CONTACT METASOMATISM AND ORE DEPOSITION:

CONCEPCION DEL ORO, MEXICO

PETER R. BUSECK

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction ........................................................... P8
Geographyand historyof mining ........................................ PP
Previous studies ....................................................... 100
General geology ....................................................... 101
Sedimentaryrocks .................................................. 102
Igneous rocks ...................................................... 102
Structure .......................................................... 104
Metasomatism ......................................................... 104
Metallic mineralization ................................................. 108
Anhydrousiron oxides .............................................. 108
Sulfides and sulfo-salts .............................................. 114
Paragenesis........................................................ 115
Zoning ............................................................ 117
Controls of mineralization ........................................... 118
Comparisonwith Providencia........................................... 120
Quantitativeconsiderations............................................. 121
Dating ............................................................ 121
Geothermometry .................................................... 122
Heat flow estimate ............................................... 122
Pyrrhotite ...................................................... 124
Quartz fluid inclusions........................................... 125
Vaporpressures .................................................... 127
Origin andclassification ................................................ 150
Summaryand conclusions .............................................. 152
References ............................................................ 155

ABSTRACT

Concepcion
de10ro, the'second
largestcopperproducing
districtof
iVfexico,containssulfideand iron oxide mineralsdisseminated
in skarn
matrix surroundinga granodioritestock. The age (K-Ar) of the
stock is 40 q- 1.2 m.y. and the end of mineralization occurred at least
38 q- 1.2 m.y. ago, indicatingthat mineralizationwas approximatelycon-
temporaneous with emplacement.
Far from the stock wollastonlteis prominent,although temperatures
weretoolow to produceit in a dosedenvironment.Streaming,ascending
fluidspresumably
removedCO2 as rapidlyas formed,therebyfacilitating
the reaction between limestoneand enclosedsiliceouslayers. With in-
creasingmetasomatismandraditegarnetand other calc-silicates
formed,
mainlywithinlimestone
but alsoreplacingadjacentgranodiorite.
97
 Magnetite, the earliest metallic mineral, occurs in limestoneas well
as skarn,but pyrite, specularite,chalcopyrite,
and the sulfo-salts(listed
in approximateorder of deposition)are restrictedto skarn.
Variations of oxygenfugacity and temperatureduring mineralization
are indicatedby at least four alternatinggenerationsof magnetiteand
hematite. The rangein fo•.is 10-xsto 10-•'5atm. Coexistingpyrite dur-
ing late-stagemineralization
fixesthe fs•.at 10-ø-*•' atto.
Quartz was depositedafter most metallic minerals. Fluid inclusion
filling temperatures
indicatea formationtemperatureof 350ø q- 35ø C, the
minimumtemperatureof mineralization. Pyrrhotite indicatesa (ques-
tionable) formation temperatureof 500ø C and a heat-flow estimate
demonstratesthat the maximum temperatureat the igneouscontact was
approximately500ø C, suggestingthat metallicmineralizationwas initiated
at the highesttemperatureswithin the contactaureole.
Nearby mesothermalto epithermaldepositsat Providenciaare related
to thoseat Concepciondel Oro. Both depositsare adjacentto essentially
identical stocks, occur within the same sedimentaryhorizons and both
occur at or closeto the igneouscontacts. A geneticcorrespondence be-
tween these deposits,as well as betweenhydrothermaland contactmeta-
somatic ores in other areas, suggeststhat the two types of deposits
are fundamentallyrelated. Moreover, measuredtemperaturesof Con-
cepcion del Oro ores fall within the range acceptedfor hypothermal
deposits.
It is suggestedthat these contactmetasomaticdepositsare properly
classifiedas a particular type within the larger genetic group of high
temperaturehydrothermaldeposits.
INTRODUCTION

OR•- depositsare commonin the narrow zone separatingunmineralized

plutonsfrom barren sediments. Such contactmetasomatic • depositsare
acknowledged igneousorigin, but their unique geologicoccurrencehas led
to their beingclassifiedas if they were geneticallydistinctfrom hydrothermal
deposits(45, 31, 4, 40). The presentstudywas initiatedpartly to test this
proposition. A correlativegoal was to provide informationregarding the
singularlocationof the ore mineralsamongthe silicatesin the metasomatic
aureolesurroundingthe igneousrock. Specialattentionwas devotedto the
relationshipsof the primarysulfideandoxidemineralsto eachotherandto the
silicates.
Althoughthe metasomaticdepositsat Silver Bell, Arizona, and Tern
Piute, Nevada,were alsostudied,thoseat Concepcion del Oro are sufficiently
significantto warrant separatetreatment. A studyof Concepcion del Oro
seemedespecially worthwhilebecause of excellentexposures aboveand below
ground,relativelyuncomplicated regionalgeology,limitedsize,and most
portant, almost classicdevelopmentof characteristicgeologicfeatures of
contactmetasomafic deposits.Finally, it is a commercially
importantMexican
ore depositrain1960,the mostrecentyear for whichfiguresare available,it
wassecond onlyto Cananeain totalMexicancopperproduction(G. P. Salas, •'
1964,written communication).
1 These depositshave commonlybeen called "contactmeta/norphic"but, as metasomatism
is generally so prominent,the term "contactmetasomatic"is more apt and thus has been
adopted in this paper.
2 Director, Institute of Geology,University of Mexico.
 Three monthswere spentin the field at Concepcion del Oro duringthe
summers1958--1960. Owing to the large sizeof the districtand limitedtime,
althoughall importantmineswere visited,mappingand intensivesampling
had to be concentratedin selected,representativeareas in the mineralized
zone. Numerous polishedand thin sectionswere examined and minerals of
particularinterestwere studiedusingX-ray powderdiffraction,oil immersion
andmicroscope heatingstagetechniques.
The writer is indebtedto the Mazapil CopperCompanyand the American
Smeltingand Refining Companyfor permissionto visit the Concepcion deI
Oro minesand to the PetiolesCompanyfor accessto the Providenciamines.
The personnelof thesecompanies were exceptionallyhelpfuland withouttheir
supportthis studycouldnot havebeencompleted. Mr. EduardoMapesmade
the regionalmap of the Consejode RecursosNaturales no Renorabiesavail-
able. Dr. Edwin Roedderand Mrs. Priestly Toulmin III helpedin the fluid
inclusionthermometry,doneon equipmentof Dr. Roedder. Dr. StanleyHart
dated the adularia and biotite. ProfessorPaul Ramdohr helped interpret
some problematicalpolishedsections. Peter Garrison and Jeff Wiegand
assisted
in the fieldduring1958and 1959,respectively.Helpful discussions
and suggestions came from Drs. C. H. Behre, Jr., Norman Snively, H. D.
Holland, Paul Barton, Jr., P.M. Bethke,and the late Arie Poldervaart. The
manuscriptwas critically read by Drs. Behre and Holland. The writer
assumesfull responsibilityfor viewsexpressed.
Thanks are due all the aforementioned people;specialappreciationis re-
servedfor Dr. Behre, under whose direction this study was undertakenand
without whosepatientguidance,encouragement and interestit would not have
materialized. Financial supportwas provided by the JamesFurman Kemp
and Sinclair fellowships,the Columbia University Scholarship,and by
ColumbiaUniversityresearchgrants.
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF iVIINING

The town of Concepcion del Oro in northeasternZacatecasis the center

of a considerablemineralindustry. The nearestmajor town is Saltillo (Fig.
1), connectedto Concepcionde! Oro by the narrow gauge Coahuilaand
Zacatecasrailroadand alsoby 126 km of all-weatherroad.
Folding of the sedimentsand desert-typeerosionhas produceda series
of parallel,easterly-trending
ridges(Figs. 1, 2). The interveningvalleysare
synclines,largely filled with alluvium. Streams are intermittent, and the
drainageis interior. The topographyis ruggedwith a maximumrelief of
almost 1,500 m.
This is one of the oldestmining districtsin Mexico; previousto the six-
teenth century Spaniards,the Indians had mined the deposits(19). The
regionwas first famedfor the silverminesnear Mazapil, 14 km west of Con-
cepciondel Oro, which producedore worth many millions of pesos. The
minesnear Concepcion del Oro interestedthe Spaniardsfor their gold; the
town'snamecamefrom a mine which reportedlyproduced400 gm of gold
per ton.
 In the last part of the nineteenthcenturythe Mazapil CopperCompany
startedworkingthe copperdeposits on a large,organizedscale. Shortly,all-
weather roads, railroadsand cablewaysfollowed. The coppersmelterwas
soonbuilt and has beenoperatingto the present. During the last decade,
the AmericanSmeltingand Refining Companydevelopedthe one open pit
mineof thearea,the Azulesmine;operations thereceasedin 1960.

Loredo

LEGEND

• Sedimentory
rocks
• Intrusive
rocks
:Torreon
Monterrey
(
•.•-F•Volcanic
rocks
CONCEPCION DEL

X'•----•
Faults
"lAnticlines
Caohuila peninsula

Miles Kilomelers
0 50 I00 0 I00 200
.-
Son Luis Potosi

FI6. 1. Index and tectonicmap of the northernSierra Madre Oriental,Mexico

(after King, 1947).

Althoughgradesvary widely,muchprimaryore contains lessthan 2

percentcopperand2 gmgold,butlocalshoots contain
over10 percentCu.
The totaltonnageproduced
fromthe districtis manymilliontons,thisbeing
thelargestcopperproducing
districtin the Stateof Zacatecas.
PREVIOUS STUDIES

The earliestpublication
on the districtwasby Burkart (9). The first
important contributions
to the geology weremadeduringthe TenthInter-
nationalGeologic Congress,namelyreportsby Villarello(52), Burckhardt
(8), andBergeat(5). The latterspenttwo weeksin the Concepcion del
Oro districtstudyingtheoredeposits.Shortgeologic discussions
werepub-
lishedby Chase(13), Castafiedo (12), andBuseck(10). Rogers,et al.
(42), present
a comprehensivepictureof theregional
geology.
 The Concepcion
del Oro districtis in the Sierra Madre Orientalon the
southwestern
borderof thebeltof eastward
trending
folds(Fig. 1). The
anomalous
trendofthese ridges
istheresult
ofnortheast-southwest
compres-
sion,the formerCoahuilaPeninsula
highlandareasto the north-northwest
actingasa buttress(43).

LEGEND

•1 Qualernary
oltuvium
J• Terliary
canglamerote
• Upper Cretaceous
sediments
J•"•Lower
Gretaceaus
sechments
.11:[]
JurosslC
sediments
[] Torttory
granodmnte
.•[] Other
•gneaus
rocks
-- Cantoct

• Faull

K,Iomelers Miles
0 5 I0 3 6

FIG.2. Regional
geology oftheConcepcion
delOrodigtrict
(modified
fromRogers
etal.,1956). (Thetopstructure
should
belabelled
SierradeCanutillo.)
 In the area immediatelysurroundingConcepciondel Oro there are four
east-trendinganticlinesmarked by ridges (Fig. 2). The crests are sup-
portedby the Upper JurassicZuloagalimestone,the predominant"mountain-
former" of the area. Lower Cretaceoussedimentscrop out farther down the
slopes. The relatively sparseUpper Cretaceousformationsare at the slope
bottomsand in the valleys,where they are largely coveredby alluvium.
All but one of the ridges contain minor igneous rocks ranging from
andesiticto rhyoliticin composition.Small intrusivemassesalso occuralong
the crests;however,in the Sierra de Concepcion del Oro there are two large
granodiorite bodies immediately adjacent to each other (Fig. 2). It is
aroundthesestocksthat the importantore depositsoccur.

SedimentaryRocks
The sedimentsin the district, ranging from Upper Jurassicto Upper
Cretaceous,are primarily grayish limestonescontainingargillaceous,silt-y,
chertyand locallyphosphatic layers. The youngestsedimentsare shalyand
are the only onesnot intersectedby the granodioritestock.
The limestones, asreportedin four chemicalanalyses givenby Bergeat(5,
p. 47), are relativelypure CaCOa. An exceptionis the normally siliceous
and chert-bearing La Caja, with 20.5 weightpercentSiOn,whereasthe other
sampleshave 3.2 percentor less SiO2. All containless than 2.2 percent
of total oxidesotherthan SiO2, CaO and CO•.
A detaileddescriptionof the stratigraphyis providedby Rogers, et al.
(42), and is summarizedin Table 1.

IgneousRocks
Two large granodioritestockscrop out in the Sierra de Concepcion del
Oro (Fig. 2). The ore depositsof the Concepcion del Oro districtoccur
aroundthe southernstock (Fig. 4) whereasthe Providenciagroup of de-
positsoccuraroundthe northernone. Only the former will be considered
here.
The granodioriteis holocrystalline;
it is equigranularin the centerof the
stock and porphyritic toward the periphery. Macroscopicallyrecognizable
are: plagioclase,
biotite,quartz,hornblendeand magnetite. Also presentare
orthoclase,diopside,and sparseapatite,spheneand zircon. Chemicalanalyses
of threespecimens are givenby Bergeat(5, p. 12): the composition of oneis
granodioriticgradingtowarda tonalite,whereastwo correspond to the average
composition of 65 hornblende-biotite
granodiorites
(39).
The granodioriteappearsto be clearly magmatic;silicatecrystallization
parallelsthe "reactionseries"of Bowen (6). The earliestrock-forming
mineral is diopside. It reactedwith the magmato form hornblende,which
is in turn shieldedby brown biotite alongits periphery. Simultaneously
with
the formation of the mafic minerals,basic plagioclasestarted crystallizing,
eventuallyto producethe mainmineralof the granodiorite-andesine (approxi-
matelyAb•o). The high calciumcontentof thesemineralswas presumably
produced
by assimilated
limestonestoped
fromthecountryrockduringmagma
emplacement.The lastsilicatesto form in the mainigneousrockswereortho-
dase,locallyperthitic,and quartz. Lime silicates,mainlygarnetand epidote,
are not uncommonin minor amounts,but probablyformedonly in areaswhere
there was a limestone inclusion.

Table 1

Stratigraphic column of Conception del 0ro

SERIES STAGE FORMATION THICKS•SS CHARACTER

(meters)

Shale, black, calcareous, splint•ry;

• Parras 1300 contains

sparse
sandstone
layers.
•o • taracol 800 Shale,
dark
bedded
withgray,
splintery,
brownish inter-
calcareous,
arkosic sandstone; locally contains

• black,
lenticular
limestone.
• i• Limestone,
gray,
argillaceous,
interbedded platy;
with bro•zniSh siltstone

• ! Indidura
200containing
fissile
shale
layers; easily eroded.

Limestone, dark gray, wavy bedded;

ß
• Cuesta
delCura 2•0 interbedded
chert,
withlenticular black
incompetent ridge former;
• drag
folds common.
Limestone, gray; contains nodular
m • LaPe•a 140 chertandpyrite concretions;
inter-
• bedded
withcalcareous,
yellowish
• • soft
siltstone;
easily
eroded.
• Limestone,
medium-gray;
contains
• • Cupido 340 nodular
gray
chert
and
pyrite
con- cretions; stylolitic; ridge former.

• Limestone,
medium-gray,
thick bedded;
weathers characteristic blue; con-
Taraises 140 tains minor nodular chert and pyrite
concretions; alternating with
brownish, poorly lithified siltstone.

• • Siltstone, grayish, calcareous,

ß• • contains argillaceous limestone,

• •• •• i
• La
CaJa 100 phosphatic;
shaleand chert layers;
easily locally
eroded.

• Limestone,
buff to darkgray,massive;
• • Zuloaga 40Ofew
argillaceous
layers,
locally stylolitic; main ridge former.

An early,arrestedstagein the crystallization

of the magmais repre-
sentedby roundedto slightly angular, dark gray inclusionswithin the
granodiorite,rangingin diameterfrom severalmillimetersto half a meter.
Macroscopicallythe contactbetweengranodioriteand inclusionis sharp, but
microscopicallyit appearsgradational,the minerals in the inclusionsbeing
more mafic and finer-grainedthan thosein the granodiorite. Bergeat (5,
p. 21) statesthat sincethe late stagemineralssuchas quartz and orthoclase
are absent, the inclusions are "local, compact accumulationsfrom the centers
of crystallization(of the magma)."
Abundant alaskiticdikes are resultsof the late stagesof crystallization;
they locally offset each other slightly, suggestingthat even in the last stages
of emplacementand solidificationthe igneousmasswas not at rest. The dikes
contain orthoclaseand quartz, with sparse biotite, muscovite,.magnetite,
spheneand zircon.
Other late features of the crystallizingmagma are deuteric veins of
black,aciculartourmaline,with crystalsup to 4 cm long. Milky quartz and
cubic voids which probablyonce containedpyrite crystalsoccur with the
tourmaline.
Structure

The most striking structural feature is the series of subparallelanti-

clinesand synclines(Figs. 1, 2). They are partly overturnedto the north;
one, the Sierra de Conceptiondel Oro, is practically recumbent. Thrust
faults over 10 km long are associated with the folds. They occurat or near
the crestof the four anticlinalridges,the fault planesdippinggently south.
The Concepcion del Oro fault partly surroundsthe town and stockof the
samename. It is almostvertical, with a maximumthrow of 900 m (42).
The sediments on the granodioritesideof the fault havebeenuplifted,suggest-
ing that faultingwasproduced by the intrusion. However,the intrusionwas
not the causeof regionalfoldingbut did affectthe foldsby upliftinga part of
the synclineseparatingthe otherwiseparallelSierrasde La Caja and Santa
Rosa,therebyformingthe Sierra de Concepcion del Oro. The emplacement
of both stocksinto the crestof the Sierra de Conceptiondel Oro was there-
fore probablyconcurrent with the folding. Buddington(7) thinksthat "the
roof is faulted" by "a slight doming by upward magma pressure,"this
pressure presumably assistingin thefolding.
Minor local graben containingTertiary conglomerates have been de-
velopedin someranges. Thesearoseas a regionalsystemof blockfaulting
from tensionalstressesfollowingthe main folding (42).

METASOMATISM

The sediments surroundingthe Concepcion del Oro stockhave all been

affectedby the fluids and heat generatedby the intrusion. Immediately
adjacentto the stockmetasomatism has beenso intensethat the original
characterof the calcareousrocksis no longer recognizable.The actual dis-
tance of sillcationfrom the intrusion is dependenton the orientationof
the beds;the metasomatizing fluidstendedto followbeddingplanesand thus
traveledfarther into the countryrock wherebeddingwas perpendicular
to the
igneouscontactthanwhereparallel.
Far from the intrusion the sedimentshave not been completelyreplaced
and soshedlight on the initial effectsof metasomatism.
To the southeast
of
the E1 Esperanza
adit the sillcation
ex•ends
hundreds
of metersfromthe
intrusionalongbedsof Taralseslimestone.Within eachmetasomatized
zone,
a few millimetersto 10 cm wide, are thin beds that were formerly siltstone
but havesincebeenlargelyreplacedby garnetand lesseramountsof diopside,
idocraseand scapolitehavinga high marialite content. Separatingthe bands
from limestoneis chalkywhite, fibrouswollastonitein layersa few centimeters
wide (Fig. 3b). The calcite adjacent to this wollastoniteis generally re-
crystallizedand in larger, clearer grains than in neighboring,unaffected
limestone. The calcitelocallycontainswollastonite"ghosts,"euhedralcrys-
tals havingthe shapeof wollastoniteand opticalpropertiesof calcite. These
incipientcrystalsoccuronly wherethere was a paucityof silica.
As silicate formation in the 'sedimentsfar from the igneouscontactis
most intensenear siliceousbeds,it is possiblethat in theseareas there was
no great influx of elementsfrom the igneousbody and that these changes
were producedchieflyby local rearrangements.Nevertheless,the abundance
of wollastoniteindicatesthat there must have been relativelylow CO2 pres-
sures, presumablyproducedby fluid action. As may be inferred from
Greenwood (15), in a closed,dry environmentthereaction
(CaCOa)+ (SiOs)-• (CaSiOs)+ (COs) 3
would not have proceededunlessthe temperaturewas considerablyhigher
than 600ø C. However, the estimatedmaximumtemperaturein the contact
metasomatic
aureolewasonly500ø C. Therefore,
to formwollastonite
it was
necessary that the COs was removedas rapidly as formed. The CO2 could
haveescaped dry throughopenfractures,but theseare unlikelyin a hot lime-
stoneenvironment. The simplestexplanationfor the rapid removalof COs
is if it were dissolvedin streamingfluids, presumablyemanatingfrom the
crystallizingintrusion. These fluids may have also introducedsomeof the
constituents now in the calc-silicates.
There must have been good passageways to have such pronouncedfluid
action. Just as silicationis most intenseadjacentto the silty horizonsin
the Taraisesformation,so it is mostpronouncednext to the chertin the wide-
spreadLa Caja and Cuestadel Cura formations. The reasonsfor this are
as muchstructuralas chemical. The originallysiliceoushorizonswere more
competentthan the surroundinglimestonesand thereforefractured under
deformation,whereasthe limestoneflowed (Fig. 3a). The result is that the
siliceoushorizons now consist of lenses, boudins or a series of disconnected
blocks.
Garnet occursnot only along chert beddingcontactsbut also on planes
perpendicular
to the beddingalongwhichthe chert fractureduponfolding.
It is thus evident that sillcation is later than deformation and therefore
probablycameafter intrusion(Fig. 3a). Becauseof fracturing,the siliceous
layersweremore"open"thanthe limestones andsothe metasomatizing fluids
couldmovealongthese"siliceousconduits"relativelyeasily. The localization
of the fluidsalsohelpsexplainthe intensesilicationalongthesehorizons.
Althoughreactionsbetweenexistingphasesmay have beeninstrumental
in .producingthe lime silicatesfar from the stock,it is evidentthat closer
to the stockmetasomaticprocesses haveproducedthe transferof greatamounts
s ( ) refersto a solidphaseand ( ) to a gaseous
phase.
106 PETER R. BUSECK

of material. Of four fresh limestones,three consistof over 95 weight per-

centCaCOa;the fourthwastakenfrom the chertyLa Caja formation,the
chertaccounting
forthe20.5percent
SiO: (5). 3udgingfromthemineralogy,
skarnformedfrom limestonecloseto the igneouscontactcontainsvastly
greater
amounts
of }re,Mg,A1,and$i oxides
thandoesfreshlimestone.
In

. ,

$ . .
• .

.L,:,.,..•'• -,; '..?.,.

.•' "•
'.•; • '.,•;-•½•.;'
.' : .• • .½ ....
....... ;,&.:.' ..,- .. ....',½. .-•.....
,...-.b .
:,'.:•
.. ;:-7'
'•;;';
..... :' '•."
':.:'r. •':'-?'c'
:...
.... •.....
.:--,•.,-• •.-.,,.'-.
½.•':- i-•..:.-. [,,'•; .....
.. ,-½ ½• .-.. •

• ;-'.'".-'.;
'-••.•'-". , - .... •.%-: .' ....,'•.... ,.
Fz(;. 3. Metasomatism surrounding œracturedchert beds; limestone-skarn
contacts;magnetitein vugs. a) (top left) Chert beds,fracturedduring folding,
within Cupidolimestonethat yieldedby flowage. This is an exampleof the com-
petent"siliceousconduits." Silicatesaroundand betweenchert blocksindicate
metasomatism followingfolding. b)(top right) Localizationof initial silicafionto
siliceoushorizons. Fractured chert block in Taraiseslimestone,with chert rimmed
by narrow garnetband,a broaderwollastonitezone (white) and then relatively
fresh limestone. c) (lower left) ?arfiy silicatedCuestadel Cura limestoneindi-
caringirregular"front" of wollastonite and tremolitewithin otherwisefresh,un-
bleached limestone(lower left COmer). d.) (lower right) Vugs of coarsecalcite
(white) in massive
garnetskarn;magnetite
(darkgray) linestherugs,especially
their lower halves.
decreasing order of abundance, silicates found in the high-grade skarn near
the intrusionare: andradite-grossularite,
diopside,tremolite,epidote,zoisite,
scapolite,actinolite,idocrase,manganiferous hedenbergite
and, rarely, chlorite,
muscoviteand ilvaite. Quartz is sparse. The metallicmineralsare described
in the followingsection.
Among the several skarn silicatesthat occur locally and in only minor
amounts,one,manganiferous hedenbergitefrom the San Antonio mine, is un-
usual. It occursas dark green,radiating,bladed,almostplumosecrystalsup
to 10 cm long and is partly altered to yellow uralite. The hedenbergiteis
stronglypleochroicfrom dark holly greento yellowishapplegreen,to brown-
ish yellow. The 2V = 69ø -----
2 ø, ZAc = 35ø to 40% n• = 1.726,nt•= 1.732
andn• = 1.745. Thesepropertiescorrespond to a mineralcontaininga signifi-
cant amountof the johannsenitemolecule. The pyroxenecommonlyoccurs
with and replacesminorgarnetand calcite. Quartz, chalcopyrite
and hematite
also are interbladedbetweenthe hedenbergitecrystals and •tre probably
later.
Intense silicationresulting mainly in the formation of garnet is evident
closeto the igneouscontact. At La Perlita transitionfrom limestoneto al-
mostpuregarnetskarntakesplacewithin 3 m, the silicates
formingacross
the limestonebeddingin an irregular but sharp contact (Fig. 3c). This is
especiallytrue of wollastoniteand tremolite,the initial reactionproductswith
limestone. The massivegarnet and other silicatesare then within the "en-
velope"formedby thewollastonite
andtremolite. Moreover,thereis generally
no completegradationfrom limestoneto skarn. This, as well as the sharp
discontinuityacrossthe contact,suggeststhat the skarn formed almost
en masse,as alonga "front."
As in many regions,the effectsof metasomatism
are pronouncedin the
limestones;at Concepciondel Oro they have also been profound in the
granodioriteimmediatelyborderingthe contact. Thus, at Promontoriolenses
and veinletsof skarncontainingmainly brown garnetoccurwithin the igneous
rock. Near the former limestonecontactlenticularpodsof skarnare enclosed
withinthe granodiorite.Suchpodsare surrounded parallelto their lengthby
joints that are alsofilledwith lime silicates,clearlyindicatingthat the skarn
materialmigratedalongfractures. Each pod and fracture is borderedby a
thin zone of epidotizedgranodiorite. At Promontorioand La Perlita this
skarn has retained granitic and porphyritictextures and in some samples
plagioclase phenocrysts remain in the skarn, togetherwith local orthoclase,
quartz,and diopside.
The skarnificationof the igneousrock is as clear microscopicallyas it
is macroscopically.The most conspicuous effect of metasomatism is that
the granodioriteis bleachedto a creamcolor adjacentto the fracturesnow
filled with skarnsilicates. This is causedby the breakdownof biotite,partial
replacement of hornblendeand pyroxeneby a fibrousmineral, probably
tremolite, and local alteration of feldspar, mainly to sericite but also to
calciteand possiblytremolite. Epidoteand scapoliteare locallyabundant.
The texture of the resultinggroundmass is much finer and lessequigranular
locally even indistinguishable.Plagiodase phenocrysts,however, remain
identifiableexceptin areasof mostintensemetasomatism.
Garnet is the most abundant mineral within the fractures filled with calc-
silicates,thesebeing the probableconduitsfor the metasomatizing fluids.
Small, irregular grains and massesof garnet impingeon the igneousmin-
erals locally like an irregular "front," reminiscentof silicationof limestone.
With increasingmetasomatism the igneousmineralsoccuronly interstitially
to garnetand then,finally,not at all. Epidote,diopsideand idocraseoccurto-
gether with the garnet. The silicate areas within the granodioritecontain
at leastminor disseminated magnetite. Small vugs containingplaty specu-
larite, calciteand, lesscommonly,pyrite and chalcopyritealso occurwithin
someof the silicatedfractures,suggesting
that theseservedas "open"channel-
waysthroughoutmuchof the periodof mineralization.
Closeto the igneouscontactit is difficultto tell whether massiveskarn
formedfrom a sedimentaryor an igneoushost. Becauseof greaterabundance
of aluminain the igneousrock, garnet in granodiorite-derivedskarn is more
grossularitic than in limestone-derivedskarn. Some garnet contains car-
bonaceousmatter; as there is no carbonaceous material in the granodiorite,
suchgarnetdoubtless formedwithin limestone. The mostcertaincriterionof
an igneoushost,however,is a residualigneoustexture.
Fractureschannelingthe metasomatic fluidsexerteda stronginfluencein
determiningthe areasand extentof metasomatism.At the Promontoriolime-
stoneinlier, fracturesadjacentto and abovelimestonecontaingarnet; those
without limestonebelow are garnet free. This suggeststhat limestonewas
the sourceof the calciumin the garnet and confirmsthe ascendingnature of
the fluids.
The metasomatizing fluids,havingascended, may be relatedto minerali-
zation. Magnetite, specularite,pyrite and chalcopyrite,though later than
garnet,occurwithin skarnin granodiorite;thereis no evidencefor a distinct
timebreakbetweensilicationand deposition of theseminerals. Garnetlocally
veinsor replaces
magnetite
and hematite,and ilvaiteand chloriteare later
than certain sulfides. Silicationand mineralizationthereforemay-be phases
of a continuousprocess. It is likely that fluids having similar origins,
alteredonly by their interactionwith the countryrock, broughtaboutboth
skarnificationand ore deposition.The natureof the resultingmineralization
is discussed below.

METALLIC MINERALIZATION

AnhydrousIron Oxides
Magnetite
andhematite,
asprimary
minerals
sufficiently
concentrated
for
mining,occurin manycontactmetasomatic depositssuchas Cornwall,Iron
Springs,Fierro, and Heroult. At Concepcion
del Oro severalareashave
beenactivelyworkedfor iron oxides,althoughat the time of this study,
1958-1960,onlythe Sol y Luna minewasin operation.Howeyer,magnetite
and hematiteare the mostcommonmetallicmineralsin the district,appearing
 LEGEND

Cuesta
del
Cura
limestone
La
Pe•a
formation
Cupido
hmestone
Taraises formation

La
Cajo
formatio•
Zuloacja
limestone

Granodiorlte

Mine

/ Fault

• DEL ORO

Old'
Smeller
ß <• ß

Cerro de
Los¾aios
> • ß <

<

• delArco

ß .
. .

ß . ß

Melers Feet

500 I0• 0 •00 2• 3000

,• La Lola

Fro.4. Indexandgeologicmapof theConcepciondelOrodistrict(compiled

in part,fromMapes,1964,andRogers
et al.,1956).
ß hey formedin severalgcnc•tions throughoutthe periodof mineralization
and indicatethat the oxygenfugacityand/or the temperature,fluctuated
considerably.
Massive,almostpure magnetitemakesup a small high-gradeorebody
parallelto the igneouscontactat Sol y Luna. The bodyliesin Cupidolime-
stoneborderinga granodioritemassnear the main stock. A narrow skarn
bandformsthe contactbetweenmagnetiteand limestone. Within the mag-
netite massare tracesof residualbedding,the inferencebeingthat limestone
was directlyreplaced. Sparsegarnet,chalcedony and quartz occur,but the
only gangueof note is calcite,locallyin crystals25 cm across.
Within the granodioritestocklimestoneinliers formed along an infolded
northwesttrending trough, the southernend of which is at the Promontorio
mine (Fig. 4). Massivemagnetiteoccursin each inlier; extremelycoarse
calcite is in several. Promontorio has remains of several bodies of massive
magnetite. In the southwestpart of the Promontorioopen pit is shattered
limestone,with variouslyorientedblocksup to 10 m across;cementingand
replacingthe bordersof theseblocksis magnetite. Replacementis locally
so completethat no limestoneremains. Elsewherein the pit it appearsas if
sheetedmagnetitebodiesseparatedskarnfrom limestone.
Magnetiteshowsa definiteaffinityfor calcite. At the Cata Arroyo mine,
most magnetiteoccurswithin skarn and it tends to be concentratednear cal-
cite, as thoughthe carbonateservedas a precipitatingagentfor the magnetite.
Next to the calcitethe magnetitecrystalsare generallylarger and more eu-
hedralthan in the surroundingskarn. At Promontorioand Sol y Luna mag-
netiteprobablyreplacedrelativelyfresh limestone. The remaininglimestone
is brownishand impure, undoubtedlyhaving been altered by magnetite-de-
positingfluids. The magnetitewas, however,depositedin an environment
not previouslysilicatedand the iron-transporting
mediumdid not itselfeffect
any silication. Similar selectivereplacementof limestoneby magnetitehas
beennotedin severalcomparabledepositsin California (28).
Althoughmuchmagnetite,especiallyin massivebodies,is associated with
limestone,even greater amountsoccur within skarn, mainly as dissemina-
tions. At Promontoriosome skarn containsover 25 volume percent of
magnetite.Lensesup to 10cmlongconsistalmostentirelyof magnetite, as do
abundantveinletsand rugs. The rugs are commonlylined by octahedral
crystals,and in one area only few crystalsare suspended in calcitewhereas
manyare concentrated in the lowerportionsof calcite-filled
rugs (Fig. 3d).
It appearsasif gravityplayedan importantrolein the depositional settlingof
this material.
Magnetitecommonly veins,replaces,
or is interstitialto garnet,indicating
that it postdatesthe silicate. Exceptionsoccur, however. At the San
Antoniomine irregularveinletsof garnetcut magnetite(Fig. 5c).• The
garnetis euhedraltowardthe calcitefillingthe centerof the veinletbut
anhedraltoward the magnetite. In the samearea zoneswithin given mag-
netitecrystalshavebeenselectively replaced
by garnet. Apparentlymost,but
notall, of thegarnetis earlierthanmagnetite.
 CONTACTMETASOMATISMAND ORE DEPOSITION 111

Fxc.5. Ph0tomicrographs
of polished
sections.
a)(topleft) Tabular
specu-
laritccrystals
(white,viewed
edge-on),
partlyreplaced
by magnetite,(gray).
X 110. b) (top right) Magnetite(dark gray) beingreplacedby "powdery'hema-
tite lamellaealongthe magnetite(111) parting. X 400, oil immersion.c) (mid.
left)' Massivemagnetite(white) cut by garnet (light gray) veinlet,the centerof
which is filledwith calcite(dark gray); note euhedralmagnetitefacestoward
garnetand garnettowardcalcite. X 13. d) (mid. right) Chalcopyrite (white)
interleavedwith .andlater than bladedspecularitc(light gray); matrix is caldte
and manganiferous hedenbergite.X 110. e) (bottomleft) Tabular specularite
crystalspartly replacedby magnetite(dark gray); most magnetitehas been
replaced by fine-grainedhematite--because
of its differentorientationfrom the en-
closingspecularitc the fine-grainedhematitegivesthe specularitc a shadowyor
mottledappearance.Note that boththe eeplacing magnetiteand fine-grained
hematiteare in highlyirregularbodies.X 400,oil immersion.f) (bottomright)
"Powdery"hematitelamellaeselectively repladngcertainzonesof magnetite.
X 400, oil immersion.
(<0.001
mm wide)
in•-f-e-•ar--•/i•neiii;•>'•;}m;•;
fromt•;-C•ik
X;•oi•)"•i'•'•
•.
No othermagnetitecontained
suchfeatures.
Althoughnot as abundantas magnetite,hematiteis as widespread.It
occursin several .generations
in both specularand "powdery"f9rms--the
latterbeingfine-grained,
earthyandfriable. "Powdery"hematiteoccurswith
all magnetite,commonlyin slender,pencil-likerods arrangedin triangular
patternsparallelto the octahedral(111) magnetiteparting (Fig. 5b). The
hematiteis largelynearfracturesin or neargrain bordersof magnetite,indi-
.eatingthat it resultsfrom oxidation. In somespecimens certainmagnetite
zoneshave been selectivelyoxidized. As magnetiteis essentiallystoichi-
ometricat geologictemperatures, the variationsreflectedby the zonal re-
placementmustbe either structuralor the resultsof minor constituents
within
magnetitemafruitfulareafor furtherstudy.
Specularhematite,in contrastto "powdery"hematite,is commonin coarse
crystalsand in the absenceof magnetite. It is abundantin disseminations
and in late calcite-pyrite-chalcopyrite
veinletsin skarn as well as in adjacent
granodiorite, A 'striking occurrenceof speculariteis at the San Antonio
Ledge,a 90 m long ridge near the San Antonio mine portal. It lies within
coarselimestonecloseto the granodioritestock. The mineral composition
of this ledgeis simple•upwar'dsof 90 volumepercentis 'specularite;the re-
mainder is chert, "limonite," and clear quartz crystals several centimeters
long,growingon top of the hematite. The specularitecrystalstend to cluster,
their edgeslocallyforming rosettes. Elsewherethe crystals,up to 8 cm in
diameter,are in sinuousand peculiarlycontorted,bands,continuousfor a
meter or more. In a given band all the crystalsare approximatelythe same
size,but theygraduallydiminishin sizefrom bandto adjacentbandprogress-
ing closerto the center of curvatureof a set of bands,though everywhere
largerthanthe "powdery"hematite.
Speculariteformed later than most magnetite;as a result it crystallized
in differentareasand is not generallyassociatedwith magnetite. It is sparse
in the massivemagnetitebodies;where it doesoccur it is in rugs growing
on top of magnetitecrystals. The centersof somemagnetiteveinletsin skarn
containeuhedralspecularitecrystals. As the last filling of the rugs and
veinlets,the speculariremust have postdatedthe magnetite.
Characteristically
associatedwith specularite
is quartz,an unusualmineral
in the contactaureole. In someareasspecularite crystalsare surroundedby
quartz; elsewhere,prominentlyat the San Antonio Ledge, large, zoned,
euhedralquartz rests on speculariteplates. Locally the quartz zonesare
deflectedand skewedby the specularitc,
demonstrating
the later origin of
the silica. Nevertheless,the closeassociationof thesetwo minerals suggests
their essentialcontemporaneity.Further, the local associationof quartz
crystalswith albite,theyoungest
primarymineralin theaureole,indicates
that
quartz and thereforespeculariteare relativelylate, therebysubstantiating
the magne.tite-specularite
agerelationship.
Fluid inclusion
thermometry
of
quartz indicatesthat quartz formedat approximately
350ø C; specularite
crystallized
at slightlyhighertemperatures
doesnot. Tabular pseudomorphs of magnetiteafter specularitc(Fig.
occur;thesegradeinto specularite crystalscontainingirregularblebsof mag-
netite (Fig. $e), and indicatethat magnetitehas locallyreplacedspecularitc.
With great magnificationanother phase,almost in•stinguishable*from its
matrix, canbe noticedwithin the specularitc.It hasthe sameirregularshapes
as magnetitebut is not confinedto the centersof specularitecrystals. With
crossednicolsit exhibitsan orientationdifferentfrom the enclosingcrystals
(Fig. 5e). This materialis hematitewhichreplacedthe magnetitethat re-
placedspecularite.Confirmingthis relationship are hematiterods,lessthan
0.001 mm long, occurringwithin the tiny magnetiteblebswithin specularite.
Apparentlythe specularitc wassubjected t,oreducingconditions, producing ir-
regular,branchingmagnetite. Later, more oxidizingconditionsaltered the
magnetite. backto hematitewhichthenhada slightlydifferentorientation from
the originalspeculariteand henceis distinguishable.As the oxidationpro-
ceededfrom the exteriorof the specularite crystals,the last materialaffected
wasthe centralmagnetite,someof whichremainsas a metastable residue.
In view of the dissimilarnature and distributionof the speculariteand
"powdery"hematite,there can be little doubt that the two are of different
ages and formed under different conditions. Although the fine-grained
natureof the "powdery"hematitesuggests that it may be a supergene oxi-
dationproductof magnetite,Ramdohr (1961, oral communication) believes
that this "powdery"hematiteis definitelynot supergene,This is confirmed
at Promontorioby a veinletof specularire within magnetite;the specularitc
restson top of "powdery"hematitethat has replacedmagnetite. A studyof
superpositionand the consistentlydifferent crystallographicorientationof
the two 'hematitevarieties where in contact,suggeststhat the "powdery"
hematiteis older than the specularite. However, as this is the only instance
where an age relationshipcan be demonstrated,it is subject to further
verification.
The widespread distributionof the earliestiron oxide,magnetite,indicates
the pervasiveness of the early mineralizing fluids. After sufficienttime
to allow old channelwaysto closeand new onesto develop,specularitewas
deposited,probablypostdatingthe "powdery"hematitethat replacedmag-
netite. That the depositingfluidswere not highly oxidizingis indicatedby
the fact that the early magnetitewas not completelyaltered and, also, by
the replacementof some specularReby magnetiteshortly after deposition
of specularite.Followingthis, conditions againbecamerelativelyoxidizing,
and hematite replacedmuch magnetite. The sequenceof depositionis
thusmagnetite-"powdery" hematite-specularite-magnetite-"powdery"hematite.
Iron must have been introducedonly to form the specularireand earliest
magnetite,changesin the later generations then dependingon the oxygen
fugacity. However,the existenceof at leasttwo completemagnetite-hematite
cyclesindicatesthat therewere fluctuationsof temperatureor fluctuationsbe-
tweenrelativelyreducingand oxidizingconditionsduring iron oxide deposi-
tion. It followsthat, althoughunrecognizable, there probablywere yet other
generations of magnetiteand hematite. To the knowledgeof the authorsuch
! II•/LIIIIIIU Ut:lJU•lLIUII U• Lilt: allIl•/t[[UU• 1I UII UXl•.[t:• IIa• 1101.
elsewhere.

Sulfidesand Sulfo-Salts
The sulfidemineralsare of greatcommercial
importance in the Concepcion
delOro district. All but onemine (Sol y Luna) producesulfideore,mainly
bearing
copper
withsome
gold..Manysulfur-bearing
minerals
occurin minor
amounts,but the predominantonesare pyrite and chalcopyrite.These are
most abundant as disseminations in the coarse calcite within fractures and
rugs in skarn. The disseminations extendlaterallyinto the skarnas rounded
to euhedral crystalsassociatedwith specularite. The sulfidesare sparse
withinthegranodiorite and,in distinction
to magnetite,are absentin limestone.
Calcite-filledrugs displayingevidenceof magnetitegravity-'settlingwere
described in the previoussection. Sulfidesand specularite ar• concentrated
in the lowerparts of theserugs but are also"suspended" within the calcite.
Pyrite fills the centersof magnetiteveinletsconnectingthe rugs and chalco-
pyrite is contemporaneous with this pyrite. Thus the sulfideswere de-
positedafter magnetiteand formed roughly concurrentlywith calcite; the
gravitationalsettlingof the sulfideswas impededby the crystallizingcalcite.
Althoughneitherwidespreadnor abundant,numerousother opaquemin-
erals occurat Concepcion del Oro. Among theseare pyrrhotite, marcasite,
sphalerite,galena,enargite,tetrahedrite-tennantite,bornite,bismuthinite,na-
tive bismuth,wittichenite,
cosaliteandtetradymite.
In his descriptionof Concepciondel Oro, Bergeat (5) mentionedminor
pyrrhotitefrom an unspecifiedlocality. Exceptfor traceamountsin the mill
tailings,no pyrrhotitewas foundby the presentauthor. However,in 1961
pyrrhotitewas discovered midwaybetweenthe Cata Arroyo and Cabrestante
orebodies. It lies in the upper part of the La Caja formation less than
50 m from the granodiorite(Snively, 1961,written communication).Speci-
mensgiven the authorby Dr. Snivelyindicatethat the pyrrhotitecommonly
surroundseuhedralpyrite crystals. Elsewherechalcopyriteseparatesthe two
iron sulfides,suggestingthat pyrrhotiteand chalcopyrite
are approximately
contemporaneous and later than pyrite. In placeschalcopyritecuts the
pyrrhotite,indicatingthat chalcopyriteformed over a longer period than
pyrrhotite. Sphaleritereportedlyoccurswith pyrrhotite,but nonewas seen
in the availablespecimens.
A strikingfeatureof the pyrrhotiteis its widespread alteration,mainlyto
lameliarpyrite and minor marcasite. Except that no magnetitewas pro-
ducedin the pyrrhotitebreakdown, indicatinga lack of availableoxygen,this
materialis almostidenticalto pyrrhotitefrom Tem Piute, Nevada. Both
pyriteand pyrrhotiteare cut by veinletsof ilvaite,this beingoneof the rare
instances where a silicate is later than a metallic mineral.
At the Promontoriominebismuthinitehasreplacedchalcopyrite.Enargite
and tetrahedrite-tennantite
are complexlyintergrownwith the bismuthinite
and to someextent with chalcopyrite.Locally chalcopyrite
is rimmedby
enargite
whichis, in turn,surrounded
by a bandof tetrahedrite-tennantite,
in-
dicatingthat chalcopyriteis the oldestandtetrahedrite-tennantite
the youngest
of these minerals. Some sphalerite occurs in vermicular shapes within
chalcopyrite;elsewhereit is in large, discretegrains containingexsolved
chalcopyrite,lessthan 0.001 mm in diameter,in a roughlyrectangularpattern.
The sphaleriteexhibitsa nearly white internal reflection,suggestinga low
iron content.
Bismuthinite,enargite,tetrahedrite-tennantiteand sphaleriteare each un-
usualmineralsin this deposit;it is thereforestriking to find them all within
severalmillimetersof oneanother. With the possibleexceptionof sphalerite,
all are roughlycontemporaneous and yet later than chalcopyrite.Their as-
sociationand approximatecontemporaneity suggestthat they representa
late injection of mineralizingfluids or, more likely, that they could form
stablyonlyastemperatures fell.
Minor bismuthiniteand enargitereplacechalcopyritein the San Antonio
mine. Occurringwith them is a mineral with the appearanceof wittichenite,
but in amountstoo small for X-ray confirmation. It is opticallyidenticalto
materialfrom Wittichen,the type locality. Other grainsresembleemplectite,
and both minerals are possiblypresent. Although most witticheniteoccurs
within chalcopyrite,severalgrains were seencutting acrossand replacing
specularite.
Witticheniteis rarely surrounded by a "gray copper"mineral. Occurring
next to a bismuthmineral, it is likely that it too containsbismuth. As the
arsenicalvariety of the "gray coppers"is generallymore bismuth-rich,it
is probablethat the isotropicsurroundingmineral is the annivitevariety of
tennantite.
In oresfrom Cata Arroyo two other unusualmineralsoccur. The more
abundantonehasthe opticalpropertiesand etch reactionsof cosalite(HN'Oa,
1:1; HC1, 1:5; sat. FeC13; conc.KOH, KCN', were used). The other min-
eral is opticallyidenticalto tetradymite. Neither mineralis in large enough
grainsfor extractionfor X-ray determination, but the opticalidentification
was
kindly confirmedby ProfessorRamdohr (1961, oral communication).The
cosalitegenerallypartly surroundspyrite crystals,suggestingthat the sulfo-
salt is later. Tetradymiteis restrictedto the interiorsof the cosalitegrains.
There is little associationbetweenthe sulfur-bearingminerals and mag-
netite and the degreeto which they do occurtogethermay be random,except
insofar as all the metallic minerals slightly postdatedthe silicatesand were
depositedat roughlythe sametime from fluids travelingover similar paths.
The generalassociation of pyrite and especiallychalcopyritewith specularite
is in contrastto the lack of coexistenceof sulfideswith magnetite. Several
of the sulfo-saltsare also associated with specularite,thoughthis relation is
lessconspicuous.The presenceof specularitesuggests relativelyhigh partial
oxygenpressures;pyrite indicatesreasonably high partial sulfurpressures.

Para#enesis
The relativeagesof the mineralshave beenbriefly discussed
in the pre-
cedingpages;theserelationshipsare summarizedin Figure 6. The earliest
metallicmineralto form throughoutthe districtwasmagnetite;in only a few
instancesis pyrite earlier than magnetite. This generally early origin of
magnetite,combinedwith local areas where pyrite is of the same age or
earlier, is not surprising. In a literaturesurveyof depositsin which magne-
tite occursin sulfideores,age relationswere studiedfor 52 cases,and in 80
percentof themmagnetitewas the first metallicmineralto form (46). With
one exceptionthe earliestmineral to form in the remainingdepositswas
pyrite. The relationshipbetweenthe pyrite and magnetiteat Concepcion
del Oro is thussimilar to that of many other districts.

GARNET .'
MAGNETITE
PYRITE
PYRRHOTITE ....
'POWDERY"HEMATITE '-"-
SPECULARITE
CHALCOPYRITE
ENARGITE --
TETRAHEDRITE - TENNANTITE --
SPHALERITE ---
BISMUTH MINERALS ----
QUARTZ
A*DULARIA '-'

FI(•. 6. - Generalizedparagenesis
at Concepcion
del Oro.

Pyrite was still beingdeposited

duringthe later stagesof mineralization,
but in association with chalcopyriteinsteadof magnetite. Pyrite from all
the areasstudiedcontainsfracturesfilled with chalcopyrite. Nowhere were
chalcopyrlte
or the other sulfur-bearing
mineralsobservedto predatepyrite.
There is muchevidencethat chalcopyriteis later than magnetite. Frac-
turescuttingmagnetitedo not passinto adjacentchalcopyrite, althoughthey
commonlycontinueon the othersideof the chalcopyrite.Elsewherethe sul-
fide surroundsor is interstitialto the magnetite. The chalcopyriteis com-
monlyassociated with specularite andwasdeposited slightlylater,eitherinter-
leavedbetweenthe platesof the iron oxide (Fig. 5d) and replacingthe latter
alongits crystalfacesor elseveiningthe oxidecrystals.
The relativeagesof the major metallicminerals,magnetite,hematite,py-
rite and chalcopyrite,are well established.The other metallicmineralsare
far less abundant; therefore the determinationsof their relative ages are
basedon fewer observations
and their positionin Figure 6 mustbe regarded
as an approximation.Nevertheless,
it is apparentthat the sulfo-salts
and
bismuth minerals are later than the bulk of mineralization and are thus at-
tributedto later, coolerfluidsthan thosethat deposited
magnetite,pyrite, and
perhapsspecularite andchalcopyrite.
Quartzveinlets
cutall'Otherminerals
at CataArroyo•Elgewhere
large
euhedral quartz crystals rest on top of speculariteand are thus later. 5ome
chalcopyriteseeminglyis contemporaneous with quartz; althoughdear, un-
strainedeuhedralquartz commonlysurroundschalcopyriteand specularRe,
in placesthe chalcopyriteenclosessmall euhedralsilica crystals. Adularia,
locallyassociated
with quartz,commonlygrowson top of it; the feldsparis
everywherein vugs, generallyin euhedral,white, rhomb-likecrystalsup to
one centimeterin diameter. It is later than quartz, being the last mineral
depositedby themineralizingfluids.

Zoning
The main copperand iron mineralizationat Concepcion del Oro is im-
mediatelyadjacentto the intrusivebody. There, as well as in the inliers
within the stock (Promontorio,Las Animas, Carmen; Fig. 4), chalcopyrite,
magnetite,specularite,and pyrite are most abundant. The largestminesof
the Concepcion del Oro districtlie within this zone. Gold, from which the
districtderivedits name,alsooccursin minor amountsthroughouttheseareas.
Although of minor to negligibleeconomicimportance,other metalsalso
occur. Zinc and lead were producedfrom the Cata Arroyo mine, but only
occurredin the upperlevels. Farther from the stock,the La Perlira minecon-
tained rich lead-zinc-silver ores and some zinc was found in both the Delores
and the Angela mines. Small high-gradelead-silvershowingsoccur along
the Concepcion del Oro "thrust," southof the town of Concepciondel Oro,
and lead, zinc, and silver occurin the La Laja and E1 Balconmines. Traces
of mercuryand antimonyhave beenreportedyet farther from the intrusion.
Peripherallyoutwardfrom the stock,from areasof high temperaturesto
thoseof lower ones,there is clearly a progressivechangein mlneralization
from copperandthe anhydrous iron oxides,togetherwith minorgold,to zinc
and lead,togetherwith minor silver. Farthestfrom the intrusionand there-
fore in the coolestareas, traces of mercury and antimony are found. It is
not certain,however,that the mercuryand antimonyare relatedto the stock.
In any casezoningis only broadlyrecognizable and hasmanyvariations.

Controlsof Mineralixation
Why the ore is whereit is is one of the thorniestproblemsconnected with
mostmineraldeposits;Concepcion del Oro is no exception. Various struc-
tural and mineralogicalfeaturesare prominentin certain areas but there is
no obvioussingleand consistent controllingfactor.
Fissurecontrolis perhapsthe mostcommonsinglecausefor localizing
ore mineralizationthroughoutthe world. Contactmetasomatic deposits,how-
ever, are generallywithin or near carbonaterocks which, becauseof their
solubilityand plasticity,tend to "heal" open fractures. As a result fissure
controlin contactdepositsis less readily demonstrated than in most other
classesof deposits. At Concepciondel Oro the stressesproducedby the
emplacementof the granodioritecausedmyriads of fractures,each a few
centimetersor meterslong; theseare commonlymineralizod. Only few, how-
ever,are large enoughto yield a commercial vein and practicallynowheredo
fracture fillings form a strong, consistentpattern. The only important ex-
ceptionsto thisare somemineralizedveinsnear Aranzazuand the manysmall
northerlyfracturesat the Azulesopenpit.
As the metallic minerals occur within the zone of metasomatism it seemed
reasonable
that certaincalc-silicates
might havelocalizedthe ore selectively.
Although locally true, this is not the caseon a district-widebasis. At San
Antoriio the manganiferoushedenbergiteclustersgenerally contain inter-
bladed chalcopyriteand specularite. Chalcopyriteis found with tremolite
at Cata Arroyo and at Promontoriothe specularite,pyrite and chalcopyrite
are commonwithin calcite. The latter may reflect contemporaneity rather
than selectivereplacement.Magnetiteshowsa gre•ataffinityfor selectivere-
placementof calciteat Cata Arroyo, Promontorio,Sol y Luna, Las Animas,
and Carmen and in the many isolatedmagnetiteconcentrations all along the
igneouscontact. This magnetite-calcite relation is the only pronouncedand
widespreadassociationof a metallic mineral with a particular non-metallic
mineral and even this is not an invariableone as much magnetiteis found
within the skarn, not in contactwith calcite.
A remainingpossiblecontrol of mineralizationis the presenceof certain
rocktypes.Table2, compiled
largelyfromdataSupplied
by NormanSnively
(1960, oral communication), pointsto no suchcontrolby sedimentaryforma-
tions. The Providenciadepositsare includedto indicate that formations
not in contactwith the Concepciondel Oro stockmay also be mineralized.
However, the table is a simplificationas practicallyno depositis limited to
only one stratigraphichorizon. Near Concepcion del Oro the Zuloagalime-
stonecontainsa majority of the orebodiesbut this is apparentlybecausethe
Zuloagais the formationmost commonlyin confactwith the igneousbody.
Barry (33 mentions"severalidentifiablefavoi'ablebedsin the Zuloaga,"but
it is not clear,•in the light of the occurrence of mineralization within all but
the youngestformations,just how restrictivethis factor is. Except fo/' the
Azules mine and a few veins at Aranzazu, the igneousstock itself is essen-
tially unmineralized.
In short, neither fractures, particularrock types,nor specialmineralsserve
consistentlyto localize ore at Concepciondel Oro. The only feature
linked with t•heorebodies
consistently and the associated non-commercial
metallicoccurrences is the metasomaticband closeto the granodioritestock.
This characteristicand no other must then be the point of departurefor
determiningthe originandclassification
of the deposits.

COMPARISON WITH PROVIDENCIA

Sizeable
ore deposits,
herecalledprovidencia,
occuralonga stocknext
to the one at. Concepciondel Oro. Their relationshipis of interest for
purposes
•ofclassification.
The two setsof deposits
.--Providenciaand Concepcion
del Ortv--,are'(1)
adjacent,
(2) withinthe samemajorfold, (3) nearigneous
contacts,
(4)
withinthesamesedimentary
horizons,(5) far fromothermajororedeposits,
ana (o) •n a region mat has seen l•ttle •gneous or hydrothermal activity since
mineralization.They occurnext to and are probablyderivedfrom the same
pluton.Thesefactssuggest
thatthetwodeposits
hada common
origin.There
are, however,many differences. Calc-silicatemineralsare minor at Provi-
dencia--athin, silicated
zoneoccursalongsomecontacts;eventhisis absentin
the uppermine levels. Most orebodiesoccurwithin a few hundredmetersof
Table

Sedimentary formations enclosing orebodies

Stratigraphic unit Deoosit l.•jor metal

Conception del Oro District

Zuloaga Aranzazu group* Cu

Carmen Cu, Fe
Cata Arroyo* Cu
Las AnL.•as Fe
Palomas Cu, Fe
Promontorio Cu, Fe
La Caja Azules* Cu
Cata Arroyo* Cu
Esperanza* Cu
Guillotina Cu
Promontorio Cu, Fe
Taraises-Cupido Cabrestante* Cu
Esperanza* Cu
La Laja Pb, Zn
Sol y Luna Fe
La Pe•a Angela Zn
E1 Balc6n Pb, Zn
Cuesta del Cura La Perlira Pb
Providencia District

Zv_loaga Albarradon* Fo, Zn

Alicante* residual Au
Bonanza Pb, Zn
Prov[dencia* Ph, Zn
.RefUgio* residual Au
Rucio Pb, Zn
San Eligio• Pb, Zn
Via Libre Pb, Zn
LaCaja San Narcos* Pb, Zn, Ag
Taraises-Cupido AnLmas* Pb, Zn
San 5•rcos* Pb, Zn, Ag
LaP•na LaTuna Fo, Zn
Cuesta del Cura Catasillas -• Cu
Copper Orebody* Cu
Salaverna* Pb, Zn
Santiago* Fo• Zn
San Gregorio Pb, Zn
San Vicente Pb, Zn
Indidura San Gregorio Fo, Zn

* Important producers

theigneous contact,butlittleoreoccursdirectlyalongthecontact.Further,the
oreminerals--galena, sphalerite andpyritesoccur with carbonate
gangue in
limestonewithinlarge"chimneys" havingfairly regularshapes and sharp
contacts.Temperatures of mineralization
rangefrom350ø to 200ø C (44);
the deposits are mesothermal to epithermal(48). At Concepcion del Oro
the calc-silicates
form in a wide, well-developed aureoleand the metallic
m,lmi •-•½•micopyr•m, pynt½, magncut½ aria 11½IIIaL1L•----IJ•J•JHI- WitHIll 1;II15
zonein orebodies having"assay"contacts.The main mineralizationoccurred
between500ø and 350' C; the depositsare contactmetasomatic.
Differencesin mineralizationbetweenthe two campsmay be due to the
maximum flow of the mineralizingfluids having occurredearlier at Con-
cepciondel Oro than at Providencia. This would have concentrated high-
temperaturemineralsin the one area and lower-temperaturemineralsin the
other. Alternatively,the Providenciadepositsmay have formedcloserto the
surfacethanthoseat Concepcion del Oro. Thus, muchProvidenciaore occurs
topographically higherthan the Concepcion del Oro ores. The hypothesized
differencein cover would have allowed mineralizingfluids to escapeto the
surfacemore rapidly at Providencia;the pressurewould have beenlessand
the number,width and continuityof openfracturesgreater,thus alsoexplain-
ing the differencein the degreeof skarn formation. Further, severalProvi-
deneta"chimneys"end at the granodiorite. The mineralizingfluids pre-
sumablytraveled upward along the contactsuntil they branchedinto the
limestoneto form the lead-zincdeposits. At greaterdepthsaloag the contact,
depositssimilarto thoseat Concepcion del Oro might occur. Also, zinc and
lead probablyoccurredin the erodedplaceswhich oncelay abovethe Con-
cepciondel Oro copperdeposits. This is confirmedto the extent that galena
and sphaleritewereminedfrom the upperCata Arroyo minelevels.

QUANTITATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

A completehistoryof temperatureand pressurechangesduring meta-

somatismand mineralizationwould be highly interesting,althoughas yet
no singlearea has providedsufficientdata to permit such a construction.
Geologiceventsthat occurredat Concepciondel Oro are complexand incom-
pletelyknown. Yet rough estimatesof the periodof metasomatism
and
mineralizationcan be made in regard to: (1) the duration of this period,
(2) maximumandminimumtemperatures,
and (3) thefugacities
of O,•,CO2,
and S2 at discreteintervals. Although the severalestimatesare of varying
typesand accuracythey are all given below in the hope that they may
providea somewhat unifiedpictureof conditions duringthe formationof
thesedeposits.
Dating
Little publishedinformationis availableregardingthe durationof a
typicalepochof mineralization.
A favorableopportunityfor sucha determi-
nationpresented itselfat Concepcion
del Oro, especially
as thereis no evi-
dencefor a metamorphic
episodelater thanthe mainperiodof mineralization.
Euhedral,white crystalsof adulariaa few millimetersin diameterare in
vugsat Promontorio.The adulariaoccurs on topof quartzcrystals
andwas
the last of the mineralsformedduringthe periodof mineralization
(Fig. 6).
The composition of thefeldspar,basedon X-ray diffraction
measurements of
thed,•o•spacing according to themethodof TuttleandBowen(50), is that
of pure potash feldspar. As biotite from the stock was formed before ore
mineralization, the biotiteandadulariabracketthe periodof ore deposition.
Biotiteis an integralcomponent of the stock,formedduringthe solidifica-
tion of the granodiorite. Adularia formed long after the biotite and at a
temperatureslightlybelow350ø C, the temperatureof crystallization of quartz
crystalswith which the feldsparis associated.As the adulariaformedclose
to the contactof the stock,the temperatureof the contactzone at this time
must have beenat or below 350ø C. The lapsebetweencrystallizationof
biotiteand adulariacan thusbe no lessthan the periodit took the stockto
coolto that temperature.The curvesgiven by Lovering (34), as well as
more recentdata of Lovering (36) and Jaeger (21), indicatethat consider-
ablylessthanonemillionyearsare requiredfor thecoolingto roughly300ø C
of a bodywith the dimensions of the Concepcion del Oro stock. This mini-
mum age differenceof the biotiteand adulariais in goodagreementwith the
value estimatedby Sawkins(44) for the similar,adjacentProvidenciastock.
In order to date the crystallizationof the stockand further bracketthe
periodof mineralization, boththe adulariaandthe biotiteweremeasured by
TABLE 3

K-AR MEASURENiENTS ON' SONIll:COlXlCEPCIOlq'

DIlL ORO MINERALS

K% Years Comments

Adularia 13.6 38 X 106 post-mineralization

Biotite 6.08 40 X 106 pre-mineralization

the potassium-argon method. The resultsare given in Table 3. The dates

are preciseto -----3
percent. As manyfeldsparstend to leak argon,it is likely
that the adulariaprovidesa minimumage. The biotite,on the other hand,
doesnot generallyleak argon unlessit has been reheatedand there is no
evidencefor sucha reheating. Therefore,the age givenby the micais con-
sideredreliable;it indicates
thestockis Laramidein age.
The resultsof the coolingestimateare in accordwith the potassium-argon
measurements.The biotite and adulariaagesare essentiallythe same,espe-
cially in view of possibleargon leakagefrom the feldspar. This indicatesa
limited time spanfor mineralizationand demonstrates the approximatecon-
temporaneityof the igneousrock and ores in this contactmetasomaticore
deposit.
Geothermornetry
Heat Flow Estimate.--Reliablegeologicthermometersare unfortunately
rare at Conceptiondel Oro. Althoughapproximate, a heatflow estimatepro-
videsa generalidea of the uppertemperaturesthat existedwithin the contact
aureole.
The heat generatedby the granodioriteintrusionprovidedthe driving
4 The K4o half life is 5.3 X 10-XO/year, assumed value for the electron capture decay con-
stant is 0.585 X 10-XO/year, and the K4o abundance is 1.22 X 10-4 gms/gmK.
•orce •or many ot me metasomanc anct nyorotnermal phenomena in the con-
tact aureole. Calculatedcurvesof Jones(22) and Lovering (34) showthat
the temperaturegradientaway from the contactand into the countryrock is
initiallysharpbut rapidlybecomes lessas the countryrocksare progressively
warmed. The temperatureat the contact,however,remainsfairly constantfor
a relativelylong period during the coolingof the intrusionand consequent
heating of the country rocks. Jones explainsthis phenomenonby a "heat
wave" moving outward from the igneousbody. The "heat wave" travels
slowlybut warmsthe rocksrapidly; after this initial heating,coolingis slow.
From this it follows that temperaturesreasonablysimilar to those at the
contactalso obtain at pointsnot too distant. Therefore, by determiningthe
temperaturesat the contactthe upper temperaturelimit of sillcationmay be
known; furthermore, this temperaturemay not be much greater than that of
the contactzonein general.
Jaeger (20) pointedout that many workers avoidedthe latent heat of
solidificationas well as heat loss by volatilesand suggestedthat where im-
portant,the dissipationof heat by fluidsshouldbe subtractedfrom the latent
heat. The considerable metasomatism producedby the Concepeiondel Oro
stockindicatesthat fluid movementhas been significant. The magnitudeof
the latent heat as well as the heat lost by fluid transferare not known. How-
ever, as theseprocesses are oppositein effect,it is assumed,for the purposes
of this approximationand subjectto further verification,that the heat trans-
ferred to the country rock by the fluids is equalto and thereforenegatesthe
latent heat of solidification. It is further assumed that intrusion occurred
rapidly, that crystallizationstartedimmediatelythereafter,that coolingwas
by conductionrather than convection, and that the intrudedsedimentswere
essentiallydry.
The averagedip of the contactof the exposedportion of the intrusionis
approximately 75ø (Table 4) radiallyawayfrom the centerof the stock. Pro-
jectedupwardat this dip, the oppositesidesof the intrusionmeet4 km above
the town level. The dip probablyflattenedout near the top of the body; if
so,the 4 km figureincludessomesedimentarycover.
The medianvalue for the geothermalgradientin the southwestern United
Statesis roughly30ø C/kin (51). This is the value adoptedin the present
study. The temperatureof intrusionof the Concepeion del Oro granodiorite
is assumedto have been 820ø C, the value used by Larsen (29) for the
quartzdioritemagmaof the Californiabatholith.
The expressionfor the initial contacttemperature(T,), modifiedfrom
Jaeger(21), is

(rsko•
•]• (T,•-
Kok• To)
T•- (\ Koksl
K•kol
)+ 1 +To
where ko and k• are the diffusivitiesof limestoneand granodiorite,Ko and
Kx are the corresponding thermal conductivities,T,• is the solidifyingtem-
4 km depth,a 30ø C/km geothermalgradientand a 20ø C surfacetemperature
andapplyingappropriatevaluesfor K and k (takenfrom Lovering,35; values
for diorite,presumablysimilar to granodiorite,are used) to the aboveequa-
tion, it is found that T, = 476ø C. If the depth of burial had been one
kilometergreater,T• would have beenraisedonly to 491ø C, showingthat
the overburdencorrectionis not large. The geothermalgradientwould also
not introducesignificantchangesbecauseif, in additionto the greater depth,
the gradient had been 40ø insteadof 30ø C/km, then T• would have been

Table 4

Representative values of dip of granodiorite contact, compiled from mine

maps belonging to the l•zapil Copper Company.

Top Bottom Difference

Location Level Elev. Level Elevo Verto Hortz.

Las
Palomas
surface
surface 2256m.
2256 l;22 2232m.
23 2160 24m.32m.
96 53
22
1+23 2232 2 2160 72 23 74•

SocavonGeneral surface 2740 4 2580 160 16

surface 2766 4 2580 186 28 81s
surface 2777 4 2580 197 20 84s

Elma(Azo.les) i 2140 dd hole 2080 60 5

Cabrestante Granodiorite - La Caja

Granodiorite - Zuloaga 82•

Granodiorite - average Zuloaga and•a CaJa 82•E

Granodiorite - La CaJa 70•

Taken from three separate cross section sketches - values approximate

but averaged over at least one hundred vertical meters.

516ø C. This is an averagevaluefor the contact--itdoesnot considerlocal

variationssuchas thosedue to sharpbendsin the contact.
If heat loss by volatiles is not equivalentto the latent heat, then T,
wouldbegreater (by severaltensof degrees)thanthe indicatedvalue. How-
ever, assumingthat the stockwas the primary heat sourceand excessiveheat
was not generatedby calc-silicateformation,that the latentheat of crystalliza-
tion did equalheat lossby fluid transferand that the maximumtemperature
occurredat the contact,it followsthat metasomatism occurredbelowapproxi-
mately 500ø C. Providedthat at suchhigh temperaturesthe mineralizing
fluids did not introducemuch additionalheat, this would also give an upper
limit for mineralization. This temperatureis seeminglysubstantiatedby
pyrrhotitemeasurement,describedbelow.
notablyin an area halfway betweenthe Cata Arroyo and the Cabrestante
mines. Samplestakenfrom the centerof a diamonddrill corewereprepared
andstudiedby themethoddescribed by Buseck(11). The pyrrhotitecontains
neitherpyrrhotitelamellaenor exsolved
pyrite.
Using pyrrhotiteimmediatelyadjacentto pyrite, X-ray diffractionwith
Fe K• radiationshoweda monoclinic doubletfor the (102) peak. Thus, in
orderto usethe curvesof Arnold and Reichen(1) the pyrrhotitehad to be
madehexagonalby annealing. After heatingfor 7 minutesat 360ø C in an
evacuated,sealedsilica tube it was again X-rayed and showeda single,
stronghexagonal(102) peak. Eight successive oscillationsusing Cu K•
radiation and a silica internal standard indicated an arithmetic mean of the
20 of 44.02ø, with a standarderror of the meanof 0.005ø 20. Convertingto
d•02gives2.0568-----0.0002 A and an apparenttemperature of 504ø -----4
ø C.
However,theprecision of thismeasurement is muchgreaterthantheaccuracy
of the method-------30 ø C.
Anotherpyrrhotitesamplewasanalyzedin the samemanner. It, however,
containedno pyrite nearby. The pyrrhotitehad a 20 of 44.00ø with a stand-
ard error of the mean0.004. Convertingto d•02gives2.0579-----
0.0002A and
an apparenttemperatureof 488ø ñ 4 ø C.
It is noteworthythat these values are precise (the indicatedtolerance
being equalto one standarderror of the mean) and similar, althoughthe
pyrrhotitefar from pyrite givesa lower apparenttemperature,as expected.
The goodprecisionand reproducibilityof thesemeasurements is encouraging.
If the temperaturesfrom the annealedpyrrhotitesare valid, and this is not at
all certain(see,for example,Kullerud,et al., 27), thenthe pyrrhotitewasde-
positedat temperaturesdose to those indicatedby the heat flow estimate.
This would suggestthat mineralizationwas initiatedat or dose to the maxi-
mum temperaturesexistingwithin the contactaureole.
QuartaFluid Inclusions.--Inthe precedingsectionsan attempthas been
made to estimatethe maximumtemperaturesexisting in the contactaureole.
Study of the filling temperaturesof quartz inclusionsprovidesan estimate
of the minimumtemperaturefor the bulk of the mineralization,thus bracketing
the main periodof metasomatism and ore deposition.
Quartz crystalsare relatively rare at Concepciondel Oro. Those from
the San Antonioledgeprovedmostsuitablefor geothermometry as they con-
tainedthe largest,most numerousprimary fluid inclusions. The crystalsare
in vugsand grew on specularite.They are up to 3 cm long and 1 cm wide.
As the quartzwas depositedafter the major metallicminerals,it providesa
minimumtemperaturefor the major phaseof the'mineralization.
Thin quartzslicescut parallelto the "c" axis and polishedon both sides
were usedfor the measurements.Freezing point measurements were first run
to determinethe saltconcentration.The methodemployedwas that described
by Roedder(41). The depressions resultingfrom measurements on two in-
clusionsare 5ø and 8 ø C. This can be producedby 6 to 13 weightpercent
N'aC1or approximately
2 to 3 molarN'aC1or NaC1equivalent.
point measurements, exceptthat for heatinga siliconefluid (Dow 550) was
usedinsteadof acetone.It waspumpedfrom a largereservoir,keptat a con-
trolled temperature,to the cell containingquartz. The slow heating rate,
combined with a rapidrate of pumpinginto the calland completely aroundthe
specimens,made it possibleto heat the specimensuniformly. The rapid
pumpingrate also insureda negligibletemperaturedifferencebetweenbath
and cell. Thus the specimen temperaturecouldbe simplydeterminedwith a
thermometerplacedin the bath. The disadvantage of this methodis that the
siliconedecomposes above250ø C andthereforehasonlylimitedapplicability.
Somethirty long, thin orientedinclusions,thoughtto be secondary,filled
at 177ø C. These are probably"pseudo-secondary," having formed only
slightlylaterthanthequartzcrystals. Otherinclusions, rangingfrom rounded
to elliptical to the shapeof negativecrystals,were randomly distributed
throughthe quartz. They are almostcertainlyprimary. None of the bubbles
in theseinclusionsdisappeared while in the siliconefluid, where they were
heatedto 240ø C. Anothermethodwasthereforerequired.
To go above250ø C the Richter stage,developedat the United States
GeologicalSurveylaboratories, wasused. It consists of resistancecoilsabove
and below the samplearea. Temperatureis measuredwith a chromel-
alumelthermocouple placedon top of the quartz plate,as closeas possible
to the inclusionsbeingmeasured.Measurement with the Richterstageis not
as accurateas with the siliconecell becausethe coilsare separatedfrom the
specimen by air, producinga temperaturegradient,and becausethe thermo-
coupleis on top of the quartzplatewhereasthe inclusions are in the interior.
The Richter cell was calibratedby using organicmaterialswith known
meltingpointsand plottingthe measured readingsversusthe necessary cor-
rections,therebyproducinga curve from which the correctedreadingswith
their tolerances could be read.
The samplesthat had been heatedin the siliconecell containedsizeable
bubblesat 240ø C while on the Richter stagethe sameinclusionscontained
bubbles on thevergeof disappearing at 240ø C, indicatingthat thisapparatus
recordsanomalously low temperatures.One large,clearbubblewas watched
with specialcare: it disappearedat 266ø C. Most of the other inclusionsin
the fieldof view had alsodisappeared at this temperatureand all were gone
at 270ø C. The filling temperaturesof theseinclusions,correctedfor the
Richterstage,are 330ø q- 25ø C.
To decreasetemperaturegradientswithin the quartz other sliceswere
cut into smallerplates,2 mm square,beforebeingplaceduponthe Richter
stage. Somethree dozenroundedand ellipticalinclusionswere measured.
Their fillingtemperatures
variedby lessthan 10ø C anda corrected
average
of 315ø ---25ø C wasproduced.All inclusionswerecooledand reheatedand
reproducedthe sametemperatures; thusno leakageoccurred duringheating.
Althoughtheabovetemperatures arerelativelyimprecise,
it is encouraging
thattheyare internallyconsistent
andreproducible.As it is highlyunlikely
that the same amount of fluid would have been added to or subtracted from
primary
inclusiohs
suggests
thatthere
hasbeen
no•eaka•e
since
theirforma-
tion. This is not surprisingas there hasbeenno metamorphism at any time
followingquartzcrystallization.
The quartzcrystalswere depositedat an approximatedepthof 3 km and
occurin large, partly emptyrugs indicatingthey were formed in an "open"
plumbingsystem. Using the pressurecorrectiongiven by Kennedy (23,
Fig. 3) and assumingan hydrostaticload, the formationtemperatureof the
quartz is 350ø---35 ø C. The indicatedtolerancedoes not include the un-
certaintydue to possibleerror in the pressureestimate,althougha changein
hydrostaticload equivalentto 1 km only producesa changein the formation
temperatureof 10øC.
Quartz crystalscommonlyoccuron top of euhedralspecularite.As these
two mineralsare so commonlyassociated in this fashionit is presumedthat
the quartz formed shortly after specularite. Thus, the speculariteformed-
above350øñ 35ø C, establishing that it is primary. As speculariteis one
of the latestmajor mineralsin the sequence of deposition,
this placesa mini-
mum limit on the temperaturesduring mineralization. The relationsof the
temperaturesof formation0f the sparsesulfo-saltsto the quartz and specu-
larite are not known,but in view of parageneticdata they conceivably formed
belowthistemperature.
Substantiatingthe quartz 'fluid inclusion temperaturesfrom the San
Antoniospecimens are thosefrom Aranzazu,measuredindependently and on
a differentapparatus. This quartz,from a depositat the northernend of the
Concepcion del Oro stock,provides.
a reading,correctedfor pressure,of 300ø
to 330ø C (Holland, 1961,writtencommunication).

Vapor Pressures
There is evidencethat severalreactionstook placeinvolvingone or more
vaporphases. From thesereactions,usingthermochemical data,.it is possible
to calculatevaluesfor the fugacities(roughly, the effectivepartial pres-
sures) of the vapor phasesand thus provideinformationregardingthe en-
vironment of metasomatism-mineralization.
COs, Os, and S• are amongthe mostimportantgasestaking part in geo-
logicreactions. Severalmineralsat Concepcion del Oro are of use in de-
termining the fugacitiesof these vapors. The formation of wollastonite
determines the carbondioxidefugacity(lco•). Data regardingthe Io3 during
metasomatism is providedby the oxidationof carbonand during mineraliza-
tion is indicatedby magnetite-hematiteequilibria. The co-existence
of pyrite
with the iron oxidesfixes the Is2. For the calculations
it is assumed1) that
equilibriumoccurred,2) that the phasecompositions are adequatelyrepre-
sentedby stoichiometric formulasof their major elementalconstituents and
3) that the reactionscanbe representedin an anhydroussystem.
All of the reactionsdiscussed
in this sectiontook placebelowthe maximum
temperaturethat occurredin the contactaureole,approximately500ø C, and
presumably abovethe temperatureat whichthe quartzcrystalswere deposited,
approximately350ø C. However, the geothermometric measurements limit
the accuracyof the fugacitycalculations.If therewas considerableheat trans-
fer by hydrothermalfluids (as suggestedby Sawkins,44, for an adjacent
deposit) then the assumedupper temperaturelimit may be low and the cal-
culatedfugacityvaluesmisleading.Thus, two models,one assumingmaxi-
mum and the other minimum temperatures,will be 'used to outline the
maximumrange of the fugacityvalues. To allow for possibleerror in the
heat flow estimate,a maximumvalue of 600ø C will be arbitrarily assumed.
Much freshlimestonecontainscarbon;with increasingmetasomatism this
migrates, serving as a rough indicator of the intensity of metamorphism.
Where the limestoneis fresh the carbonoccursas tiny flakes along calcite
grain bc•undaries.More intenseconditionscause it to collect in irregular
segregationsin which the calcitegrainsare much smallerthan in the surround-
ing limestone. Silicateporphyroblasts tend to crystallizein thesecarbonaceous
areas,apparentlybecausethe fine-grainedcalcitewithin them is more reactive
than the surroundingcoarsercalcite. With increasingsilicationthe sur-
roundingcalcitebecomescompletelyclear; in areaswhere the metamorphic
intensitywas greatest,carbonis no longerpresent,having escapedprimarily.
as COs:
<c>+ (os) -0 (cos).
In the presenceof graphitethe ratio of the carbondioxidefugacity(fco=) to
the oxygenfugacity(fo=) is fixed throughthe equilibriumconstantK,,
fco•
K•-
which can, in turn, be relatedto the free energyfor the reactionthroughthe
relation

/•Gv = -RTlnK•.
Using free energy data of Kubaschewskiand Evans (26), the resulting re-
lationshipis:
log•o• = logleo=- 20,595/T + 0.044. (1)
The ico=may be determinedfrom studyingthe formationof wollastonite,
a silicate commonnear bleachedlimestone,i.e., limestonefrom which the car-
bon has been largely removed. Wollastoniteforms from calcite and quartz
accordingto the reaction:
(CaCos)+ (SiOn)= (CaSiOs)+ (COs),
releasingCO2 in the process. For this reaction,log Pco• can be determined
from the extrapolationof the experimentaldata of Harker and Tuttle (16)
or from the theoreticalexpressionof Danielsson(14), assumingideal state
conditions.These valuesand the corresponding valuesfor io•, calculated
from equation(I), are given in Table 5. As the fugacityis less than the
pressure,the indicatedpressuresare maximumvaluesfor the fugacity. The
mostprobablevaluefor the1'o•.
duringtheoxidationof carbonandformationof
wollastonite is between 10-•-•and 10-•-• atm.
Hematite-magnetiteequilibria
provide independentdataregarding
the
in the contactaureole.However,as the iron oxidesweredeposited after
wollastonite
andcarbonoxidation, the fugacityvaluesprovided
by the iron
oxides areapplicable
to a laterstagein thegeologichistory.
TABLE 5

T logPco• (Harker & Tuttle) log Pco• (Danielsson) fo• (calc.)

600 ø C 2.5 arm 2.9 atm 10 -2• atm
500 ø C 1.6 2.3 10-2• to 10 -•a
350 ø C Indeterminate 0.9 10-n

Figure7 showsa plotof calculated

curvesof logfo•_versustemperature
for variousoxide reactions.The heavylines outlinethe conditionsunder
whichmagnetiteprobablyformed.The earliestmagnetite, (a), wasdeposited
duringthelaststages
of silication(Fig. 6) andthusslightlybelowthe maxi-
mum temperatureexistingin the contactzone. Presumablythis was 500ø C
andthustheio•_musthavebeenlessthan10-•8atmandgreaterthan10-•'5atm
for otherwise fayalitewouldhaveformedin areaswherechertis presentand
no fayalitewasobserved.If themaximumtemperature hadbeen600ø C then
the maximumpossiblevalue of the io•. would have been 10-•4 atm. The
specularitc, (b), late magnetite,(c), and hematite,(d), formedin a limited
time rangesuggesting that the •o•_lay closeto the hematite-magnetite
uni-
variantcurve. Evenif thesephaseshadformedat the maximumtemperatures
in the aureole,the io•.wouldhavebeenwithin the rangeslistedabove. How-
ever, the field and textural relationsindicatethat they formed just before
the quartz and thus probablyslightlyabove350ø C. This suggests that
duringspecularitc formationthe fo•_mayhavebeenapproximately 10-2aatm,
falling to perhaps10-•-4atm during magnetitereplacement of specularitc
and then rising again or even remainingconstantas the temperaturefell
duringmartitization
of themagnetite.Thus,duringtheformationof theiron
oxidesthe oxygenfugacityprobablyfluctuated
whileexhibitinga net decrease
concurrentwith coolingof the rocks. The alternateexplanation,that the io•.
remainedconstantwhile the temperaturefluctuatedis also possiblebut less
likely.
Further informationregardingvapor fugacitiesduring mineralizationis
affordedby the observedassociation of pyrite and specularitcand the less
commonassociation, pyrite and magnetite. The coexistence of pyrite and
specularitcestablishes
the ratio of the oxygenand sulfurfugacitiesthrough
the relation
fs•
K2- (foo
t
for the reaction

(FeS2)q- I(O,) = •(Fe•Oa) q- (S,).

 -15

4.
$10•

Ft -20 I
.e- I
<:[
v I
I
•1 II
0
I
I
o_ -25
C• SiO2
0

I
I
I
I

-30

300 •o 5oo •o ?• 8• 900

1ø½
Fro. 7. Calculatedplot of oxygenfugacity (fo2) versustemperaturefor reac-
tions betweeniron oxidesand silica (after Turnock and Eugster, 1962). If silica
is absentthe boundarycurvesbetweensilicaand fayalite can be ignored. The lower
case letters indicate the approximate conditions under which the several iron
oxides formed.

It was shown previouslythat specularirewas in approximateequilibrium

with magnetite. Thus the relation

Ka- (,fo,)
t
for the reaction

(FeS2)q- -•(O•) = «(FeaO0 q-

can also be applied. The validity of this reactionis confirmedby pyrite-

magnetitecoexistence.
The developmentoutlinedby Holland (17) and free energyvalueslisted
by him were usedin the calculation
of the fs• from the precedingreactions.
If these reactionsproceededat 500ø C then the calculatedvalue for the rs2
is 10-a arm. However, sincespeculariteprobablyformed at slightly above
the depositiontemperatureof quartz, a more likely estimateis 400 -- 50ø C.
In this eventthe fsewouldhavehad a valueof 10-6-•e atm.
Becauseof the dependencyof the calculationson the geothermometric
valuesthe maximumpossible rangeof the fugacitiesaswell as the mostprob-
ablevaluesare listedbelow. If the estimated
maximumtemperature
that
occurredin the contactaureoleis low by as much as 100ø C and all the indi-
cated reactionstook place at 600ø C, then the following values would have
obtained:foe= 10-2•atm (carbonoxidation), foe-- 10-x4to 10-20atm (mag-
netite), fco2= 300 to 900 atm, and rs2= 10-x atm. On the other hand,if the
reactionstook placeat the temperatureof depositionof quartz then the cor-
respondingvalueswould be: fo2= 10-a2atm (carbon oxidation), fo2- 10-24
to 10-a3atm (magnetite), fco2= 8 atm, and rs2= 10-s atm. The aboveare
the extremevalues. If the geothermometric measurements and textural re-
lations are reliable then the most probablevalues that occurredduring the
respectivereactionsare as follows: during carbonoxidationand wollastonite
formationfoe= 10-24to 10-25atm and fco2= 40 to 200 atm; fo2-- slightly
lessthan 10-xsatm and surelymore than 10-25atm during the initial deposi-
tion of magnetite;during later hematite-magnetitereactionsfoe- 10-ea*-x atm;
and rs2= 10-s*-2atm.

ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION

When limestonesare heated 100ø or 200ø abovetheir original tempera-

tures they expand permanently,thereby increasingtheir permeability (38).
Thus, the invasionby granodioriteof the Concepciondel Oro limestones
musthave increasedthe limestonepermeability,therebyallowingaccessto the
metasomatizing-mineralizing fluids that traveledupward along the contactto
the present site of deposition. The fluids reacted with the carbonaterock,
depositingsilicates,dissolvingCO2 and lesserCaCOs,and therebyincreasing
rock porosity and brittleness. The mechanicsof such replacementare dis-
cussedby Thompson(47), Holser (18) and Bain (2). The high tempera-
tures existingduring replacementfacilitatedthe reactionsforming the meta-
somaticminerals. The stresses producedby the emplacement and subsequent
coolingof the adjacent intrusionsresultedin much local fracturing within
thesenow brittle contactrocks,thus permittingthe further passageof the
metasomatising-mineralizing fluids and depositionby them. Evidence of
shearingand fracturingalong the igneouscontactis common;, for example,
the Cata Arroyo depositis in a pronouncedzoneof dislocations.Mineraliza-
tion in noneof the deposits,however,is restrictedto fractures. The porosity
of the skarnsallowedthe fluids to permeatethe rock and locally fill vacant
spotsas well as to replacesome of the skarn minerals,especiallythose
interstitialto the generalgarnetmatrix.
The spatialrelationof the ores and the intrusionat this, and other con-
tact metasomatic depositssuggeststhat the mineralizingfluidswere supplied
by the crystallizingigneousrock. That the metasomatizing fluids were as-
cending is indicated in areas such as Promontorio,where skarn within
granodioriteoccursonly aboveareasthat formerly containedlimestone,the
probablesourcefor the calcium in the metasomaticsilicates. As these meta-
somatizingfluids coincidedand overlappedwith the mineralizingfluids, it
is thoughtthat the mineralizingfluidswere alsoascending and not derived
from the immediatelyneighboringrocks. Althoughit has been suggested
that the ore wasderivedfrom the sedimentary rocks,this is highlyunlikely;
otherwise,in view of the ascendingnature of the fluids, the small limestone
inliers within the granodiorite,suchas Promontorio,Las Animas and Car-
men,couldnot havebeenas heavilymineralizedas they are.
The lower adit at Promontorioexposesthe underlyinggranodiorite,in-
dicatingthatalthoughthereare smallalteredzonesthroughwhichmineralizing
fluidsmay havepassed.the intrusiverock is not mineralized. Likewise,in the
adjacentstockat Providencia,the Terminal tunnelcompletelytransectsthe
stockbelow many of the importantore depositsand clearly indicatesthe
scantinessof mineralizationwithin the granodiorite. In order to reach the
inliers as well as the contacts, however, the fluids must have traversed the
igneousbody. Had the mineralizingfluids passedthroughlarge open con-
duits,tracesof theseshouldstill be evident;the fact that they are not evident
suggeststhat the fluids pervadedthe igneousrock, presumablyalong many
smallfracturesandalongminordiscontinuities suchas crystalboundaries.In
fact, somelocal alterationzonesoccurin placeswithin the Terminal tunnel.
The approximatecontemporaneityof stockemplacementand ore mineral-
ization,the ore mineralogy,abundanceof skarn and proximity to the igneous
contactsof the Concepciondel Oro depositsplacesthem into the "contact
metamorphic" classof ore depositsas definedby Lindgren (31), amongothers.
This classhas,by that classification,
an origin distinctfrom the hydrothermal
deposits;yet, accordingto the same system,the Providenciadepositsare
clearlymesothermal
to epithermal
in mineralogy
(48). As the genesis
of
the Concepciondel Oro ores is similar to thosefrom Providencia,there is a
discrepancy in the geneticdistinctioncommonlydrawn betweencontactmeta-
somaticand hydrothermaldeposits.
Thermometry of the Concepciondel Oro depositsindicates that the
main ore mineralswere formedbetweenapproximately350ø and 500ø C. The
temperaturerange suggestedby Lindgren (31) for the contactmetasomatic
depositsis 500ø to 800ø C and for the hypothermaldepositsis 300ø to 500ø C,
althoughotherauthors(e.g., 25) havesuggested that thesetemperatures are
a little too high. Nevertheless,from the geothermometricevidence,these
depositscorrespondto the hypothermalclass,althoughtheir other character-
isticstypify themas contactmetasomatic.
The similarity betweencontactmetasomaticand hydrothermaldepositsis
borneout in otherareaswhereboth"types"are present. An exampleis Silver
Bell, Arizona, an importantproducerof copperfrom its "porphyry"deposits.
It has alsobeen studiedby the presentwriter but will be discussedelsewhere.
Peripheralto the "porphyry" areas are contactmetasomaticdeposits;the
mineralizationin the igneousrocksis low in grade, occurringas dissemi-
nationsand coatingsalongmyriadsof smallfractures,whereasin the contact
aureolesit is in sporadic,high-gradelensesand disseminations.Nevertheless,
belowthe levelof supergene alterationthe ore mineralsare the samefor both
classes.Such similarityin minerals,when combinedwith the very close
association
of the two typesof deposits,suggests
that'both were mineralized
duringthe sameperiodof mineralization
by fluidshavingthe sameorigin.
The similarityof primary mineralizationwithin the central intrusionand
peripheralcontactmetasomatic depositsis alsofoundat many otherlarge
"porphyrycopper"deposits, suchas Bingham,Utah, and Ely, Nevada. In
view of this, it is evidentthat the contactmetasomatic
and porphyrycopper
depositsshouldbe includedwithinthe samegroupwhenclassified genetically,
or at leastviewedas stageswithin a continuum.
As the "porphyrycopper"depositsare generallyacknowledged to be
hydrothermalin originit follows,by analogy,that the associated
contactmeta-
somaticdepositsshouldalsobe considered as havinga hydrothermal origin.
Locke(32, p. 623) couldnothavefelt toodifferentlywhen,in comparing
the
two classes,he statedthat it is mainly "a differenceof rock and conduitrather
thanof enteringfluid"andLoughlinandBehre(33, p. 47) believedthat "close
studymay showthat certaindepositsregardedas belonging to oneclassmay
in fact representbothclasses."
In summary,there is evidencefor a geneticcorrespondence
betweenthe
contactmetasomatic Concepciondel Oro depositsand the mesothermalto epi-
thermalProvidenciadeposits.A geneticsimilarityis alsoindicatedby meso-
thermal "porphyry copper" depositsand their peripheral contact meta-
somaticdeposits,exemplifiedby Silver Bell. Finally, temperaturesduring
mineralizationat the contactmetasomaticConcepciondel Oro depositsfall
within the rangegivenby Lindgren (31) for the hypothermaldeposits. For
these reasonsit appearsto the present author that the contactmetasomatic
class,to the extent, at least, that it is representedby suchdepositsas those
here described,is more properlyconsideredgeneticallyas a particulartype
withinthe hightemperature or hypothermal
endof the hydrothermal sequence
ratherthan as a separateclassunto itself.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Study of the contactmetasomatic

ore depositsaroundthe Concepcion del
Oro stockindicatesseveralinterestingfeaturesin regardto the a) duration
of mineralization,b) metasomatism,
c) opaqueminerals,d) conditionsunder
which the depositswere formed and e) geneticclassification of this and
relatedore deposits.

Duration of •nineralization:
1) Emplacement of the granodioriteoccurred40 q- 1.2m.y. ago.
2) Metasomatismand most mineralizationterminateda minimum of
38 q- 1.2 m.y. ago. Thus the stock and ores are essentiallycon-
temporaneous.
Metasomatism :

1) Presenceof wollastonitefar from the stock suggeststhe action of

streamingfluids,requiredto removeCO2.
2) Brittle chertylayersin the limestoneprovided"siliceousconduits"for
thesefluids,localizinginitial metasomatic
reactions.
$) The siliceous bedsfracturedwhendeformedduring stockemplacement;
garnetalongthesefracturesindicatessilicationfollowedemplacement.
4) Intense silicationnear the igneouscontact entirely convertedlime-
stoneand adjacentgranodioriteto skarn.
5) Limestoneinliers in the stockindicatethe metasomatizing fluids as-
cended,for garnetfills fracturesabovethe limestone-granodiorite
con-
tact but not below it.
6) Lack of gradationfrom fresh host rock to skarn indicatesthat the
skarnformedalmostenmasse,as alonga "front."

Featuresof the OpaqueMinerals:

1) Depositionof the opaquemineralsfollowedthe metasomaticsilicates,
althoughoverlapsuggestscontinuitybetweenthe two episodes.
2) Magnetite is the only metallic mineral depositedin an environment
not previouslysilicated;it locallypreferentiallyreplacedcalcite.
3) Four successive generationsof magnetiteand hematite occur. Such
cyclic depositioncan be interpretedin terms of fluctuatingoxygen
fugacitiesor fluctuatingtemperatures.
4) Magnetite was the earliestmetallic mineral. It was followed by py-
rite, pyrrhotite,specularire,chalcopyrite,and sulfo-salts.
5) Metal zoningsimilarto that commonlyobservedin hydrothermalde-
positsoccurs;outwardfrom the stockthe sequence is Cu and Fe with
minor Au, Pb + Zn with minor Ag and, finally,tracesof Hg and Sb.
6) Ore occursin skarn formedfrom all sedimentarybeds; the only clear
control for ore depositionis the structural discontinuityalong the
contactmetasomatic bandborderingthe stock.
7) Adjacentore depositsof Concepcion del Oro and Providenciaoccur
peripherallyto two essentiallyidenticalstocks. At Providenciameta-
somaticsilicatesare sparse,ore consistsof galena and sphaleritein
chimney-shaped bodies,and depositionaltemperaturesand pressures
are lower than at Concepcion del Oro.

Conditionsduringoredeposition:
1) Geothermometricmeasurementsand calculationsindicate that:
a) 500ø C was the approximatemaximumtemperatureat the contact
of the stock(basedon heatflow estimate).
b) 500ø C was the approximatemaximumtemperatureof mineraliza-
tion (based on pyrrhotite measurementsmperhaps invalid), sug-
gesting that mineralizationmay have occurred at the maximum
temperaturesin the aureole.
 c) 350ø C --+35ø C wasthe approximateminimumtemperatureof min-
eralization(fluid inclusionfillingtemperatures).
2) Thermochemical calculationssuggest that:
a) limitingvaluescorresponding to the maximumtemperature range
are Io2= 10-•4 to 10-3•' atm; leo2= 900 to 8 atm; rs2= 10-• to
10 -s atm.

The mostlikely valuesare that:

b) Pco2wasbetween40 and200 atm duringthe initial stagesof meta-
somatism(basedon wollastonite
formation).
c) fo2wasbetweenroughly10-24and 10-25atm duringthe initial stages
of metasomatism (graphiteoxidation).
d) fo: was between10-xsand 10-2' atm (calculatedindependently of
above values) during early stagesof mineralization(magnetite
stability).
e) fo•. fluctuatedaround approximately10-2añl atm during the late
stagesof mineralization(hematite-magnetiteequilibria).
f) •s2was 10-0-*2atm duringthe late stagesof mineralization(pyrite-
iron oxideequilibria).

Genesis:

1) Metasomatizingand mineralizingfluidspermeatedthe stock,ascending

until reachingthe structuralbreak at the stockborders;here minerali-
zation occurred. At Concepciondel Oro depositionof metasomatic
silicateswas followedby the ore mineralization. At Providenciaonly
the secondof these eventswas widespread,presumablybecauseshal-
lower burial producedlower temperaturesand pressuresduring ore
deposition.
2) Many other areas containadjacent contactmetasomaticand hydro-
thermal orebodies, commonly with identical metallic mineralogy.
"Porphyry copper"districtsprovideabundantexamples.
3) The ores at Concepciondel Oro were depositedat temperaturescor-
respondingto hypothermaldeposits.
4) Becauseof the geneticcorrespondence, similarityin ore mineralization,
and temperaturesof depositionbetweencertain contact metasomatic
and hydrothermaldeposits,it is suggestedthat contact metasomatic
depositsshould not be geneticallygrouped as distinct from hydro-
thermaldeposits,but, rather, shouldbe viewedas a particulartype of
hypothermaldeposithaving unique gangue minerals and structural
characteristics.

DEPARTMENTSOFGEOLOGYANDCHEMISTRY,
ARIZONASTATEUNIVERSITY,
TEMPE, ARIZONA,
,,tpri110,1965
 REFERENCES

1. Arnold, R. G., and Reichen,L. E., 1962, Measurementof the metal contentof naturally
occurring, metal-deficient,hexagonalpyrrhotite by an X-ray spacing method: Am.
Mineralogist, v. 47, p. 105-111.
2. Bain, G. W., 1936, Mechanicsof metasomatism:EcoN. GEOL.,V. 31, p. 505--526.
3. Barry, J. G., 1952, Geologyof the silver-lead-zinc
depositsof the Avalos-Providencia
dis-
trict of Mexico (discussion): Min. Eng., v. 4, p. 1083-1084.
4. Bateman, A.M., 1950, Economicmineral deposits:John Wiley, N.Y., 916 p.
5. Bergeat,Alfred, 1910, La granodioritade Conceptiondel Oro en el Estado de Zacatecasy
sus formatJones de contacto: Inst. Geol. Mexico, Bol. 27.
6. Bowen, N. L., 1928, The evolution of the igneousrocks: Princeton, Princeton Univ.
Press, 332 p.
7. Buddington,A. F., 1959, Granite eraplacementwith special reference to North America
(a review): Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, p. 671-748.
8. Burckhardt, Carlos, 1906, G•ologie de la Sierra de Conceptiondel Oro: Internat. Geol.
Cong., Mexico, 10th sess.,Guide des Excursions,No. 24.
9. Burkart, Joseph,1836, Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico in den Jahren 1825 bis 1834:
Stuttgart, E. Schweizerbart's Verlagshandlung.
10. Buseck, P. R., 1961, Contact metasomaticores at Conceptiondel Oro, Mexico (abs.):
Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 68, p. 144.
11. , 1962, Pyrrhotite from Tern Piute, Nevada: Ann. Rept. Geophys.Lab., Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Year Book 61, p. 161-163.
12. Castafiedo, Jos•, 1927, Los distritos cupriferos de Mazapil y Conception del Oro del
Estado de Zacatecas: Bol. Minero, v. 24, p. 443-453.
13. Chase, Thorington, 1909, Conception del Oro district, Mexico: Mining World, v. 31,
p, 1068.
14. Danielsson, Allan, 1950, Das Calcit-Wollastonitgleichgewlcht:Geochim. et Cosmochim.
Acta, v. 1, p. 55-69.
15. Greenwood, H. J., 1962, Metamorphic reactions involving two volatile components: Ann.
Rept. Geophys.Lab., Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 61, p. 82-85.
16. Harker,R. I., andTuttle,O. F., 1956,Experimental
dataon the Peov.-Tcurvefor the
reaction: calcite+ quartz----wollastonite+ carbon dioxide: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 254,
p. 239-256.
17. Holland, H. D., 1959, Some applicationsof thermochemicaldata to problemsof ore de-
posits. I--Stability relations amongthe oxides, sulfides,sulfates and carbonatesof ore
and gangue minerals: EcoN. G,•OL.,v. 54, p. 184-233.
18. Holser, W. T., 1947, Metasomaticprocesses:Ecoa. GEOL.,V. 42, p. 384--395.
19. Ibarra, Jesfis, 1930, Informe general de la regi6n minera comprendidaen las Munici-
palidades de Mazapil, Conception del Oro y San Pedro de Ocampo del Estado de
Zacatecas: Bol. Minero, v. 29, p. 255-278.
20. Jaeger, J. C., 1957, The temperaturein the neighborhoodof a cooling intrusive sheet:
Am. Jour. Sci., v. 255, p. 306-318.
21.--., 1959, Temperatures outside a cooling intrusive sheet: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 257,
p. 44-54.
22. Jones,R. B., 1934, Temperature relations to ore deposition: Ecoa. GEOL.,V. 29, p. 711--724.
23. Kennedy, G. C., 1950, Pneumatolysisand the liquid inclusion method of geologic
thermometry: Ecoa. G,•OL.,v. 45, p. 533-547.
24. King, P. B., 1947, Carta Geo16gicade la Parte Septentrional de la Repfiblica Mexicana:
Cartas Geologicasy Mineras de la Republica Mexicana, No. 3, Mexico Universidad
Nacional Inst. Geol. Geofis. y Ge6d.
25. Knopf, Adolf, 1942, Ore depositionin the pyrometasomaticdepositsi• Ore depositsas
related to structural features, ed. W. H. Newhouse: Princeton Press, Princeton, N.J.,
p. 63-72.
26. Kubaschewski, O., and Evans, E. LL., 1958, Metallurgical thermochemistry: Pergamon
Press, London.
27. Kullerud, Gunnar, Doe, B. R., Buseck, P. R., and Troften, P. F., 1963, .Heating ex-
periments on monoclinicpyrrhotites: Ann. Rept. Geophys.Lab., Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Year Book 62, p. 210-213.
28. Lamey, C. A., 1961, Contact metasomaticiron depositsof California: Geol. Soc. America
Bull., v. 72, p. 669-677.
29. Larsen, E. S., Jr., 1945, Time required for the crystallization of the great batholith of
southern and lower California: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 243-A (Daly volume), p. 399-416.
;•0. Lasky, •. •., 1931, The systems iron oxides: COs: GO, and iron oxides: H20:H2, as
applied to limestonecontactdeposits: EcoN. GxoL., v. 26, p. 485-495.
31. Lindgren,Waldemar, 1933, Mineral deposits:New York, McGraw-Hill, 930 p.
32. Locke, Augustus, 1933, Disseminatedcopperdeposits4a Ore depositsof the western states
(Lindgren volume): New York, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Engrs., p. 616-623.
33. Loughlin, G. F., and Behre, C. H., Jr., 1933, Classificationof ore deposits,da Ore deposits
of the western states (Lindgren volume): New York, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Engrs.,
p. 17-z55.
34. Lovering, T. S., 1935, Theory of heat conductionapplied to geologicalproblems: Geol. Soc.
America Bull., v. 46, p. 69-94.
35. --., 1936, Heat conduction in dissimilar rocks and the use of thermal models: Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull., v. 4?, p. 87-100.
36. •., 1961, Sulfide ores formed from sulfide-deficient solutions: Eco•r. G•.or•., v. 56,
p. 68-99.
37. Mapes, ¾., Eduardo, 1965, Geologia y yacimientosminerales de los distritos de Avalos y
Concepclondel Oro, Zacatecas: Consejode Rec. Nat. no Renov. (in preparation).
38. Maxwell, J. C., and ¾errall, Peter, 1953, Expansion and increase in permeability of car-
bonate rocks on heating: Am. Geophys.Union Trans., v. 34, p. 101-106.
39. Nockolds, S. R., 1954, Average compositionsof some igneous rocks: Geol. Soc. America
Bull., v. 65, p. 1007-1032.
40. Park, C. F., Jr., and MacDiarmid, R. A., 1964, Ore deposits: W. H. Freeman, San Fran-
cisco,475 p.
41. Roealder,Edwin, 1962, Studies of fluid inclusions I: Low temperature application of a
dual-purpose freezing and heating stage: Ecoa. GzoL, v. 57, p. 1045-1061.
42. Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zoltan De, Taverna, Eugenio, and Ullos, Salvador, 1956, General
geology and phosphate deposits of Conception del Oro district, Zacatecas, Mexico:
U.S. Geol. Survey Bull., 1037-A.
43.--., Cserna, Zoltan De, Rivera, I. O., and Vloten, R. van, 1962, Tectonic framework
of an area within the Sierra Madre Oriental and adjacent Mesa Central, North Central
Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 450-C.
44. Sawkins, F. l., 1964, Lead-Zinc ore deposition in the light of fluid inclusion studies,
Providencia Mine, Zacatecas, Mexico: Ecos. Gzo% v. 59, p. 883-919.
45. SchneiderhShn,H., 1932, Die genetischeEinteilung der Gesteine und Minerallagerstatten:
Zeitschr. Prakt. Geologic, v. 40, p. 168-172.
46. Schwartz,G. M., and Ronbeck,A. C., 1940, Magnetite in sulfide ores: Eco•r.
v. 35, p. 585-610.
47. Thompson, J. B., •[r., 1959, Local equilibrium in metasomatic processes,in Researches in
Geochemistry, P. H. Abelson, ed.: New York, •[ohn Wiley, p. 427-457.
48. Triplett, W. H., 1952, Geology of the silver-lead-zinc deposits of the Avalos-Providencia
district of Mexico: Min. Eng., v. 4, p. 583-600.
49. Turnock, A. C., and Eugster, H. P., 1962, Fe-Al oxides: Phase relationships below
1000ø C: Jour. Pet., v. 3, p. 533-565.
50. Tuttle, O. F., and Bowen, N. L., 1958, Origin of granite in light of experimental studies
in the system NaA1SiaOs-KAISi8Os-SiO2-H20: Geol. Soc. America Mere. 74, 153 p.
51. Van Orstrand, C. E., 1935, Normal geothermal gradient in United States: Am. Assoc.
Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 19, p. 78-115.
52. Villarello, •. D., 1906, Le mineral d'Aranzazu: Internat. Geol. Cong., Mexico, 10th sess.,
Guide des Excursions, No. 25.