic intrusions in the Noisy Complex (de Wit
et al., 1987b; de Vries, 2004, respectively). However, a recent study of
the provenance of the sedimentary rocks in the Etimambeni section
(Grosch et al., 2011) has revealed detrital zircon as young as ca. 3432 ±
10 Ma in the stratigraphically lowest part of this sequence.
The Kromberg Complex has an anastomosing tectonic contact (the
Etimambeni Shear Zone) with the Noisy Complex (Fig. 2). The type
section through the Kromberg Complex exposed along the Komati
River is shown in Fig. 5. The rocks of the Kromberg Complex shown
in Fig. 5 were originally considered to be a continuous sequence of
basaltic and komatiitic volcanic rocks (Viljoen and Viljoen, 1969),
capped by volcaniclastic rocks (corresponding in part to the Ekulindini
Shear Zone) and the 15 m thick Footbridge Chert (Lowe and Byerly,
1999). However, most of the section is occupied by intrusive igneous
rocks. A ~100 m-thick serpentinised dunite and an equally thick fine-
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 407

Fig. 3. Restored section of the Hooggenoeg Complex (after Furnes et al., 2011). The section shows the location of the 15 sections (HV1 trough HV15) where logging and extensive
sampling have been carried out, as well as the subdivision of the volcanic pile into nine eruptive phases (EP1 through EP9), each separated by cherts that marking a hiatus in the
volcanic activity (Furnes et al., in press).

grained gabbro enveloped by chert forms the lowest part of the section
(Fig. 5). The section contains two well-exposed volcanic sequences
(KV1 and KV2) that consist of almost equal amounts of massive and
pillowed lavas, as well as a breccia consisting of fragments of pillow
within a hyaloclastite matrix (Fig. 5). The vesicularity of the pillow
lavas is b5% in KV1 and close to zero in KV2. This corresponds to eruption
at depths of >1800 m (Fig. 4) comparable with the depths of spreading
ridges in modern oceanic back-arc basins, for example 3200–5300 m in
the Mariana back-arc basin (Stüben et al., 1998) and 3200 m in the
Philippine Sea back-arc basin (Chung-Hwa et al., 1990).
The central part of the Komati River section is occupied by coarse-
grained multiple concordant to discordant intrusions of mafic to ul-
tramafic composition, together about 900 m thick. In the middle of
these intrusions there are several thin sheets of basalt, some separated
by narrow screens of chert or pyroxenite (see Fig. 14 of de Wit et al.,
2011), and near top there are several inclusions of pillow lava (Fig. 5).

Kromberg Complex
Evaluationof Vesicularity of pillows: 0-5%
eruption depth
ca. 4000 –1800 m ocean depth

Hooggenoeg Complex
Vesicularity of pillows: 0-3%
ca. 4000 –2300 m ocean depth

4.3% 5.3%

5.3%

5.1% 4.8%

5.3%

Fig. 4. Relationship between the vesicularity of modern pillow lavas and their depth of eruption (after Moore, 1965), showing the estimated volume of vesicles in pillow lavas in the
Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes. The photograph shows pillow lava in section KV1 through the lower part of the Kromberg Complex (see Fig. 5) and the percentage of ves-
icles measured in individual pillows.
Modified from Furnes et al., 2011.
408 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
The age of the Kromberg lavas is unknown. However, they must be
older than 3352 Ma, which is the age of gabbro/dolerite intrusions
that cut the lavas (Armstrong et al., 1990; Kamo and Davis, 1994).
There are several prominent shear zones within the Kromberg Complex,
e.g., the Kromberg Shear Zone and the Hippo Pool Shear Zone near the
top part of the complex (Figs. 2 and 5). The 150 m thick Ekulindini
Shear Zone separates the Kromberg Complex from the structurally over-
lying Mendon Complex (Figs. 2 and 5) and consists of alternating bands
of fuchsite or Cr–chlorite-rich mylonite and quartz–carbonate veins that
envelope a melange of blocks and boudins of metapyroxenite, metabasalt
and pillow lava (de Wit et al., 2011; Grosch et al., 2012).
The Mendon Complex is structurally uppermost in the Onverwacht
Suite (Fig. 1). The type section of the Mendon Complex is on the northern
limb of the Onverwacht fold (Fig. 1) and includes komatiitic to basaltic
lavas and intrusions (Byerly, 1999). The volcanic rocks are interlayered
with chert horizons exhibiting graded beds of accretionary lapilli, inter-
preted as turbidite deposits originating from shallow water pyroclastic
eruptions (Stanistreet et al., 1981; Heinrichs, 1984; Thompson-Stiegler
et al., 2008). Zircons from the stratigraphically lowest of the cherts, the
Footbridge Chert, have given Pb/Pb evaporation dates of 3334±3 Ma
(Kröner et al., 1996). The sequence of lavas in the Mendon Complex
along the Ncakini section is 50 m thick and consists of a series of mas-
sive, variolitic flows, individually 3–9 m thick, some of which are sepa-
rated by thin, discontinuous layers of chert (Fig. 5). The upper part of
the Mendon Complex contains ~3230 Ma rhyodacitic intrusions, volca-
nic and volcaniclastic rocks (de Ronde et al., 1991; de Ronde and de Wit,
1994; Kamo and Davis, 1994; Lowe and Byerly, 1999) and hence is the
youngest igneous complex within the Onverwacht Suite.
3. Geochemistry
This review of the geochemistry of the basaltic and komatiitic
rocks from the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Com-
plexes is primarily based on the analytical data presented in Furnes
et al. (in press), and Chavagnac (2004). Additional sources of data
are Jahn et al. (1982), Lahaye et al. (1995), Byerly (1999), and
Parman et al. (2003, 2004). The data for the felsic volcanic and intru-
sive rocks in the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes are from de Wit et
al. (1987b), Louzada (2003), and unpublished data (Lauren Andrews,
pers. com. G. Stevens 2011).
A central question in studies related to the evaluation of primary
petrogenetic features of ancient magmatic rocks is the mobility of el-
ements during subsequent alteration and metamorphism. Numerous
studies concerning this issue have been carried out (e.g., Mottl, 1983;
Staudigel and Hart, 1983; Seyfried et al., 1988; Gillis and Thompson,
1993; Lahaye et al., 1995; Kelley et al., 2003). A rigorous evaluation
of the compositional differences between the cores and margins of
12 individual pillows (24 samples) and compositional variations in
36 samples collected from 7 massive, and presumably originally
homogeneous, lava flows in the Onverwacht basaltic volcanics has
been carried out (Furnes et al., in press). The originally glassy pillow
rims, now chlorite-rich, are generally enriched in FeO t, MnO, MgO,
K2O, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Zn and Zr, and depleted in SiO2, CaO, Na2O, P2O5,
Sr and Y relative to the cores of the pillows. In the massive flows,
CaO, Na2O, K2O, Zn, Rb and Sr show the largest standard deviations
(>20% of the average concentrations). Ten samples (core-rim pairs
from 3 pillows, and 4 samples from one massive flow) were also
analysed for Cs, Ba, Th, U, Nb, Pb and REE by ICP-MS. The samples
from the 3 pillows show variable differences with respect to these
trace elements, while the standard deviations for the massive flow
are as follows: La, Ce, Pr, U: b5%; Nb, Nd, Sm, Hf, Th: ~6–9%; Eu, Gd,
Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm: ~ 10–15%; Yb: 24%; Lu: 33%; Pb: 39%; Cs, Ba: 63–
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic column through the Kromberg Complex showing sampled sections KV1 and KV2. The upper part of the column includes the lowest part of the Mendon Complex
and section NV1.
Modified from Furnes et al., 2011.
409
65%. As a corollary this study (op. cit) indicates that Ti, Al, Cr, V, Nb,
Ta, Zr, Hf, Y, Pb, Th and the REE are relatively immobile, even during
locally intense alteration and hence preserve geochemical evidence
bearing on the origin and tectonic setting of the lavas.
In our evaluation of the evolution of the Palaeoarchean igneous
rocks we have normalised their trace-element concentrations to both
the estimated composition of the primitive mantle and the average
composition of modern N-MORB and plotted them in multi-element di-
agrams and relevant discrimination diagrams based on recent volcanic
rocks from well-characterised tectonic environments. We acknowledge
that the Archean mantle and the trace-element fingerprints of the
magmas that were generated from it may not have been the same as
today. Hence, the boundaries separating various tectonic environments
in discrimination diagrams based on incompatible elements and their
ratios may not be entirely appropriate for Archean rocks (e.g., Kawai
et al., 2009). To what extent the Archean mantle differed from that
of today is related to the nature and rate of mantle differentiation,
recycling and the volume growth of continental crust. This raises the
question as to when plate-tectonic processes became active, a contro-
versial issue that we address later in this paper. However, mineral re-
actions leading to melt generation under given physical/chemical
conditions are unlikely to have changed through geological time.
Hence, despite these reservations we consider that comparison with
recent volcanic rocks gives a useful insight into the processes involved
in the generation of these old rocks. Most Onverwacht mafic lavas
have chondrite-normalised REE concentrations between N-MORB and
E-MORB. If we had used E-MORB normalisation for the multi-element
diagrams the patterns of relative enrichment and depletion would
have been largely unchanged.
3.1. Magma types
Two diagrams are useful for the classification of Barberton magma
types: SiO2 vs. Zr/Ti and Zr vs. Y (Fig. 6A and B). Zr, Ti and Y are
amongst the most immobile elements during alteration and meta-
morphism, and the raw data have been filtered utilising the criteria
55% > SiO2 > 45%; MgO > 3%, CaO > 5%; LOI b 5% in order to eliminate
the most altered samples. In the SiO2 vs. Zr/Ti diagram most of the
lavas of the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes
fall into the sub-alkaline basalt field, whereas the felsic rocks of the
Theespruit and Noisy Complexes are rhyodacites and dacites (Fig. 6A).
In the Zr vs. Y diagram the komatiite to basalt lavas in the Komati,
Hooggenoeg, and Mendon Complexes plot in the tholeiitic and transi-
tional fields, whereas the Kromberg lavas invariably plot along the
boundary between the tholeiitic and transitional fields, those of the
Sandspruit along the transitional/calc-alkaline boundary, and the felsic
rocks of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes plot well within the calc-
alkaline field (Fig. 6B). The latter have notably low Y and higher Zr con-
centrations and do not seem to be related to the associated basic lavas
by fractional crystallisation.
3.2. Major and trace element characteristics
The variation in the concentrations of selected major and trace
elements in the Barberton lavas of the Onverwacht Suite is illustrated
in Fig. 7 using Zr as a differentiation index because it is immobile dur-
ing alteration and metamorphism and it is an element that shows a
large range in concentration in igneous suites due to varying degrees
of partial melting and fractional crystallisation. The Zr concentrations
in the komatiites, basaltic komatiites and basalts from the Komati,
Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes are 10–150 ppm, and
in the felsic rocks of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes 60–250 ppm.
410 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

A
80
Rhyodacite
Dacite Sandspruit
70
Theespruit

SiO2 Komati
60 Hooggenoeg
Andesite Alkaline Noisy
rocks Kromberg
50 Sub-alkaline Mendon

basalt
40
0,001 0,01 0,1 1
Zr/Ti

B
250

200 Calc-alkaline
Zr

150
Transitional

100
Tholeiitic
50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Y

Fig. 6. SiO2–Zr/Ti (A) and Zr–Y (B) diagrams showing the compositions of the komatiite to basaltic lavas of the Sandspruit, Theespruit, Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon
Complexes, and the felsic volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes. The majority of the samples plot in the field of sub-alkaline basalts in the SiO2–Zr/Ti
diagram (after Winchester and Floyd, 1977). The Zr–Y discriminant diagram (after Ross and Bedard, 2009) shows that most of the filtered samples from the Hooggeneog Complex
are tholeiitic, but some plot in the transitional field between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline rocks. The samples from the Kromberg Complex and those from the Ncakini section plot
along or near the boundary between the tholeiitic and transitional fields. The felsic rocks from the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes all plot in the calc-alkaline field.
The sources of data are as follows: Sandspruit Complex, Jahn et al. (1982); Theespruit Complex, Jahn et al. (1982), unpublished data (Lauren Andrews, G. Stevens, pers. comm.
2011); Komati Complex, Jahn et al. (1982), Lahaye et al. (1995), Chavagnac (2004 and unpublished data), Parman et al. (2003, 2004); lavas of the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg
Complexes and the Ncakini section, Furnes et al. (in press); Noisy Complex, de Wit et al. (1987b), Louzada (2003); Mendon Complex, Byerly (1999).

Fig. 7 shows the variations in TiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 (the least mobile major
elements), FeOt and MgO (mobile major elements), Cr and Ni (con-
served trace elements) and Y against Zr. Al2O3 mainly varies between
1.5 (in komatiite) and 17 wt.% (in basalt and rhyodacite), and shows a
tripartite grouping. In the upper Zr range (45–130 ppm), Al2O3 in the
Kromberg and most of the Hooggenoeg lavas defines a flat trend,
while all the Hooggenoeg samples with less than 45 ppm Zr lie along a
dispersed positive trend. The Komati and Mendon samples, on the
other hand, form a separate group of magnesium-rich basalts, with
lower Al2O3 at given Zr contents than the lavas of the Kromberg and
Hooggenoeg Complexes. Some of the Hooggenoeg lavas with the same
Zr contents as the Komati and Mendon samples overlap in Al2O3. Since
Al2O3 decreases with pressure (e.g., Herzberg, 1992, 1995), the large dif-
ference in Al2O3 in the most primitive basic lavas (with Zr b 45 ppm)
suggests that these magmas were generated at different depths. TiO2,
Y and P2O5 in the komatiitic and basaltic lavas show well-defined posi-
tive correlations with Zr. Samples with low Zr define trends away from
the origin, consistent with fractional crystallisation or accumulation of
olivine. At 50–60 ppm Zr, however, there are slight inflections in the
trends and the TiO2 and Y concentrations seem to be distributed along
a trend with a lower slope at higher Zr concentrations. The data for
Cr and Ni define negative, asymptotic patterns similar to MgO, suggesting
that some of the basalts may be related by fractional crystallisation of
olivine and pyroxene. However, the large spreads in the Ni and Cr at par-
ticular Zr concentrations have to be explained in some other way, and
could plausibly reflect the combined effect of hybridization and fractional
crystallisation. FeOt, MnO and V, variably mobile during alteration, show
dispersed distributions and poorly defined trends (Fig. 7). The felsic volca-
nic rocks in the Noisy and Theespruit Complexes are compositionally sep-
arate from the komatiites and basalts. They contain much lower TiO2,
FeOt, Y and P2O5 at comparable Zr concentrations. None of these constit-
uents in the felsic rocks extend the trends defined by the komatiites and
basalts and it seems improbable that they could be related by fractional
crystallisation.
Chondrite-normalised rare-earth element diagrams for the mag-
matic rocks in the Onverwacht Suite are displayed in Fig. 8. The REE
patterns of the majority of the mafic to ultramafic lavas of the Komati,
Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes are almost flat and
most closely resemble those of modern E- to N-type MORB. However,
some of the MgO-rich to komatiitic lavas of the Hooggenoeg Complex
are slightly LREE-depleted, while those from the Mendon Complex
are generally slightly LREE-enriched. The REE patterns of the felsic
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 411

2,5 21
Sandspruit
TiO2 18 Al2O3
Theespruit
2
Komati 15
Hooggenoeg
1,5 12
Noisy
Kromberg
1 9
Mendon
6
0,5
3

0 0
25 45
FeOt 40 MgO
20 35
30
15
25
20
10
15

5 10
5
0 0

7000 2500
Cr Ni
6000
2000
5000
1500
4000

3000 1000
2000
500
1000

0 0

60
0,4 P2O5 Y
50

0,3 40

30
0,2
20
0,1
Zr 10
Zr
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

Fig. 7. Selected elements plotted against Zr as a differentiation index. See Fig. 6 for sources of data.

intrusions of the Theespruit Complex are flat between Lu through Gd,
show a slight negative Eu-anomaly, and define a moderate to strong
enrichment in the LREE. The felsic intrusive rocks of the Noisy Com-
plex, on the other hand, have generally lower concentrations of the
REE than the felsic rocks of the Theespruit Complex, lack Eu anoma-
lies, and show flat trends in the HREE and an increasing enrichment
in REE lighter than Ho (Fig. 8). The REE patterns of the felsic rocks
are consistent with varying degrees of partial melting or fractional
crystallisation in equilibrium with garnet. The negative Eu anomalies
in the acid rocks of the Theespruit Complex would seem to require
the involvement of plagioclase fractionation.
PM (primordial mantle) and MORB-normalised multi-element
diagrams for the mafic to ultramafic lavas of the Komati, Hooggenoeg,
Kromberg and Mendon Complexes are shown in Fig. 9, and the felsic
rocks of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes in Fig. 10. The mafic to
ultramafic rocks are characterised by nearly flat MORB-normalised
patterns from Lu through La and consistent relative enrichment in
the elements Pb, U, Th, Ba and Cs. The majority of the lavas from the
Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes show slight to notice-
able negative Nb and Ta anomalies (Fig. 9). Whether Nb and Ta anom-
alies are displayed by the komatiites from the Komati Complex is
debatable.
Some of the anomalous relative concentrations in the N-MORB
normalised multi-element diagrams are more subdued or suppressed
in PM-normalised diagrams. This is particularly evident for Pb due to
its strong relative depletion in modern N-MORB (e.g., Workman and
412 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

100
Mendon Complex (Ncakini section)
Rock/Chond.
10

Komatiitic- to high-MgO basalts

1

100
Kromberg Complex
Rock/Chond.

10

Intermediate- to low-MgO basalts

1

1000
Noisy Complex
Rock/Chond.

100
Felsic intrusions

10

100
Hooggenoeg Complex
Rock/Chond.

10

Kom. & kom.bas.

Basalt
1

100
Komati Complex Komatiite
Kom.bas.
Rock/Chond.

Basalt
10

1000

Theespruit Complex
Felsic intrusions
Rock/Chond.

100

10

1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Fig. 8. Chondrite-normalised rare earth element diagrams for the komatiitic to basaltic lavas of the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes as well as the acid rocks
of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes. For sources of data see Fig. 6. Normalising concentrations are from Anders and Grevesse (1989).
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 413

100 100
A1. Mendon Complex - Komatiitic- to high- A2. Mendon Complex - Komatiitic- to high-
MgO basalts MgO basalts

Rock/MORB
10 10
Rock/PM

1 1

0,1 0,1

100 100
B1. Kromberg Complex - Intermediate- to B2. Kromberg Complex - Intermediate- to
low-MgO basalts low-MgO basalts

Rock/MORB
10 10
Rock/PM

1 1

0,1 0,1

1000 1000
C1. Hooggenoeg Complex C2. Hooggenoeg Complex
Basalt (high- to low-MgO) Basalt (high- to low-MgO)
komatiitic basalt Komtiitic basalt
100 komatiite 100 Komatiite .
Rock/MORB
Rock/PM

10 10

1 1

0,1 0,1

1000 1000
D1. Komati Complex - komatiites D2. Komati Complex - komatiites

100 100
Rock/MORB
Rock/PM

10 10

1 1

0,1 0,1
Cs Th Ta La Pb Nd Hf Eu Ti Dy Ho Tm Lu Sc Ni Cs Th Ta La Pb Nd Hf Eu Ti Dy Ho Tm Lu Sc Ni
Ba U Nb Ce P Zr Sm Gd Tb Y Er Yb V Cr Ba U Nb Ce P Zr Sm Gd Tb Y Er Yb V Cr

Fig. 9. Primitive mantle (PM) and N-MORB normalised multi-element diagrams for komatiitic to basaltic lavas from the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes.
For sources data see Fig. 6. PM concentrations are after McDonough and Sun (1995) and N-MORB concentrations are after Pearce and Parkinson (1993).

Hart, 2005). Pb anomalies are not discernable in the PM-normalised
multi-element diagrams for komatiites in the Komati Complex, and
they are more subdued or absent in the lavas in the other complexes.
The positive Cs and Ba anomalies consistently displayed by the lavas of
the Komati and Hooggenoeg Complexes in N-MORB normalised multi-
element diagrams persist into the equivalent PM-normalised diagrams
although they are more subdued. However, the PM-normalised multi-
element diagrams for the basalts of the Kromberg Complex and the
high-MgO basalts of the Mendon Complex exhibit no clear Cs and
Ba anomalies, although slight negative Nb and Ta anomalies are still
evident. The differences in the patterns displayed by the volcanic
rocks in the N-MORB and PM-normalised multi-element diagrams
relate to the compositional differences that exist between primordial,
undifferentiated mantle and modern depleted mantle as reflected in
414 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

1000
A) Noisy Complex

100

Rock/MORB 10

0,1

0,01

1000
B) Theespruit Complex
100
Rock/MORB

10

0,1

0,01
Cs Ba Th U Ta Nb La Ce Pb P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Ti Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Fig. 10. N-MORB normalised spider diagrams of felsic rocks from the Noisy (A) and Theespruit (B) Complexes. Normalising values as in Fig. 9.

N-MORB lavas. The composition of the Earth's mantle has evolved with
the passage of time, but at a poorly constrained rate, coincidental with
the net growth of the continental crust and the interpretation of the
trace-element patterns displayed in Fig. 9 is to a certain extent
dependant on assumptions regarding the precise nature of the mantle
in the Palaeoarchean. However, as noted below, εNd (T) values for the
Onverwacht lavas do support the existence of significantly depleted
mantle sources.
The MORB-normalised multi-element diagrams for the acid rocks
of the Theespruit Complex show flat patterns between Lu and Gd
with rock/MORB ratios of around 1, and progressively increasing
relative enrichment in elements from Sm to Cs. The patterns are
punctuated by pronounced negative Ti, P, Ta and Nb anomalies and
minor negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 10). The patterns of the acid rocks
of the Noisy Complex, on the other hand, differ from those of the
Theespruit Complex, in several ways. Their HREE contents are almost
one order of magnitude less and the Cs concentrations are one order
more than those of the Theespruit felsic rocks. They show only slight
negative Ti and P anomalies and pronounced positive Pb anomalies.
However, the felsic rocks of the Noisy Complex also display negative
Ta and Nb anomalies (Fig. 10).
3.3. Nd-isotope geochemistry
Nd isotope ratios of 140 samples, mainly basic lavas from the
Onverwacht Suite, as well as 25 from the gneisses and granitoids
from the literature, are plotted (as εNd (T) values) in Fig. 11. About
90% of the rocks from the Komati, Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Com-
plexes exhibit positive ε tNd values, the Mendon lavas about 80%, and
the Theespruit about 60%, whereas almost equal numbers of gneisses
and granitoids have positive and negative ratios (Fig. 11A). The mafic
rocks show a limited range in Sm/Nd ratio. Apart from the Theespruit
samples, average εNd (T) values of the lavas from the different com-
plexes plot in the εNd (T) — age diagram above the CHUR reference
line and between the depleted mantle growth curves of DePaolo
(1980) for different assumptions regarding the increase in the mass
of the continental crust (Fig. 11B), suggesting that substantial depletion
of the mantle had occurred prior to the generation of the Onverwacht
lavas.
3.4. Mantle source
The slightly LREE-depleted to LREE-enriched chondrite-normalised
REE patterns exhibited by the basalts to komatiites of the Onverwacht
Suite (Fig. 8) indicate derivation as high-proportion melts from a man-
tle region that either had not been depleted by previous episodes
of melting or from depleted mantle that had been metasomatically
re-enriched prior to melting.
Fig. 12 shows fertile MORB mantle (FMM)-normalised, represen-
tative basaltic to komatiitic lavas from the Komati, Hooggenoeg,
Kromberg and Mendon Complexes. All of the Onverwacht samples
show consistent patterns with enrichments of Nb and Zr (very highly
incompatible elements, VHI) > Ti, Y and Yb (highly incompatible ele-
ments, HI) ≥ Ca, Al, V and Sc (moderately incompatible elements, MI)
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 415

8
A
6

2
Epsilon Nd

-2

Gneisses and schists

-4 Theespruit Complex - felsic volcanics & komatiite
Komati Complex - lava & intrusions
Hooggenoeg Complex - lava
-6
Kromberg Complex - lava & intrusions
Mendon Complex - lava & intrusions Sm/Nd
-8
0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 0,45

4
B
3 1
2 Depleted man
tl e growth curve
1
2
0 CHUR
Epsilon Nd

-1

nd
-2 Mendon
sesa
eis s
-3 Kromberg Gn nitoid
-4
Hooggenoeg gra
Komati
-5
Theespruit
-6
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6
Age (Ga)

Fig. 11. Epsilon Nd–Sm/Nd diagram (A) of the komatiitic, basaltic and felsic lavas and intrusions of the Onverwacht Suite. Data for the Theespruit Complex are from Van Kranendonk
et al. (2009), the Komati Complex are from Lahaye et al. (1995) and Chavagnac (2004), the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes are from Chavagnac (2004) and Furnes et al. (in
press), the Mendon Complex are from Lahaye et al. (1995) and Furnes et al. (in press), the 3411–3450 Ma granitoids and gneisses, 3500–3664 Ma schists, granitoids and gneisses
are from Kröner et al. (1996) and Schoene et al. (2009). B. Average epsilon Nd values for the Onverwacht Suite data plotted against radiometric ages of the Theespruit, Komati,
Hooggenoeg and Mendon Complexes and an assumed age for the Kromberg Complex. The field for gneisses and granitoids is from Schoene et al. (2009). The mantle growth curves
1 and 2 from DePaolo (1980) are constrained to εNd = + 12 at T = 0 and are based on the assumptions of rapid early growth (1) and continuous linear growth (2) of the continental
crust.

(Fig. 12A). According to Pearce and Parkinson (1993), this indicates
moderate to high degrees of partial melting (in the order 10–25%) of a
non-enriched spinel–lherzolite mantle. The komatiitic lavas of the Ko-
mati and Hooggenoeg Complexes have FMM-normalised patterns
with VHI > HI= MI indicating a higher degree of melting of a similar
source.
The Hooggenoeg basaltic to komatiite lavas show a spread of nearly
one order of magnitude in the concentrations of the VHI and HI elements,
a feature that is consistent with 5–30% of partial melting (Pearce and
Parkinson, 1993) amplified by subsequent fractional crystallisation.
Representative samples from the Kromberg and Mendon Complexes
exhibit FMM-normalised patterns similar to samples from the Komati
and Hooggenoeg Complexes, indicating melting from a similar mantle
source. They do, however, show less variability in the incompatible
elements, indicating a more uniform degree of partial melting. All the
FMM-normalised volcanic rocks of the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg
and Mendon Complexes, show patterns similar to lavas from the ocean
floor and back‐arc basins (Fig. 12B and C) with enriched VHI element
(Nb and Zr) concentrations, i.e. the North Fiji Basin and the Scotia Sea
(Fig. 12C). Even though some of the elements used in the FMM-
normalisations diagrams are recognised as being mobile during
alteration and metamorphism (e.g., Ca, Mn, Fe and Mg), the patterns
416 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

100
A) Onverwacht Suite

10
Rock/FMM

1
Mendon Complex - Komatiitic basalt
Kromberg Complex - Low-MgO basalt
Hooggenoeg Complex - Intm.-MgO basalt
0,1 Hooggenoeg Complex - High-MgO basalt
Hooggeneog Complex - Komatiitic basalt
Komati Complex - High-MgO basalt
Komati Complex - Komatiite
0,01
100
B) Ocean floor

10
Rock/FMM

0,1
Ontong Java
Atlantic MORB
0,01

100
C) Backarc basins

10
Rock/FMM

North Fiji Basin

0,1
Scotia Sea
Manus Basin (MORB)
Tonga
0,01
Nb Zr Ti Y Yb Ca Al V Sc Mn Fe Co Mg Cr Ni

Fig. 12. FMM (fertile MORB mantle) normalised patterns of basalt and komatiite from the Onverwacht Suite (A), ocean floor basalts (B), and back-arc basalts (C). Normalising values
are from Pearce and Parkinson (1993).
Sources of data: A. Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes (Furnes et al., in press), Komati Complex (Chavagnac, 2004). B. Ocean floor: Ontong Java (Mahoney et al., 1993),
Atlantic MORB (Joron et al., 1979). C. Back-arc basins: North Fiji Basin (Price et al., 1990), Tonga and Scotia Sea (Pearce and Parkinson, 1993), Manus Basin (Sinton et al., 2003).

exhibited in Fig. 12A are smooth, and hence we regard them to largely
reflect the primary composition of the rocks.
To identity and quantify the role of possible subduction-related
processes in the origin of the Onverwacht magmatic rocks, we use the
PM and MORB-normalised multi-element patterns shown in Fig. 9.
The elements plotted in these diagrams can be subdivided into two
types, the conservative and non-conservative. Concentrations of the
former, i.e. Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Ti and the HREE, are controlled by the compo-
sition of the ambient mantle and the nature and degree of partial melt-
ing, whereas the latter elements, Cs, Ba, Th, U and LREE, can be
transferred to mantle segments from subducting altered oceanic crust.
Cs, Pb and Ba can be transported in a volatile phase over a wide
temperature range during shallow to deep subduction, whereas Th, U
and the LREE are mobilised in silicate melts above deeper portions of
Benioff zones (Pearce et al., 2005; Straub and Zellmer, 2012). It is gener-
ally considered that Ta, Nb, Zr and Hf are retained in a residual Ti-rich
mineral, such as rutile, during dehydration and melting of subducting
oceanic crust. Cs, Ba, Th, U and LREE are among the large ion lithophile
elements (LILE) that are concentrated in the continental crust, probably
due to subduction-related igneous activity and mantle differentiation
during the course of geological time. Concentrations of LILE in magmas
derived from depleted mantle can be enhanced by assimilation during
the migration of magma through continental crust (e.g., Larsen and
Pedersen, 2009) and such contaminated magmas may be difficult to
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 417

distinguish geochemically from those generated by melting of mantle
domains altered by metasomatic processes and melt addition in subduc-
tion zones. Crustal contamination has been inferred in several suites of
Archean komatiites and basalts that are interpreted as the result of
intercontinental or continental margin igneous activity either on the
basis of geological or geochemical arguments (e.g., Wilson and Carlson,
1989; Lahaye et al., 1995; Green et al., 2000; Sproule et al., 2002;
Shimizu et al., 2005). A substantial proportion of the Barberton lavas
show negative Nb anomalies (Fig. 9) and they display a range in εNd (T)
between ca. −2 and +4 (Fig. 11A), features that could be consequences
of crustal contamination. This may be particularly applicable to
komatiite and komatiitic basalt lavas due to their high liquidus temper-
atures. In crustally contaminated Archean komatiites and komatiitic ba-
salts from Western Australia (Redman and Keays, 1985; Arndt and
Jenner, 1986; Barley, 1986) and the Baltic Shield (Puchtel et al., 1997)
the magnitude of negative Nb anomalies correlates with SiO2, MgO, Ni,
Cr and LREE. In addition, Polat et al. (2006) demonstrated linear rela-
tionships between εNd (T) and MgO, Ni, TiO2, Al2O3 and negative Nb
anomalies (expressed as Nb/Nb*) for komatiites of the Taishan green-
stone belt of the North China Craton, features regarded as diagnostic of
crustal contamination. The Nb/Nb*–MgO and TiO2, and εNd (T)–TiO2,
Al2O3, MgO and Nb/Nb* variations for the lavas of the different com-
plexes of the Onverwacht Suite are shown in Fig. 13. They exhibit a
wide scatter and do not support crustal contamination. We also regard
crustal contamination as an improbable process in the origin of the
Barberton volcanic rocks due to their submarine eruption, some beneath
>2 km of water (Furnes et al., 2011). We regard the thick sequences of
pillowed and massive lavas and the related intrusive igneous rocks
present in the Komati and Hooggenoeg Complexes as totally oceanic.
Some of the characteristic features of the MORB-normalised pat-
terns, i.e., the pronounced positive Pb-anomalies, and the enrichments
in Cs and Ba in the Mendon and Kromberg lavas (Fig. 9), do not appear
in the equivalent PM-normalised spider diagrams. This feature reflects
differences in the concentrations of element in the material against
which the Onverwacht lavas have been normalised, i.e., non-depleted
primordial mantle (PM) and depleted modern mantle (from which N-
MORB was generated). Superficially, this may suggest that the Mendon
and Kromberg lavas do not exhibit any subduction-related geochemical
signature. The crucial question is then what remaining features can be
taken as evidence of subduction-influence? All of the analysed samples
from the lower part of the Mendon Complex (represented by the NV1
lavas, see Fig. 5) and the Kromberg Complex exhi‐bit negative Nb and
Ta anomalies. These are particularly evident in the Mendon lavas. The
same applies to the majority of the lavas of the Hooggenoeg Complex,
but these also invariably show pronounced Cs and Ba enrichments in
the PM-normalised spider diagram. Some of the Komati lavas have
shown minor Nb anomalies in the PM-normalised spider diagrams
(but the majority do not) as well as distinct Cs and Ba enrichment
(Fig. 9). We conclude that the lavas in all the complexes of the
Onverwacht Suite show at least some geochemical evidence of subduc-
tion, either as subdued to significant negative Nb and Ta anomalies
and/or Cs and Ba enrichment. It appears that the lavas in the Hooggenoeg

50 1,6
Mendon A B
40 Kromberg 1,2
Hooggenoeg
MgO

30
TiO2

Komati 0,8
20
0,4
10

0 0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0 1
Nb/Nb* Nb/Nb*
1,8 16
C D
12
1,2
Al2O3
TiO2

0,6
4

0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 0 2 4
Epsilon-Nd Epsilon-Nd
50 1
E F
40 0,8
Nb/Nb*

30 0,6
MgO

20 0,4

10 0,2

0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 0 2 4
Epsilon-Nd Epsilon-Nd

Fig. 13. Negative Nb anomalies (expressed as Nb/Nb*) versus MgO and TiO2 (A and B) and initial eNd (T) versus TiO2, Al2O3, MgO and Nb/Nb* (C–F) diagrams. The Nb/Nb* ratios
have been calculated from N-MORB normalised values (see Fig. 9) and Nb* = (La + Th)/2.
418 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

Complex were most clearly and those in the Kromberg Complex were
less obviously affected by subduction-related metasomatic processes in
the source mantle.
Following the method of Pearce (1983) and Pearce and Peate
(1995), the degree of augmentation of non-conservative elements in
the magma source due to subduction-related processes can be esti-
mated from N-MORB normalised multi-element diagrams by subtrac-
tion of the background mantle-derived concentrations as estimated
by constructing a baseline through the conservative elements Ta, Nb,
Zr, Hf, Ti and HREE. The results of this exercise are shown in Fig. 14.
Throughout the volcanic sequences in the Komati, Hooggenoeg,
Kromberg and Mendon Complexes there is evidence of subduction-
related enhancement of the non-conservative elements. The strongest
enrichment is displayed by the most-incompatible element Cs and the
subduction-related augmentation decreases in the less-incompatible
elements. The calculated subduction-related contributions to elemental
concentrations show large stratigraphical variations, particularly in the
Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes, a phenomenon that may
arguably be related to changes in the depth at which the magma is gen-
erated above the subducting slab and possibly in the angle of subduction
(Furnes et al., in press). However, as discussed above, the strong enrich-
ment of the most incompatible, non-conservative elements (particularly
Cs and Ba) in the N-MORB normalised spider diagrams (Fig. 9) may to
some extent reflect the depleted nature of the MORB mantle. Hence,
the calculated subduction-related contribution shown in Fig. 14 may
be overestimated.
3.5. Petrogenesis
3.5.1. Komatiite and komatiitic basalt
The origin of komatiites and related high-MgO, komatiitic basalt is
an unresolved and controversial issue. Komatiite from the Komati
Complex, the type area of komatiite, has been attributed to melting
under radically different physical conditions by various authors. In
one of the most popular models komatiites are generated in mantle
plumes by a moderate to high degree of partial melting (30–50%) of

Mendon Complex
100
Lower part
75
50
25
0
Cs Ba Th La Ce Nd
Kromberg Complex
100
Upper part
75
contribution

50
25
0
100
Lower part
75
50
25
0
Cs Ba Th La Ce Nd
Hooggenoeg Complex
100
subduction-related

Upper part
75
50
25
0
100
75 Middle part
50
25
0
100
Lower part
75
50
Percentage

25
0
Cs Ba Th La Ce Nd
Komati Complex
100
75
50
25
0
Cs Ba Th La Ce Nd

Fig. 14. Contributions (in %) to non-conservative elements by subduction-related processes calculated for the lavas of the Komati, Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon Complexes.
See the text for further explanation.
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 419

dry garnet peridotite at depths of ca. 150 to 350 km, and tempera-
tures in the order of 1600–1900 °C (e.g., Herzberg and Ohtani, 1988;
Herzberg, 1992; Arndt et al., 1998; Walter, 1998; Herzberg and
O'Hara, 2002; Arndt, 2003; Arndt et al., 2008). In the other competing
model komatiite is inferred to be generated in a subduction-related
tectonic setting, with melting taking place at lower temperatures
and at shallower depths in a hydrous mantle (e.g., Brooks and Hart,
1974; Allegre, 1982; Wilson and Versfeld, 1994; Parman et al., 2001,
2003; Grove and Parman, 2004; Parman and Grove, 2004).
The komatiites and komatiitic basalts from the Onverwacht Suite
show a wide range in Al2O3/TiO2 (Fig. 15A) from Ti-depleted to Ti-
undepleted to Ti-enriched, low-Al varieties (Hanski et al., 2001; Sproule
et al., 2002), as shown in the Al2O3/TiO2 versus MgO diagram (Fig. 15B).
The majority of the komatiites and komatiitic basalts in Komati,
Theespruit and Mendon Complexes belong to the low-Al variety, but
the Komati Complex contains a subsidiary group of Ti-undepleted
komatitites. The komatiites and komatiitic basalts in the Hooggenoeg
Complex exhibit a wider variation in Al2O3/TiO2 ratio. Al2O3 and TiO2
are among the most immobile oxides (Furnes et al., in press) and their
relative concentrations are therefore likely to be original. In general,
Al2O3 is a proxy for the pressure at which melting took place, i.e. high
pressure stabilises garnet in mantle peridotite resulting in lower Al2O3
(and Al2O3/TiO2 ratio) and an increase in the CaO/Al2O3 ratio in partial
melts (e.g., Herzberg, 1992, 1995). The average CaO/Al2O3 ratio of
komatiites from the Komati Complex is ~1.5 (Chavagnac, 2004) while
those from the Hooggenoeg Complex are ~0.8, suggesting that the latter
formed at lower pressure (~2–3 GPa) and shallower depth (~100 km)
than those from the Komati Complex. However, CaO is highly mobile
during alteration and metamorphism and hence the CaO/Al2O3 ratios
should be viewed with caution. The concentration of TiO2 in melts
decreases during progressive melting while Al2O3 may be buffered by
aluminous pyroxene, spinel and/or garnet and hence the Al2O3/TiO2
ratio is a proxy for the extent of melting. Repeated extraction of batches
of melt from an individual source will lead to discontinuous increases in

2
Mendon A
Kromberg (volc)
1,5 Hooggenoeg (volc)
Komati
Theespruit & Sandspruit
TiO2

0,5

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Al2O3
60
B Boninites
Mendon
Hooggenoeg
Komati
Al2O3/TiO2

40 Theespruit
Sandspruit
Ti-depletedkomatiites
20 Ti-undepletedkomatiites

Ti-enriched, Al-depletedkomatiites
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
MgO

60
C Abitibi
Komati
Hooggenoeg
40 Mendon
Al2O3/TiO2

Boninites

20

0
0,25 0,5 0,75 1 1,25 1,5 1,75 2
(Gd/Yb)N

Fig. 15. A. TiO2–Al2O3 diagram for the volcanic rocks of the Onverwacht Suite. Data for the Mendon Complex are from Byerly (1999) and Furnes et al. (in press). Data for the
Kromberg and Hooggenoeg Complexes are from Furnes et al. (in press). Data for the Komati Complex are from Jahn et al. (1982), Smith and Erlank (1982), Lahaye et al. (1995),
Parman et al. (2003, 2004), Chavagnac (2004, and unpubl. data) and data for the Theespruit and Sandspruit Complexes are from Jahn et al. (1982). B. Al2O3/TiO2–MgO diagram
for komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the Onverwacht Suite classified (after Sproule et al., 2002) as Ti-enriched, Al-depleted (Al2O3/TiO2 b 15), Al-undepleted (15 b Al2O3/
TiO2 b 25), and Ti-depleted (Al2O3/TiO2 > 25). The data for boninites are shown in the supplementary reference file. C. Al2O3/TiO2 — diagram for komatiites and komatiitic basalts
of the Onverwacht Suite. (Gd/Yb)N refers to the ratio of chondrite-normalised values. Data sources as in B. The field of the Abitibi komatiitic rocks: taken from Sproule et al. (2002).
420 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
this ratio. The Al2O3 and TiO2 relationships as outlined in Fig. 14 suggest
that the komatiitic to komatiitic basaltic lavas of the Onverwacht Suite
were generated at different depths by variable degrees of partial melt-
ing of slightly depleted mantle peridotite. The majority of the komatiites
from the Sandspruit, Theespruit, Komati and Mendon Complexes have
(Gd/Yb)N > 1 (Fig. 15C), suggestive of residual garnet in the mantle
source (e.g., Walter, 1998; Inoue et al., 2000; Sproule et al., 2002;
Arndt et al., 2008) whereas some komatiites from the Komati and
Hooggenoeg Complexes have higher Al2O3/TiO2 ratios and (Gd/Yb)N
less than 1, suggesting generation from a refractory, garnet-free source.
The elements considered above (Al, Ti, Gd and Yb) are conserved
during subduction-related metasomatism of the mantle. In the
N-MORB normalised multi-element diagram shown in Fig. 9, the LIL
elements Cs and Ba are consistently enriched relative to the conserva-
tive elements Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Y and HREE and this documents substan-
tial additions to the mantle source by metasomatic processes during
the subduction of altered oceanic crust (Fig. 14).
It thus seems that the komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the
Onverwacht Suite may represent a wide spectrum of origin in terms
of pressure and temperature, and also that they exhibit a subduction-
related signature of enhanced Cs, Ba and to some extent Th concentra-
tions. The marked Pb anomalies displayed by the Onverwacht lavas
in Fig. 9 are probably an artefact of the normalisation to modern
Pb-depleted N-MORB; this inference is supported by the subdued or
suppressed Pb anomalies in the PM-normalised spider diagrams
(Fig. 9).
3.5.2. Basalt
The basaltic lavas of the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes
are geochemically tholeiitic or transitional to calc-alkaline (Fig. 6B).
Their FMM-normalised trace element patterns (Fig. 12) are similar
to those of modern ocean floor and back-arc basins and are compati-
ble with some 10–20% partial melting of spinel lherzolite (Pearce and
Parkinson, 1993) consistent with the degree of low-pressure melting
inferred for tholeiitic basalts (Langmuir et al., 1992). The linear to
asymptotic trends displayed by TiO2, MgO, Cr, Ni, P and Y when plot-
ted against incompatible Zr (Fig. 7) superficially resemble the conse-
quences of fractional crystallisation of olivine and pyroxene. However,
the large scatter displayed by Al2O3 and the separated groups in
Figs. 7 and 15A indicate other igneous processes than fractional
crystallisation alone. Since Al is compatible and Zr incompatible with
respect to mantle minerals, extraction of magmas at different degrees
of partial melting will result in different Zr/Al2O3 ratios. Subsequent
fractional crystallisation of olivine and pyroxene from such magmas
would lead to appropriate increases in both Al2O3 and Zr, at least until
plagioclase becomes a liquidus mineral, thus resulting in trends sepa-
rated from those generated by melting. The distinct chemical group-
ings displayed in the Al2O3–Zr diagram suggest that the primary
magmas were generated by varying degrees of partial melting under
different P–T conditions and hence in different regions of the mantle.
Each magma batch has subsequently undergone variable, but generally
limited, fractional crystallisation, principally of olivine and pyroxene.
The dispersion in Cr and Ni at particular Zr concentrations may
indicate mixing of different magmas. In parts of the Hooggenoeg lava
sequence (section HV15, see Fig. 3), there is evidence for incomplete
hybridization as interbanding of metabasalts of different colour and
composition in pillows (Robins et al., 2010).
3.5.3. Felsic rocks
In the SiO2–Zr/Ti diagram, there is no continuous compositional
variation between the mafic/ultramafic lavas of the Onverwacht
Suite and the felsic igneous rocks of the Noisy and Theespruit Com-
plexes (Fig. 6A). This relationship suggests that the acid rocks did not
develop by fractional crystallisation of basaltic or komatiitic magma.
Similarly, the relationships between the mafic and felsic rocks as dis-
played in diagrams such as Zr–Y (Fig. 6B) and TiO2–Zr and Y–Zr
(Fig. 7), do not support any parent–daughter relationship. There are
some pronounced differences between the two groups. At a given Zr
content, the felsic rocks of the Noisy Complex are higher in Al2O3 and
P2O5 and lower in Y than those of the Theespruit Complex. The Noisy
igneous rocks also have very low HREE, high Cs and Ba, positive
Pb-anomalies, and negative Nb, Ta, P and Ti anomalies in N-MORB
normalised spider diagrams (Fig. 10). Those of the Theespruit Complex
have nearly one order of magnitude higher HREE concentrations, lower
Cs, slight negative Eu anomalies and pronounced negative Ti and P
anomalies in addition to slight negative Nb and Ta anomalies (Fig. 10).
These disparities probably reflect derivation from different source
materials, as well as different amounts of fractional crystallisation. The
generally high Al2O3 may suggest derivation from a hydrous mafic
source. The lower HREE contents of the Noisy rocks suggest an eclogitic
source (Louzada, 2003). The high contents of Cs and Pb and negative Nb
and Ta anomalies are common features of magmatic rocks (mafic to
felsic) in island arcs (e.g., Elburg and Foden, 1998; Elburg et al., 2002;
Reagan et al., 2010). The multi-element patterns of the Theespruit felsic
rocks are typically calc-alkaline, and the low Ti and P contents indicate
either fractional crystallisation of Fe–Ti oxides and apatite or their re-
sidual behaviour during partial melting of a metabasaltic protolith.
4. Tectonic environment
The formation of the volcanic and intrusive rocks of the Onverwacht
Suite and the associated granitoid plutons of the Barberton Greenstone
Belt have been linked to contrasting tectonic environments. The
komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the Komati Complex have
received much attention and interpretations of the environments in
which these magmatic rocks may have formed include ocean ridges,
intra-oceanic arcs, back-arc basins, intracontinental flood basalts, oce-
anic plateaus and ocean islands (e.g., Smith et al., 1980; Allegre, 1982;
Smith and Erlank, 1982; de Wit et al., 1987a; Grove et al., 1997;
Parman et al., 1997; Cloete, 1999; Dann, 2000; Parman et al., 2001,
2003; Chavagnac, 2004; Grove and Parman, 2004; Parman et al., 2004;
Dann and Grove, 2007; Arndt et al., 2008; Puchtel et al., 2009).
We will briefly review the arguments for the various interpretations,
and present observations that we believe favour a plate-tectonic model
involving subduction of altered oceanic crust. An important and contro-
versial issue in this context is when modern-style plate tectonic pro-
cesses began to operate on the Earth.
4.1. Were plate-tectonics active at 3.5 Ga?
Indications of early-earth plate tectonics such as the occurrence of
Archean ophiolites, arc–back-arc complexes, accretionary prisms and
high-pressure metamorphic rocks as well as parameters like geother-
mal gradients, the growth of continental crust and the rate of plate mo-
tions, have been extensively discussed in the literature (e.g., papers in
Condie and Pease, 2008; Condie and Kröner, in press). Plate-tectonic
processes have been suggested to have been operating at 3 to 3.2 Ga
(Van Kranendonk, 2007; Wyman et al., 2008; Shirey and Richardson,
2011; Van Kranendonk, 2011), 3.6 Ga (Nutman et al., 2007), 3.8 Ga
(Furnes et al., 2007; Dilek and Polat, 2008), 4.0 Ga (de Wit, 1998;
Friend and Nutman, 2010) and 4.2 Ga (Cavosie et al., 2007). Proponents
of the late onset of Phanerozoic-like plate tectonics suggest that it did
not commence until the Neoproterozoic (e.g., Hamilton, 1998; Stern,
2008; Hamilton, 2011). We believe that there is robust evidence that
plate-tectonic processes were operating during the Archean, albeit not
necessarily at the rate and with exactly the same style as today.
4.2. An intracratonic igneous setting
The Barberton granite–greenstone belt (BGB) has been regarded as a
classical example of intracratonic volcanic activity and subsequent dome
and keel formation (e.g., Van Kranendonk et al., 2009; Anhaeusser,
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
2010; Lana et al., 2010b; Van Kranendonk, 2011). In this interpretation
the present structural architecture has resulted from a crustal density in-
version and vertical tectonic movements triggered by igneous processes
in the middle to upper part of the prevailing continental crust (Van
Kranendonk et al., 2009). Van Kranendonk (2011) argues that the BGB
architecture resulted from a two-stage process of convective overturn
of a dense, plume-generated volcanic sequence and partially melted
pre- to syn-magmatic granitic middle crust, and further states that “sub-
duction–accretion processes are not recognised and do not adequately
explain the magmatic or deformational history of the BGB”. This hypoth-
esis, reminiscent of that by Glikson (1979), assumes that the volcanic
rocks form a thick, continuous sequence, with no tectonic breaks. Lowe
and Byerly (2007) write “throughout the first 320 myr of history, until
about 3230 Ma, the BGB developed largely through magmatic, not tecton-
ic accretion and lacks evidence for orogenesis and major uplift, either for
the underlying parts of the greenstone sequence itself or the flanking
areas that are no longer preserved”. We will return to the validity of the
interpretations of Van Kranendonk (2011) and Lowe and Byerly (2007)
below.
4.3. Intra-oceanic settings
4.3.1. Igneous activity unrelated to subduction
Oceanic plateaus, generally considered as plume-derived, consist
of thick basaltic sequences (>30 km) and make up a significant part
of the present oceanic crust (e.g., Sheth, 2007; Bryan and Ernst,
2008). The production of such large volumes of basalt requires high
mantle temperatures (McKenzie and Bickle, 1988) and hence is related
to ascending plumes that may be 200–300 °C hotter than the ambient
mantle (Campbell and Griffiths, 1990). The thick volcanic sequences
present in several Precambrian greenstone belts have been suggested
to be parts of accreted intra-oceanic plateaux (see summary in Kerr et
al., 2000), including the BGB (e.g., Kröner et al., 1996; Cloete, 1999;
Chavagnac, 2004; Arndt et al., 2008).
De Wit et al. (1987a) and de Wit (2004) interpreted the
Onverwacht Suite as a fragmented Archean ophiolite, the Jamestown
Ophiolite Complex that formed at an oceanic spreading ridge. Kröner
et al. (1996) proposed that the mafic–felsic volcanic rocks of the
Theespruit Complex, lacking andesite and trench sediments, were
most comparable to those of modern oceanic plateaux. They suggested
that the BGB consists of amalgamated terranes separated from each
other by major tectonic discontinuities and that lithostratigraphic cor-
relation across these boundaries may not be correct. In an extensive
geochemical investigation of komatiites from the Komati Complex,
Chavagnac (2004) found that Ti/Zr, La/Nb, Nb/U, Sr/Nd and Ba/La ratios
are comparable to those of oceanic island and mid-ocean ridge basalts.
This, combined with flat to slightly LREE-enriched chondrite-normalised
REE patterns, led Chavagnac (2004) to the conclusion that the modern
tectonic setting most consistent with the geochemistry of the volcanic
rocks is an oceanic plateau or a spreading ridge associated with a plateau.
4.3.2. Subduction-related igneous activity
In contrast to the hypothesis of hot and dry plume-derivation (e.g.,
Arndt et al., 2008), a subduction-related origin in an arc/back arc setting
has been proposed for the BGB komatiites (de Wit et al., 1992; Parman
et al., 1997; Grove et al., 1999; Parman et al., 2001; Grove and Parman,
2004; Parman et al., 2004). Below we summarise new geochemical evi-
dence that supports the influence of subduction (de Wit et al., 2011;
Furnes et al., 2011, in press).
The general geological relationships are of crucial importance for
the formation of the BGB in a subduction-related environment. The
BGB lavas have been re-interpreted as a tectonostratigraphic sequence
of five principal units separated by major shear zones along which
there was early thrusting and later extensional movements (de Wit et
al., 2011) (Fig. 2) instead of a continuous ~15 km thick volcanic succes-
sion (Viljoen and Viljoen, 1969; Byerly, 1999; Brandl et al., 2006; Lowe
421
and Byerly, 2007). A detailed volcanological study of two of the com-
plexes (Hooggenoeg and Kromberg) has shown that their submarine
lavas were erupted at depths of more than 2000 m (Furnes et al.,
2011). Sandwiched between these two complexes, the Noisy Complex
comprises shallow water to subaerial sedimentary rocks that rest
unconformably upon the deep-marine lavas of the Hooggenoeg Com-
plex (de Wit et al., 2011). This shows that the deep-water volcanic
rocks of the Hooggenoeg Complex were uplifted and eroded during an
important tectonic event, in contrast to the interpretation of Lowe and
Byerly (2007) that there is no evidence of early tectonism and major
uplift.
Of prime importance in the interpretation of the tectonic environ-
ment of the igneous rocks of the Onverwacht Suite are the geochemical
characteristics of the komatiitic rocks. As shown above, the komatiites
and komatiitic basalts show a large compositional range in terms of
MgO, Al2O3/TiO2 and (Gd/Yb)N, suggesting a spectrum of origins, as
well as robust evidence of subduction-related enrichment of the
magma source by LIL elements. Anomalously high concentrations of
Cs, Ba, Th, U and Pb characterise MORB-normalised multi-element dia-
grams of subduction-related magmatic rocks. We have compared the
multi-element patterns of the BGB lavas with the patterns of modern
plume- and subduction-related basaltic lavas, the two contrasting tec-
tonic settings proposed for the formation of komatiite. We have used
data from literature for some well-characterised ocean island volcanic
provinces (OIB — Iceland, Cape Verde Islands and Hawaii), two of the
largest oceanic plateaux (Ontong Java and Kerguelen) and two different
subduction systems (the Izu–Bonin–Mariana and Indonesian island arc
systems) (Fig. 16). The OIB volcanics display large variations in the con-
centrations of the most incompatible elements. The alkali basalts from
the Cape Verde Islands show the highest and the tholeiitic basalts
from Iceland show the lowest concentrations. All of the lavas show
enrichment increasing with incompatibility and thus the patterns are
smooth and almost straight with no substantial anomalies. The basalts
from the Ontong Java and Kerguelen plateaux exhibit similar patterns
(except for a spread in Cs concentrations). The geochemical fingerprints
of these plume-related lavas (Fig. 16A) all differ significantly from those
of the lavas of the Onverwacht Suite (Fig. 16D). The multi-element pat-
terns of subduction-related basaltic lavas exhibit consistently pro-
nounced enrichment of Cs and Pb, and show negative Ta and Nb
anomalies. However, the Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) lavas have lower
concentrations of Ba and Th than the Indonesian rocks (Fig. 16B and
C). This may reflect the character of the subducted material: the compo-
sitions of the IBM lavas are controlled solely by the subduction of
altered basaltic crust, while lavas in the Indonesian system are also
affected by subducted sediments (Fig. 16C) or continental lithosphere
at the leading edge of the subducting Australian continental margin,
as suggested on the basis of He, Pb, Nd and Sr isotope studies from the
Indonesian arc (Hilton and Craig, 1989; Hilton et al., 1992; van Bergen
et al., 1993; Vroon et al., 1995; Elburg et al., 2004, 2005; Fichtner et
al., 2010). The multi-element patterns of the Onverwacht volcanic
rocks resemble those of modern subduction-related lavas, particularly
with respect to enrichment in Cs and Pb. Generally, Ba and Th are signif-
icantly enriched relative to Ta and Nb (Fig. 16D) and in this respect they
are comparable to the Indonesian lavas, whereas the fairly flat patterns
from Lu through La (Fig. 16D) are more comparable to those of the IBM
lavas (Fig. 16B). The absolute elemental concentrations in the basaltic
lavas of the different complexes of the Onverwacht differ by more
than one order of magnitude, but the patterns are similar; all are
characterised by relative enrichment of Cs, Pb, Ba, Th, and to some
extent U, relative to Ta and Nb (Fig. 16D). However, as discussed above,
some of the enrichment of the highly incompatible, non-conservative
elements, in particular the Cs-enrichment, may be an artefact of the
MORB normalisation.
In Fig. 17 the volcanic rocks of the Onverwacht Suite have been
plotted in discrimination diagrams that employ combinations of
immobile elements (i.e., Zr, Y, Nb, Yb, Th). In the Zr/Y–Zr diagram
422 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428

1000
A) Plume-derived (OIB and LIP) Max
Min
100
Average
Rock/MORB

10

0,1

1000
B) Subduction-derived (IBM) Max
Min
100
Average
Rock/MORB

10

0,1

1000
C) Subduction-derived (Indonesia) Max
Min
100
Av. volc.
Rock /MORB

Av. sed
10

0,1

1000
D) Onverwacht Suite
Av. Ncakini high-MgO basalt lava
100 Av. Kromberg basalt lava
Av. Hooggenoeg - high- to low-MgO basalt lava
Rock/MORB

Av. Hooggenoeg - komatiite and kom.bas. Lava

Av. Komati intrusions/lavas
10

0,1
Cs Ba Th U Ta Nb La Ce Pb P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Ti Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu V Sc Cr Ni

Fig. 16. N-MORB normalised spider diagrams showing typical patterns for plume-generated (A) and subduction-related mafic lavas (B and C), compared with average values of the
komatiitic to basaltic lavas of the Onverwacht Suite (D).
Sources of data: A. Iceland, Kokfelt et al. (2006); Cape Verde Islands, Holm et al. (2006); Hawaii, Clague and Frey (1982), Chen and Frey (1983), Maaløe et al. (1992), and Huang and
Frey (2003); Ontong Java Plateau, Mahoney et al. (1993), and Tejada et al. (2004); Kerguelen Plateau. Weis and Frey (2002) and Yang et al. (1998). B. Reagan et al. (2010). C. Elburg
and Foden (1998), Elburg et al. (2002), Vroon et al. (1995). D. Komati Complex (Parman et al., 2003; Chavagnac, 2004), Hooggenoeg, Kromberg and Mendon (Ncakini) Complexes
(Furnes et al., in press).
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428 423

(Pearce, 2003) nearly all the filtered data of the Hooggenoeg Complex
plot in the fields for modern MORB and IAT; all the Kromberg samples
plot in MORB field and the Ncakini samples in the shared IAT/boninite
field (Fig. 17B). The komatiites and komatiitic basalts of the Komati
and Mendon Complexes plot exclusively within the boninite field. In
the Th/Yb–Nb/Yb diagram of Pearce et al. (2005) most of the data of
the Hooggenoeg and Komati Complexes plot along the upper limit
of the mantle array, between N-MORB and E-MORB and close to the
composition of primitive mantle. The samples from the Kromberg
Complex and Ncakini section plot above the upper limit of the mantle
array. All of the samples plot within the same field as basalts from the
Mariana trough (Fig. 17C). Few of the samples plot in the fields for
modern oceanic plateaux or oceanic islands. In Fig. 18 the felsic
rocks of the Noisy and Theespruit Complexes have been plotted in
the Nb vs. Y and Rb vs. Y + Nb discrimination diagrams, specifically
constructed for granitoids. The rocks from both complexes plot in the
field for volcanic arc granites, but the majority from the Theespruit Com-
plex plot close to the field of within plate granites and a few samples plot
along the edge of the field. It should be noted, however, that Rb is a high-
ly mobile element; hence, in the Rb vs. Y + Nb diagram, some of the data
may have been displaced from the VAG field into the Syn-COLG field by
alteration. But, the distinction between the Theespruit and Noisy Com-
plexes still remains.
The geochemical characteristics of the lavas of the BGB, particular
those of the tectonostratigraphically upper part are most comparable
to those of back-arc basins, where the mantle source has experienced

600
A
500 20 30
10
400
Bon Mendon Complex
V

300 Kromberg Complex

Hooggenoeg Complex
200
Komati Complex
50
Theespruit Complex
100
Sandspruit Complex
0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000
Ti
10
B
ite WPB
nin
Bo
Zr/Y

MORB

IAT
1
10 100 1000
Zr
10
C Ontong-
Java
1 rc Plateau
aa OIB
an
Th/Yb

M ar i
Ocean islands
0,1
Mariana E-MORB
trough N-MORB

0,01
0,1 1 10 100
Nb/Yb

Fig. 17. V–Ti (A), Zr/Y–Zr (B), and Th/Yb–Nb/Yb (C) discrimination diagrams for the komatiitic to basaltic rocks of the Onverwacht Suite. For data sources see Fig. 6. The discrim-
ination diagrams are after Shervais (1982), Pearce and Norry (1979) and Pearce (2008). In diagram A the characteristic Ti/V ratios are 10–20 for island arc lavas, 20–50 for MORB,
20–30 for mixed MORB and island arc, 10–50 for back-arc lavas. Bon = boninite. In diagram B WPB = within plate basalt, MORB = mid-ocean ridge basalt, IAT = island arc tho-
leiite. In diagram C the fields of ocean islands, the Ontong Java plateau and the Mariana arc/Mariana trough have been constructed from Pearce (2008).
424 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
1000
100
Nb VAG +
Syn-COLG
10
1
1 10
1000
Syn-COLG
100
Rb
10
VAG
1
1 10
Y + Nb
Fig. 18. Geochemical data from the felsic igneous rocks of the Theespruit and Noisy Complexes plotted in the Nb–Y (A) and Rb–Y + Nb (B) discrimination diagrams for granitoids
(after Pearce et al., 1984). ORG = ocean ridge granites, WPG = within-plate granites, VAG = volcanic arc granites, Syn-COLG = syn-collisional granites.
variable amounts of subduction-related modification. According to
Kerr et al. (2000) back-arc basalts can show geochemical traits similar
to basalts forming oceanic plateaux, and they can be difficult to dis-
tinguish from each other. This applies particularly when subduction
signatures are weak. But, there are some geological features of back-
arc basins that differ from the typical oceanic plateau, e.g. the very com-
mon occurrence of tephra layers associated with the basalts. Silicified
tuffs and/or volcaniclastic rocks (now cherts) are intercalated in the
lavas of the BGB, and are particularly prominent within the Hooggenoeg
Complex (Figs. 2 and 3). These are interpreted to be the products
of shallow-water or subaerial explosive eruptions (Heinrichs, 1984;
Thompson-Stiegler et al., 2008). They are thus products of an entirely
different type of volcanic activity than the deep-water lavas, and an
origin in a volcanic island arc is thought to be the most likely (Furnes
et al., 2011).
5. Summary
On the basis of new geological and geochemical investigations of the
Palaeoarchean (ca. 3.5–3.3 Ga) lavas and intrusions of the Onverwacht
Suite of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, combined with pre-existing
geochemical data, we infer that:
• The Onverwacht Suite consists of seven complexes (the Sandspruit,
Theespruit, Komati, Hooggenoeg, Noisy, Kromberg and Mendon
Complexes) of predominantly igneous rocks (lavas and intrusions)
A Theespruit Complex
Noisy Complex
WPG
ORG
100 1000
B
WPG
ORG
Theespruit Complex
Noisy Complex
100 1000
that form a 15‐km thick imbricate tectonic stack. The Hooggeneog
and Noisy Complexes are separated by a tectonised unconformity,
showing that the deep-water lavas of the Hooggenoeg Complex
were obducted, exposed and deeply eroded prior to felsic volcanism
and deposition of clastic sedimentary rocks during pre-3455 Ma
tectonic activity.
• The pillow lavas of the Hooggenoeg and Kromberg Complexes are
non- or sparsely vesicular. Comparison with the vesicularity of geo-
chemically similar modern lavas suggests that the pillow lavas were
erupted at water depths generally exceeding 2000 m.
• The lavas of the tectonostratigraphic lower and upper complexes are
predominantly high-MgO basalts, komatiitic basalts and komatiites,
whereas those in the centre are predominantly high- to low-MgO tho-
leiitic basalts. Felsic volcanic and intrusions are important in the
Theespruit and Noisy Complexes.
• The chondrite-normalised REE patterns of the komatiitic to basaltic
lavas are almost flat and resemble those of modern MORB, whereas
those of the felsic rocks of are flat between Lu through Gd but show
a moderate to strong enrichment in LREE. In MORB-normalised spi-
der diagrams the komatiitic to basaltic lavas exhibit flat patterns
from Lu through La and consistent relative enrichment in Pb, U,
Th, Ba and Cs and apart from the rocks of the Komati Complex, the
majority of lavas show significant negative Nb and Ta anomalies.
• Estimates of MORB-normalised non-conservative elements (Cs, Ba,
Th, LREE) relative to conservative elements (Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Y, HREE)
demonstrate that the komatiitic to basaltic magmas were generated
 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
from mantle metasomatised above subducting altered oceanic crust,
as in modern volcanic arcs and back-arc basins.
• Average ε tNd values for the basaltic and komatiitic lavas lie close to
calculated depleted mantle growth curves, compatible with previous
partial melting and mantle differentiation.
• Based on their tectonic stacking and the geochemical characteristics
of their lavas and intrusions, we infer that the Onverwacht com-
plexes are successively obducted slices of oceanic crust formed in
back-arc basins and volcanic arcs. The stratigraphically lowest com-
plex was thus emplaced onto an older gneissic basement, whereas
the rest of the complexes were successively emplaced upon each
other. The magma sources were mantle segments enriched in LILE
due to dehydration of subducting altered oceanic crust, while the
felsic igneous rocks were produced by partial melting of amphibolite
and eclogite in the subducting slabs themselves.
Acknowledgements
This study was financed by grants from the Norwegian Research
Council, the Meltzer Foundation at the University of Bergen, and the
National Research Foundation of South Africa. The authors are very
grateful to the Mpumalanga Parks Board for the permission to carry
out field work within the Songimvelo Nature Reserve and to Fred
Daniels for his generous hospitality in the Nkomazi Wilderness. Jane
Ellingsen is thanked for her help with the illustrations, and the re-
viewers P. Robinson, H. M. Rajesh and A. Polat (guest editor) for
their suggestions that improved the paper. This is AEON contribution
number 104.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10.
1016/j.gr.2012.05.007.
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Harald Furnes is professor at the Department of Earth Sci-
ence, University of Bergen, Norway, since 1985. He re-
ceived his PhD at the University of Oxford, UK, in 1978.
His main research interest has been connected to volcanic
rocks. This involves physical volcanology, geochemistry
and petrology of volcanic rocks, mainly connected to
ophiolitic and island arc development of various ages,
and during the last 8 years much focus has been on the
Paleoarchean Barberton Greenstone Belt. Another re-
search focus has been related to the alteration of volcanic
glass, which again led to a long-term study on the interac-
tion between micro-organisms and glassy rocks, and the
search for traces of early life. On these topics he has publi-
shed a number of refereed papers in international journals.
428 H. Furnes et al. / Gondwana Research 23 (2013) 403–428
Maarten Johan de Wit I was born in Holland, went to
school in Holland and Ireland, and completed my BSc/MA
in Ireland (Trinity College, Dublin), my PhD in England
(Cambridge University), and a postdoc at the Lamont
Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, USA. Pres-
ently I hold the chair of Earth Stewardship Science at the
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in Port Elizabeth,
South Africa. I am the Founding Director of AEON (Africa
Earth Observatory Network), a trans-disciplinary research
institute (www.aeon.org.za).
My scientific interests lie in how the Earth works (particular
in its youthful stage); in global tectonics; the evolution
of Africa and Gondwana; the origin of continents, life and
mineral resources; and in the economics of natural-resources and sharing of the
‘commons’. I have mapped in the Barberton Greenstone Belt since 1979.
Brian Robins is a professor at the Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Bergen. He received a PhD from the
University of Leeds before moving to Norway in 1970 to take
up a teaching position in mineralogy and petrology. His
main research interests have been the physical and chemical
processes that take place in crustal magma chambers, in par-
ticular compositional stratification in magma chambers, the
locus of nucleation and growth of primocrysts, sedimentary
and other processes in the formation of cumulates and the
significance of postcumulus processes in the modification of
cumulates. He has conducted extensive field studies of several
Norwegian layered intrusions, including the Honningsvåg
Intrusive Suite and the Bjerkreim–Sokndal Intrusion.