Regional Geology and Deposits

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
AND THE
BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF

ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS
VOL. 60 MAY, 1965 No. 3
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS

OF CENTRAL PERU
ULRICH PETERSEN
CONTENTS
PAGE
Abstract .............................................................. 408

Introduction .......................................................... 408
Regional geology ...................................................... 411
Ore deposits........................................................... 416
General review ..................................................... 416
Ore types ....................................................... 416
Dimensions ..................................................... 418
Structure and ore controls ........................................ 419
Intrusive rocks .................................................. 419
Host rocks ...................................................... 420
Host rock alteration ............................................. 422
Mineralogy ..................................................... 423
Chemicalcomposition of the ore deposits andof the ore fluids........ 423
Zoning ......................................................... 425
Probableorigin of the ore fluids .................................. 425
Major ore deposits................................................. 427
Antamina ....................................................... 427
Cobriza ......................................................... 430
Cerro de Pasco .................................................. 434
Yauricocha ..................................................... 448
Morococha ...................................................... 454
San Cristobal ................................................... 462
Casapalca
....................................................... 465
Viso-Aruri ...................................................... 471
Conclusions ........................................................... 472
407
408 ULRICH PETERSEN
ABSTRACT
The regional geologyof the Andes of Central Peril is summarizedas

a frame of referencefor a discussionof copper,lead, zinc and silver de-
positsin this region. The principalgeologicprovincesare re-definedand
the geologichistory is generalized,in terms of several cyclesof similar
characteristics.The central part of the Cordillera has been elevatedby
up-warping, by folding and by vertical displacementsalong longitudinal
faults, resulting in a complexanticlinorium. Differencesin surface ge-
ologyare attributedin part to differencesin elevationof variousprovinces.
The Coastal(or Andean) batholithappearsto haveexerteda pushtoward
the northeast,resultingin intensecompression foldsand faultson oneside
and tension tectonics on the other.
The generalfeaturesof aboutthirty ore depositsare discussed, pointing
out their similarity, differencesand variations. A great variety of types
is represented,from typically contact-metasomatic through hydrothermal
to red-bedcopperdeposits. They are all epigeneticand many showdirect
associationwith centersof igneousactivity or to persistentlongitudinal
faults. Sulfur isotoperatios are indicativeof a magmaticorigin for the
main deposits. The principal elementsintroducedand depositedby the
ore fluids, compriseS, O, Fe, Cu, As, Sb, Pb, C, Si, Ca and Zn. Silver
and bismuth are economicallyimportant but quantitatively subordinate.
The nature of the host rockshas a strong influenceon structure,type of
ore and zoning. Of particular importanceis the relative positionof lime-
stonehorizonswith respectto the sourceof the ore solutions. Unreactive
units, like clean sandstones, containonly minor ore deposits. Zoning is
expressedby the changescopperto zinc to lead, arsenicto antimony and
high-sulfur to low-sulfur from the center of the districts to the margins.
This district zoning is modifiedby local or orebodyzoning and forms part
of a more subtle regional zoning.
Seven depositsare selectedfor more detailed discussionbecausethey
are better known and illustrate several interestingproblems. Thus, this
paper serves as a general observationalbackground.for a subsequent
article on applicationof saturation (solubility) diagramsto problems
in ore deposits.
INTRODUCTION
MININa is an importantfactorin the economyof the Republicof Peril, and

beforethe recentinitiation of productionfrom Marcona and Toquepala,the
main sourceof metalswas Central Peril. Mineral depositsin this area were
known by the Incas. During Colonialtimes they were mined principallyfor
gold and silver. At the beginningof this century,what is now the Cerro de
PascoCorporationstartedoperationsin Cerro de Pascoand later expanded'
to Morococha, Casapalca,San Cristobal and Yauricocha. Exploitation of
thesemetal minesled to the formationof a complexenterprise,includingthe
Goyllarisquizga coal mine, concentrating,
smelting,and refiningfacilitiesand
railways.
A formal geologydepartmentwas established by the Corporationin 1920.
Since then its members have accumulated a wealth of information derived
from careful mapping, observation,microscopicstudies and applicationof
special techniques. Several other geologistshave also contributed to the
geologicknowledgeof Central Peril, publishingtheir observations
and ideas.
MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRAL PERU 409
General summariesare presentedby McLaughlin (73), Steinmann (94),

Harrison(31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41), Petersen(85, 87) and Hosmer(48). A
host of specializedpapersdescribelocal features. During a period of twelve
years I had the opportunityto study the area and its deposits,for the most
part as a memberof the geologydepartmentof Cerro de PascoCorporation.
This provided an excellent opportunity to check and integrate the large
amount of available information.
I wish to expressmy appreciationto thosemembersof the staff of Cerro
de PascoCorporationwho contributedwith their discussionof variousprob-
lems, or who suppliedsignificantpiecesof evidence. In this connectionI
would like to mention specificallyH. W. Kobe, W. Keighin, M. Iberico,
--
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BASILIA
YAURIOOCHA
LOCATION MAP
CENTRAL PERU
50 0 50
•ILOM[T[RS
ß GASTROVlRREYNA
Fro. 1. Locationmap.
410 ULRICH PETERSEN
NTAMINA
ß
ß
ß
HUANGAYO
'*f(•.
AYAGUC•O
ß
SO 0 SO GASTROVIRREYNA
KILOMETERS TQv
Fro. 2. Generalizedgeologicmap of CentralPeru. Modifiedafter

Bellido and Simons.
D. R. S. Thomson,G. E. Walker, and J FernandezConcha. Similarly, I

have benefitedfrom discussionswith R. M. Gartels, F. S. Turneaure, J. B.
Thompson,Jr., A. Benavidesand J. L. Gillson, who have read early drafts
of the manuscript. However, I acceptfull responsibilityfor the ideasherein
contained.
Acknowledgmentis also due to Cerro de Pasco Corporationfor making
possiblethis study, for its financial assistanceand for authorizationto use
informationfrom its private files,especiallyin regard to the mineral deposits.
Other private companiescontributedunpublishedinformationon their mines,
notably Cia. de Minas Buenaventura(Julcani and Huachocolpamines) and
Cia. Minera Milpo.
M. Einaudi preparedthe illustrationsfor publicationand offered helpful
suggestionsin the editingof the final text.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The area under discussionlies between942

ø and 1342
ø latitude south and
is roughly 100 km wide by 500 km along the axis of the Andes (Fig. 1).
It can be consideredto representa geochemical or metallogcnetic province.
Changesare markedtowardthe northeastand southwest,but gradualtoward
the northwest and southeast.
The regionalgeologicpictureof Central Peru is one of northwesttrending
provincesor belts. From southwestto northeasttheseare (Fig. 2):
(1) CoastalMesozoicBelt: gentlyfolded,block-faultedMesozoicsedimentary
rocks.
(2) CoastalBatholith: • predominantlygranodiorite.
(3) CenozoicVolcanicBelt: Tertiary and locally Quartcrnaryvolcanics,mod-
eratelyfolded,piercedby smallvolcanicnecks,stocksand spines.
(4) Central Andean MesozoicBelt: mainly Mesozoicsediments,moderately
to strongly folded and faulted along the central high part of the Andes; cut by
small to moderatelysizedstocksand volcanicvents. Older rockscrop out in the
coresof anticlinesand domes,and youngerrocksarc preservedin the centralparts
of synclines.
(5) EasternPaleozoicBelt: mainly Paleozoicrocks,moderatelyto strongly
folded,in a belt that roughlycoincideswith the easternslopesof the Andes. They
arc piercedby large, batholithicintrusivcs.
(6) Eastern Mesozoic Belt: moderatelyfolded and faulted Mesozoic rocks on
the upperedgeof the lower jungle (Sclva Baja or Amazonia).
(7) Tertiary sedi•nentso[ the A•nazon ba,in: mainly continentalTertiary
(red-bed) sediments.Older rockscrop out in coresof anticlinesor domes(one
suchstructureis in the northeastcornerof the regionalgeologicmap).
The ore depositscoveredby this study are locatedmainly in the Belt of
Cenozoic Volcanics, the Central Andean Mesozoic Belt, and the Eastern
Paleozoic Belt.
The stratigraphicsequencemay be summarizedas follows:
Age Formation
fSillapaca
Cenozoic .•Tacaza
t.Casapalca, Pocobamba or Rimac
fMachay
Cretaceous '(Goyllarisquizga
Triassic-Jurassic Pucargor Paria
Permian Mitu & Catalina
Lower Paleozoic Excelsior Series
Locally,and toward the east, the Carboniferous

and PermianAmbo,
Tarma and Copacabanaformationsare preservedbetweenthe Excelsior and
the Mitu.
Thicknessof individualformationsvary considerably,
as illustratedin
Table I.
During the discussionof ore depositsit is desirableto bear in mind the
nature of the countryrock. This is facilitatedby substitutingthe name of
• Referred to as Andean Batholith in someother publications.
412 ULRICH PETERSEN
TABLE I
Formation Dominant Rock Type Thickness

Sillapaca volcanics Variable, 0-1,000 m (?)
Tacaza volcanics Variable, 500-9,000 m
Casapalca-Pocobamba red-beds Variable, 0-3,000 m. Greatest
thickness in triangle Casapalca-
Yauricocha-La Oroya.
Machay limestone Variable, 135-2,000 m. Generally
thicker on western side of Central
Andean Mesozoic Belt.
Goyllarisquizga sandstone Variable, 30-1,800 m. 'Generally

thickeg on western side of Central
Andean Mesozoic Belt. Subsid-
iary basin in Jatunhuasi-Cerca-
puquio region.
Pucar• limestone Very variable, 0-3,000 m. Gen-
erally thicker on eastern side of
Central Andean Mesozoic Belt.
Catalina volcanics 300-700 m perhapsup to 1,500 m.
Mitu red-beds Very variable, 0-3,700 m. Gen-
erally between 0 and 1,000 m in
area under consideration, thicken-
ing toward E.
Copacabana limestone, shale Max. about 1,900 m.
Tarma limestone, shale Max. about 2,100 m.
Ambo sandstone,shale Unknown, but exceeding 800 m.
Excelsior shale, phyllite Unknown, but well over 1,000 m.
probably over 2,700 m. perhaps
over 6,100 m.
the dominantrock type for the word formation in the various units of the
stratigraphic sequence. The Pucarfi formation is thus referred to as the
Pucar/t limestone.
Aboutthe mid-Tertiarythe provincewaserodeddownto a surfaceof rela-
tively low relief, the Puna surface. This was elevatedto about 4,200 m above
sea level in the late Tertiary and Quaternary,resultingin glaciationin the
higher countryand precipitoustopographytoward the coastand toward the
Amazon basin (Junin, Chacraand Cafi6n surfaces).
Probablyseveralcomplexcyclesof sedimentation, folding, intrusion,min-
eralizationand uplift are involved (Table II). Information on the pre-
Mesozoiccyclesis sketchy. The general angular unconformitybetweenthe
lower and upper Paleozoicrocksprobablyrepresentsa major Mid-Paleozoic
orogenyculminatingthe precedingperiod of sedimentation. A secondcycle
is probablyrepresentedby the upper-Paleozoicsediments,the angularuncon-
formity at their top and the Mitu red-bedsof Permian age. The uplift that
followedthe Permian orogenyis presumablyresponsiblefor the erosionof
mostof the upper-Paleozoic sedimentsfrom Central Peril and for the deposi-
tion of the Mitu red-beds. A large amountof volcanicflowsand pyroclastics

comparableto the Cenozoicvolcanicsmay havebeen deposited,but the only
remnantsare the Catalinavolcanicsof Morococha,San Cristobaland Malpaso.
The third cyclecorresponds to the Mesozoicperiod of geosynclinalsedi-
mentation, the orogenyat the endof the Cretaceous
andearlyTertiary, coastal
batholith intrusion, erosion, red-bed depositionand subsequentvolcanism.
During the Mesozoic,sedimentswere laid down in the Andean Geosyncline.
TABLE II
z GEOLOGIC FORMATION E v E NT S o FORMATIONEVENTS
..J
_ _J •
_
/Quat. Thirdstageof uphft of Cordiliero•

I • modern
volcanic
B erosion
cycle *R _••
Chacraerosion
stage •.•.5 • CATALINA
votc •>• •e
Plio. ); S....d,tog.
ofupt,ft
ofCaralii,era MiTU
r.b •
II SILLAPAGA
• dumn erosion
stage Z e•
- •
M•o. Volcamcs• o First sto9eofuplift ofCordillera; inlermittenl• ••
• • •
•-- 01igo
•• • dlostrophism•
Puno intrusion
• • •ntrusion
Third
ofplugl
erosion ß!locks--
stage,
orogenec
local
stage,
of stocks
volcanic
folding,
ond
activity •
thrusting,
batholithl & •
•
40 • •
TAGAZA •• Intermittent diastrophism
• E0 • _ 270• COPAGABANA
•
• Second
cragchic
stage-
folding,
thrusting •
60 PalcoCASAPALCA
0r• •• •• intermittent
POGOBAMBA d,o•troph,sm ••
70 Red-beds • • 0
• • •0 TARMA Z
•
•
•
0
• F•r•f
orogenlc
stage-
CoostoI
intrusion
of •
Botholith --
Z
0
•
•
•
• 0
o MACHAY < •
• Ls 0 AMBO •
GOY•ARISQUlZGA 350
1•5 • z• •o•
z •m
z • •
• o o •
PUOARA •
• Ls N
• 400 •
180• 2
z •
m - EXCELSIOR • •
- - •z•
• •o
414 ULRICH PETERSEN
Their total thicknessis generallybetween1,000m and 4,000 m. The portion

that accumulatedin the Central Andean MesozoicBelt representsthe mio-
geosynclinal faciesof Kay (1951). Sedimentation in the AndeanGeosyncline
cameto an endduringthe upperCretaceous or earlyTertiary, whenthe coastal
batholith was intruded.
The exact relationshipbetweenthe Casapalcared-bedsand the coastal
batholithis unknownbecausethe two are not found in contact. It is likely,
though,that the red-bedswere deposited after the upperCretaceous
periodof
folding,faultingand batholithicintrusion,and in responseto moderateuplift
and erosion. Extensive volcanism and intrusion of small stocks followed the
depositionof the Casapalcaformation.
In order to interpret the outcroppatternsof rocks of different ages it is
necessaryto bear in mind the great relief of the area. It rangesfrom sea
level in the southwestto heightsof 3,000-5,000m alongthe Cordilleraand
elevations below 2,000 m in the Eastern Mesozoic Belt.
Fro. 3. Diagrammaticcross-sectionillustrating Andean anticlinorium. TQv =

Cenozoicvolcanics;Tc -- Casapalcaformation; M -- Mesozoic sedimentaryrocks;
P -- Mitu formation; PAL -- Lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks; KTi -- Cre-
taceous-Tertiaryintrusive; pKi -- pre-Cretaceousintrusive; (1) CoastalMesozoic
belt; (2) Coastal batholith; (3) Cenozoicvolcanic belt; (4) Central Andean
Mesozoicbelt; (5) EasternPaleozoicbelt; (6) EasternMesozoicbelt; (7) Tertiary
sediments of the Amazon basin.
Broadlyspeaking theAndesrepresent in cross-section,

a largeanticlinorium
complicated by a seriesof faults and intrusions. The flanksof this super-
structure(Fig. 3) aremadeup of the CoastalMesozoicand the EasternMeso-
zoic belts, in both of which Mesozoicsedimentsoccupytopographicallylow
positions. The coreof the superstructure is composedof the CentralAndean
Mesozoic and the Eastern Pa.leozoicbelts. In these, the Paleozoic rocks attain
comparableelevationsabovesea level due to the combinedeffectof general
upwarping,foldingand longitudinalfaultsalongwhichthe Cordilleranunits
havebeenraised. The main differencein surfacegeologyresultsfrom the fact
that in the Eastern Paleozoic Belt most of the Mesozoic sediments have been
strippedby erosion,beingpreserved
onlyin occasional
infoldsor down-dropped
fault blocks. In the Central Andean MesozoicBelt Paleozoicrocks crop out
at elevationsabove4,000 m at Cerro de Pasco, Malpaso, Yauli and Julcani.
The 1,000-4,000m thick Mesozoiccoveris preservedin this belt largelydue
to its hightopography.
In this broad conceptionof a large, complexanticlinorium,the belt of
Cenozoic
volcanicsrepresents
only the ragged•torn remainsof a covering
blanket. It was preservedas a "belt" alongthe westernslopesof the Andes.

The Coastal Batholith decidedlyintroducesan element of asymmetry
within the broadAndeanAnticlinorium. It lies entirelyon the westernside
of the main anticlinorium.
As a rule, the type and degreeof folding and faulting of the sedimentary
units is related to their geologicage and to positionacrossthe belts. As
would be expected,the older sedimentsgenerallyexhibit strongerfolding,
faultingand higherdegreeof metamorphism than the youngerones. Thus,
tight chevronfolds are commonin the Exclesiorshalesand phyllites;open
foldsare morecommonin theTertiary red-beds(althoughsomenotableexcep-
tionsare known for instancenear Casapalca and Huar6n); and the Tertiary
volcanicsact essentially as a gentlycorrugatedblanket.
The Mesozoicsediments behaveddifferentlyon oppositesidesof the coastal
batholith.On thewestside(nearthecoast)foldsareopen,dipsaregentle,and
blockfaultingis predominant. On the eastsideof the batholiththe sediments
exhibitthestrongest,
tightestfoldingknownin CentralPeru. This is clearly
visible in the holes within the volcanic blanket and where the Mesozoic sedi-
ments emergeon the easternside of the volcanics. Farther east the tectonics
of the Mesozoicsequence becomelessand lessintense.
The westernside of the CentralAndeanMesozoicBelt exhibitsstrong
evidence of thrustingtowardthe northeast. Thereis commonoverturningof
foldsin that direction(axial planesdippingsouthwest)andmostlongitudinal
high-angle thrustfaultsdip southwest.This appliesto a majorityof folds
andfaultsbut not to all. Outstandingexceptions are the Potosi-Toldothrust
in Morococha and foldsand faultsin the Yauricocharegion (99). Farther
east,verticalfaultspredominate and thruststend to be directedbothways.
Evenfarthereastthereis a suggestion of thrustingtowardthe southwest.
In orderto explainthe generalstructureof the foldedsediments, mainly
of the post-Paleozoicunits,the ideahasbeenadvanced (J. S. Page,personal
discussions) that decollements havetakenplace,the Permian(Mitu), Meso-
zoic and Tertiary sediments beingfoldedindependently from the basement
composed of Excelsiorand older rocks. Evaporitedepositsare knownto
occuramongthe Permian red-beds,and thesemight well have servedas
incompetent or lubricatinglayers. This concept is plausibleandinteresting,
but supporting evidenceis incomplete.On the otherhand,the markedcon-
trast in the structure of the Mesozoic sediments on either side of the coastal
batholithstronglysuggests
thatthelatterexerteda pushtowardthenortheast,
generatingthefaultblocktectonics
onits southwest side,andthetightfolding
and compression faultson the otherside. The abruptincreasein folding
intensityjust southwestof the Yauli Paleozoicbasementinlier and the thrust-
ing towardthe southwest observable
in the Yauricocharegionled Thomson
(99) to suggestthat the post-Paleozoic
sedimentsare compressed between
buriedor upthrustPaleozoic
basement
andrigidcoastal
batholith.Finally,
the ore deposits
seemto line up alongroughlynortheast strikingtrendlines
("lineaments")that may reflectbreaksin the basement.Movementalong
suchbreaksor fractures
wouldcausedeformation of the overlying blanketof
Mesozoicsediments.This may be an explanation for someof the so-called
416 ULRICH PETERSEN
crossfoldsand for somefolds that seemto occurisolatedin relatively undis-

turbed areas. The latter have also been attributedto submarineslumping,
especiallywhen they are relativelysmall.
ORE DEPOSITS
General Review
Ore Types.--Thenumerous
ore deposits
of the regionrangefrom relatively
small, insignificantred-bedcopperdepositsto the huge copper-lead-zinc-silver
depositof Cerro de Pasco. Some,like Cobriza, Cerro de Pascoand Yauri-
cochahave very impressivezonesof oxidation,and, in the caseof the latter,
importantzonesof supergene enrichment. The late Tertiary and Quaternary
physiographichistory of the region has had a strong influenceon oxidation
andsupergeneenrichment:
a) Sulfidesare generallypreservedright to the surface(or within very
few meters of it) in depositsaffectedby glaciation (i.e., Morococha,Rio
Pallanga,Antamina, Huallanca, Pacl16n-Llamac,Raura, Huar6n, Venturosa
and Julcani.
b) Oxidation and leachinghave only progressedto about 10 m from the
surfacein the precipitouscountryto the east and west where streamerosion
is active(i.e., Viso-Aruri).
c) Oxidation and, under given conditions,supergeneenrichmentare pro-
nouncedin depositsexposedby the Puna surface,althoughin somecasesit is
possiblethat glaciationmay have removedpart of the oxidation zone (i.e.,
Cerro de Pasco).
d) Where a depositis perchedin an area of high countrysurroundedon
severalsidesby deepvalleysand canyons,as in the caseof Yauricocha,the
nature of the orebodiesand country rock can lead to very erratic oxidation:
severalhundredmetersdown certain channelwaysand practicallyabsentin
other orebodies.
The mineralogyin the zonesof oxidationand supergeneenrichmentis

quitevaried and interesting. This studyis, however,restrictedto the hypo-
gene mineralization. One problemthat arisesas soonas such a restriction
is made is to decideif a given mineral is supergeneor hypogene. This dis-
tinctionis controversialin the caseof somecopperand silver minerals.
The diversityof typesof deposits,structureand ore controlsis striking.
Some fit long recognizedand well-definedpigeon holes, whereas others are
transitionalbetweentwo or more types,or fail to fit any classicaltype. The
following list does not have any geneticimplications,except that deposits
brought together in a group have several features in common. Subdivisions
are basedon similaritiesin ore and geologicsetting:
(1) Quartz-molybdenum
veins
Janchiscocha
(2) Contact-metasomatic
and relateddeposits:
Antamina,Chungat,Huacravilca,Rondoniand Malpaso
Cobriza
MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRALPERU 417
(3) Complexcopper-lead-zinc-silver
deposits
Cerro de Pasco,Yauricocha, Morocochaand Huar6n
(4) Simpleandcomplexlead-zinc-silverdeposits
Colquijirca and Raura
Huallanca, Tuco-Chira, Pacl16n-Llamac
Santander,Atacocha,San Crist6bal,Cercapuquioand Huancavelica
Julcani
Casapalca,Rio Pallanga
Viso-Aruri, Castrovirreynaand other depositsin Cenozoicvolcanics
TABLE III
ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRAL PERU
biineral Principal Elevation of Approximate Present Possible

District Metals known minerall- dimension of Production •lagnitude
(1) zation (m) mineralized (2) (3)
area
Antamina Cu 4150-4650 (4) 2.$ x 3.0 IV A
Muallanca Pb-Zn-Ag 3700-4900 11 x 17 IV B
Tuco-Chira Pb-Zn 4250-4600 5 x 6 IV
Rondoni Cu 4000-4350 1 x 2 IV D iS)
Pacl lon-
Llamac Pb-gn-Ag 4000-4700 2 x 7 IV C-D
•!alpaso Cu 4050-4130 1 x 1 IV D
Raura Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4600-4925 3 x 4 III C
Atacocha Pb-Zn 3600-4300 (4) 1 x 7 I
Cerro de
Pasco Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 3500-4400 2 x 2 I A
Colquijirca Pb-Zn-Ag •100-4400 I x 3 III

Minas Ragra V 4900 .5 x 1.0 IV C
Huaron Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4300-4800 3 x 4 I A
Rio
Pallanga Pb-Zn-Ag 4400-4700 1 x 2 III C
ChunEar Cu-Pb-Zn 4350-4550 1.5 x 2.0 III C
Santarider Pb-Zn over 4400 m 0.5 x 2.0 III
Negra
Huanusha Cu 3400-4300 4 x 6 IV D
Janchisocha Mo over 4000 m 1.5 x 2 IV C
Morococha Cu-Pb-Zn-ag 4000-5200 (4) 5 x 8 l A
Venturosa Pb-Zn 4475-5000 1.5 x 1.5 IV C
Casapalca Cu-Pb-Zn-ag 3475-4950 (4) 1.5 x 4.0 I A-B
San
Cristobal Zn-Ag 4400-5000 3 x 8 II
418 ULRICH PETERSEN
(5) Red-bedcopperdeposits
Negra Huanushaand Dofia Basilia
(6) Vanadium
Minas Ragra
Both cavity filling and replacementare profuselyrepresented. Forms
coverthe wholespectrumfrom tabularveinsand mantosto equidimensional
orebodies,elongatedpipesand manto-pipes. Some disseminated sulfidede-
positswith indefiniteand irregular boundariesalsooccur.
Dirnensions.mTable III lists the various mineral districts from north to
TABLE III
OREDEPOSITS
OF CEN'r•\LPERU{Cont'd)
Minerai Principal Elevation of Approximate Present Possible

Districts Metals known minerali- dimension of Production Magnitude
(1) zation (m) mineralized (2)
area
Viso-
Aruri Pb-Zn-Ag 3700-4200 4 x 5 III-IV C
Pacococha Pb-Zn-Ag 4600-4900 4 x 6 III C
Dona Basilia Cu 4600 I x 6 IV D
Yauricocha Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4300-4800 1.5 x 2.0 II B
Cercapuquio Pb-Zn 4300-4400 ? III C
Huacravilca (Fe) 4500-4800 1.3 x 1.8 IV D (5)
Cobriza Cu 2100-4100 6 x 9 IV B
Huancave-
lica Pb-Za-Ag-Hg 3900-4500 2 x 8 III-IV C
Julcani Ag-Si-Pb 4100-4600 1 x S III B
Huacho-
colpa Pb-Zn-Ag 4100-4800 8 x 9 III B-C
Castrovi-
rreyna Pb-Zn-Ag 4300-5250 5 x 13 III C
(1) Arranged from north to south
(2) I - 1000-5000 tons/day

II - 500-1000 tons/day
III - 100- 500 tons/day
I¾ - 0- 100 tons/day
(3) A - probably over 10 million tons

B - probably 1-10 million tons
C - probably 0.1-1 million tons
D - probably less than 0.1 million tons
(4) Ore in lowest level
(5) Low grade mineralization; not ore under present economic conditions.
south,givingthe approximate
elevationof the mineralized
zone,the approxi-
matehorizontaldimensions of the mineralizedarea,possibleoverallmagnitude
and presentproduction. The intentionis to give someidea of the relative
importanceof the variousdeposits. Inasmuchas the upperportionof all the
depositshasbeenerodedto greateror lesserdegreeand the depthextensions
may not be clearlyestablished,the data on verticalspanof mineralizationand
on possiblemagnitudehave to be taken with the corresponding reservations.
Furthermore,the possibleoverallmagnitudeis givenonly within broadlimits
on an arbitrary scalebecauseof the uncertaintyinvolvedin appreciatingthe
ultimatesizeof a depositand because of economic reasons.
Structure and Or• Controls.--Structure and ore controls are diverse.
Rocksof contrastingchemicaland physicalpropertiesare presentin many of
the deposits. The mostconspicuous differencefrom a chemicalpointof view
is betweenlimestoneand siliceousor silicatedrocks (intrusives,volcanics,
metamorphicor metasomaticsilicates,shale). Emanationsfrom intrusive
bodiesgave rise in adjoining limestoneto mineralizedcontactmetasomatic
halosor directlyto replacement orebodies.In severaldistrictsthe presence
of limestonewas an importantfactor in localizingthe ore minerals(i.e.,
Cobriza,Cerrode Pasco,Yauricocha, Morococha, Huallanca). In manyde-
positscopper-silver
or copper-zincores prevail in the siliceousor silicated
rocks,whereaslead or lead-zincorespredominatein limestone. This is well
illustratedin Antamina,Cobriza,Cerro de Pasco,Morocochaand Huallanca.
In Atacochathe Pb: Zn ratio is higherin limestonethan in siliceousrocks.
Contrasts
in physical
properties
of thehostrockscausedifferentresponse
to fracturingand foldingwithin a given district (Cobriza, Cerro de Pasco,
Yauricocha, Morococha, SanCristobal). Otherorecontrols comprise tempera-
ture and pressuregradients,
fractureand fault zoneswith their diversepat-
terns,foldsand "cross-folds,"
imperviouszonesguidingthe flow of the ore
fluid,porouszonesin hostrocks,and pointof originand locationof solution
paths.
Regionally, the common associationof ore deposits
with largelongitudinal
faultsis striking. This relationis observedat Antamina,Chungar,Cerrode
Pasco,Yauricocha (?), Morococha, Colquijirca,
Raura,Huallanca,Santander,
Atacocha,San Cristobal(?) and Rio Pallanga. In someinstances two dis-
trictsappearto beconnected to thesamelongitudinal fault,asexemplifiedby
the pairs Cerro de Pasco-Colquijirca, Santander-Chungar, and Atacocha-
Milpo.
Intrusive
Rocks.--Intrusives
occurinmostofthemining
districts
covered
by this study. They rangefrom smalldikesand sills to stocksand'volcanic
necksupto 5 km in diameter.A closeassociation
between
oredeposits
and
centersof igneousactivity is evidentin a little over half of the districts. In
aboutone-thirdof the districtsthereare dikes,sillsand smallstocks,but
associationwithoreisnotstriking. Finally,in somewhat over10percent of
the districts
thereare no exposed igneous
rocksalthough somemayexistin
depthor at a relatively
shortdistance.Two of thefourdeposits
comprising
this last groupare red-bedcopperdeposits.
The associationbetweenintrusivecentersandore deposits
is evenmore
420 ULRICH PETERSEN
striking when travelling through the Andes. Large tracts of sedimentary

rocksand volcanicsare devoidof ore deposits. Ore depositsand intrusives
are restrictedto relatively small areas; examplesof one without the other
exist, but constitutelessthan 20 percentof the occurrences.
The intrusive rocks in the mineral districts comprisegranite, rhyolite,
quartz-monzonite,monzonite,granodiorite,dacite,diorite and andesite.• Por-
phyriespredominate, but someintrusivesare evenlycoarse-grained
or alterna-
tively only fine-grained. Where the relationshipwith ore is clear and the
depositis fairly large,quartz-monzonite porphyry,monzoniteor granodiorite
aretherule. In theotherdeposits the rockcompositions vary erraticallyover
the limits quarfeloids/mafites
= 50-95%, Ab90Anx0 to Ab50An50, quartz/Kf
+ P1= 0-50% andP1/Kf = 5-100%.
Lacy (66, 69) believesthat in generalan early explosivephaseof igneous
activity is followedby quiet intrusionof quartz-monzonitein the mineral dis-
tricts of the Andesof Central Peru. Separationof mineralizingfluids from
the magma would occur at a given stage in the differentiationhistory. Al-
thoughthe earlyexplosivephaseis undoubtedly presentin the depositscited
by him, whichincludesomeof the largestin the area, it is definitelyabsentin
many others. A similar observationholds for the compositionof the quiet
intrusivephase. This is closeto quartz-monzonite porphyryin severalof the
largerore deposits, but deviationsto graniticand dioriticcompositionsare not
uncommon. Thesepointsdo not detract,however,from the overall closeasso-
ciationin mostdistrictsbetweenore depositsandi#neousrocks.
Host Rocks.--Justaboutevery rock type in the stratigraphiccolumn,as
well as the igneousrocks, servesas a host for ore in the mineral districts of
Central Peru. There are, however,certain consistentassociations or pref-
erences.
Veins in the shalesand phyllitesof the Excelsiorformationare generally

poorlydefinedanddiscontinuous.This may be attributedto the incompetency
of theserocks. Almost invariablythe economicmetalsare either copper-
silveror zinc-silver. Typicalexamplesare the Excelsior-Cleopatra vein sys-
tem in Cerro de Pasco,the main vein of San Cristobal, the Cambalachevein
southof Julcaniandotherveinseastof Huancayo(not coveredby thisstudy).
The coppermineralis characteristically chalcopyrite.
In general,the red-bedsof the Mitu formationseemto be unfavorableto
ore deposition. The caseis not clear in Cerro de Pasco,Morocochaand San
Cristobal,where the existenceof Mitu is controversial. In thesedistricts ore
is associated
with the baseof the Pucarfiformationand couldhavereplacedor
altered Mitu bedsbeyondrecognition.
Somered-bedcopperdepositsoccurin the Mitu and Casapalca formations
(Negra Huanusha,Dofia Basilia); they are smalland economically unimpor-
tant. Characteristicallythe mineralassociationspresentin the red-bedcopper
depositsare poor in sulfur. Chalcocite,bornite,native copperand silver, and
stromeyeriteare dominantandpyrite is virtually absent.
The Casapalca red-bedsare cut by well definedveinsat Huar6n and Casa-
palca,and somehorizonshave beenreplacedin Colquijircaand Yauricocha.
Both high and low sulfur associations occur.
Copper-lead-zinc-silver
veinsare generallywell developed
in Catalinavol-
canics(Morococha,San Cristobal). This is probablydue to the competent
nature of theserocks. The coppermineralsare predominantlychalcopyrite
or tetrahedrite-tennantite.
A large numberof veins and replacementbodiesoccur in the limestone
formationsof CentralPeru. It is generallybelievedthat theseore depositsare
predominantly locatedin the lowestlimestonein the succession, the Pucar•.
This correlationis attributedto ascendingore solutionsprecipitatingsulfides
in the first limestoneencountered. However, statisticalanalysisof the strati-
graphicpositionof theseore depositsindicatesthat no suchpreferentialdistri-
bution exists (see tabulationbelow). In severaldistricts,intrusivespassed
through the Pucar/xformation and the overlying Goyllarisquizgasandstone,
reachingthe upper limestoneseries (Machay). In these districts only the
upper limestoneis known to containsulfideveins and replacement
.bodies.
There is thus little doubt that the principal factor in localizing these ore
deposits,in additionto temperatureand pressure,is the relativepositionof the
limestonehorizons with respect to the source of the ore solutions. Ore
depositsin limestoneoccurin the followingdistricts.
Limy members of the Casapalca formation:
Colquijirca
Machay formation:
Antamina H uallanca
Chungat Tuco-Chira
Yauricocha Pacl16n-Llamac
Raura Huancavelica
$antander (Morococha)
Chaucha limestonemember of the Goyllarisquizgaformation:
Cercapuquio
Pucarg formation:
Rondoni Morococha
Malpaso Atacocha
Huacravilca Carahuacra-San Cristobal
Cerro de Pasco Huancavelica
Upper Paleozoic limestone member:

Cobriza
The upper Paleozoiclimestonemembermineralizedin Cobrizais the only

limestonein that region. Small lead-zinc depositsare scatteredalong the
baseof the Pucari limestonein severalplacesin CentralPeril withoutapparent
connectionwith igneouscenters.
The depositsin limestoneare either contact-metasomatic copper-zincde-
positsor lead-zincveinsand replacementbodies. They are characterizedby
low sulfurassociations,as indicatedby the presenceof pyrrhotite,arsenopyrite
and magnetite. Examination of apparent anomalies,such as the enargite-
pyritepipesof Yauricochaandsomeenargite-bearing oresin Colquijircashows
that the relatively higher sulfur enargite-pyriteassemblageis envelopedby
pyrite, chertor lead-zincoresseparatingit from the limestone.
422 ULRICH PETERSEN
As a rule,the sandstone
andquartziteof the Goyllarisquizga formationare
unfavorablehosts. The non-reactive natureof theserocksmay havebeenan
importantfactorin thisrespect. Shortveins,generallytensionfractures,noted
for high silver values,occurat Huallanca,Tuco-Chira, Pacl16n-Llamac and
Atacocha. Outstandingis the localizationof mercurymineralizationin sand-
stonein Huancavelica. Coppermineralsare generallyabsentor subordinate,
whereaslead-zincoresprevail,but in all casesthevolumeof ore in the deposits
is small. The unfavorablenatureof this host rock is well illustratedby the
Morocochadistrict where ore is localizedin the rocks below and above,but
no commercial
mineralizationhasbeenfoundas yet within the Goyllarisquizga
formation.
Lead-zinc-silver-(copper)veins are generally well definedin the com-
petentCenozoicvolcanics(Raura, Casapalca, Rio Pallanga,Venturosa,Viso-
Aruri, Pacococha, Huachocolpaand Castrovirreyna). Copperis subordinate
and is presentmainly as chalcopyriteand tetrahedrite.
Well definedcopper-silverand lead-zinc-silverveins are the rule in the
intrusiveand volcanicmaterialsof explosivevents. Examplesare found in
Cerro de Pasco,Yauricocha,Morococha,Huar6n, Hullanca, Raura, Atacocha,
Huancavelica,Casapalcaand Julcani. Both high and low sulfur associations
occur.
Host-rock Alteration.--Alteration takes place in responseto the chemical

disequilibriumbetweenthe host-rocksand the intrusivesor the mineralizing
fluids. As a result some elements are added to the host-rocks whereas others
are subtractedthrough successive breakdownof the original minerals.
Pyritization,whichon oxidationgivesthe rockscharacteristic orange,red
and purplecolors,is generalin all mineraldistrictsexceptthe red-bedcopper
deposits. It variesin degreefrom spectacular,as at Morococha,to rather in-
conspicuous,as in Viso-Aruri and Atacocha.
Hydrothermal alterationof igneousrocks follows the general pattern of
breakdownof ferromagnesian minerals ("bleaching"), fixation of sulfur as
pyrite, formationof chlorite,epidoteand calcite,breakdownof orthoclase and
plagioclase,kaolinization,sericitization,silicificationand in some instances
regenerationof orthoclase. The only unusualalterationsinvolveformationof
alunitein Cerro de Pascoand Colquijirca,gypsumin Atacochaand gypsum-
anhydrite in Morococha. Alteration of the igneousrocks adjoining the
enargite-pyriteveins at Cerro de Pascoproceedsoutward from a vein from
kaoliniteto sericiteas opposedto the sequencesericite-kaolinite observedat
Butte, Montana. This, in conjunctionwith the presenceof alunite and mar-
casite,may suggestvery acid ore solutionsat Cerro de Pasco.
Non-reactive rocks, such as sandstone,shale-phylliteand siliceouscon-
glomeratein generalexperience little changeotherthan bleachingand silicifi-
cation. In the case of the red-bed copper depositsbleachingis the only
noticeablechange.
On the other hand, limestonehas beenbleached,recrystallizedto marble,
silicifiedandreplacedby contactmetasomaticsilicates,
suchasgarnet,diopside,
wollastonite,chlorite,serpentine,epidoteand a legion of other mineralsin
small amounts. Generallythey are calciumor magnesium-bearing minerals.
Garnetcompositions corespond essentially

to the andradite-grossularite
series,
i.e., containcalciumin the divalentcationpositionand variableproportions
of
iron andaluminain the trivalentcationposition. At Cobrizaand Morococha
someshalesare interbeddedwith the limestoneand consequently the garnets
are aluminous. In Antaminathe garnetsare predominantly ferric,presumably
reflectingiron introducedby the solutions. Dolomitizationoccursin some
deposits, but doesnot appearto be common.
Mineralo#y.--If thosemineralsare excludedthat are•definitelysurface
oxidationproductsor supergenein origin, the resultinglist of mineralsde-
scribedfrom this series of depositswould include about 110 species.x Of
these,about40 canbe considered"alteration"minerals,whereasabout70 were
presumably introducedby the ore-fluid. The mostimportantmineralsin this
latter groupare:
quartz galena
hematite-specularite calcite
magnetite rhodochrosite
fluorite barite
pyrite chalcopyrite
pyrrhotite bornite
sphalerite arsenopyrite
realgar tennantite-tetrahedrite
argentire enargite
stibnite ruby silver
Amongthe alterationmineralsthe followingstandout:

silica wollastonite
calcite diopside
clay minerals tremolite-actinolite
mica minerals (sericite) epidote
chlorite garnet
(alunite)
ChemicalCompositionof the Ore Depositsand of the Ore Fluid.--The
chemicalcomposition of the ore fluid probablyvaried from one depositto the
next. Within one depositthe compositionof the solutionprobablychanged
with time and from pointto point. A first approximationof the chemicalcom-
positionof the ore fluid can be obtainedby notingthe elementsthat constitute
the mineralsintroducedinto the countryrock to form the ore deposits.
Thirty elementsare required to describethe essentialchemicalcom-
positionof the approximately80 mineralspresumablyintroducedby ore-bear-
ing fluids into the ore depositsof Central Peru. Some of them are more
abundantthan others,in fact someoccurin practicallyall ore deposits.
A given elementmay occur in severalmineralsand a mineral in several
deposits. If the abundance of an elementis assumedto be proportionalto the
number of minerals in which it occurs,the following distribution results:
S occurs in about 74% of the minerals
O, Fe, Cu, Pb, Sb occur each in 20-25% of the minerals
Ag, As occur each in 10-20% of the minerals
all others occur each in lessthan 10% of the minerals
Table V in Petersen (87).
424 ULRICH PETERSEN
If we modifythe abovestatistical
procedure
sothat everymineralis given
a "weight"equalto the numberof depositsin which it occurs,we obtainthe
followingdistribution:
S about 72%
O, Fe, Cu, As, Sb, Pb 12-31% each
C, Si, Ca, Zn, Ag 6-11% each
Sucha statisticalanalysisover-emphasizes relativelyrare elements

thatform
many different minerals (for instancesilver) and gives too little weight to
thoseabundantelementsthat form only a few commonminerals(siliconand
zinc, for example). Inclusionof the former is desirableto the extent that it
pointsout elementsthat becauseof their varied mineralogymay be sensitive
indicatorsof conditionsof deposition.
Further refinementof the abundancestatisticsrequiresan estimateof the
quantitativedistributionof the mineralsin the various ore deposits. Ob-
staclesto this task are the absenceof completechemicalanalyses,zonal vari-
ations,local concentrations, and the fact that many depositsare known only
partially (erodedtops,inaccessible depthextensions). From what we know
of the depositsand their pastproduction,it appearsthat siliconand zinc are
probablyunder-rated,whereasthe abundance of silver appearsexaggerated?
On the overall, however,the results are not changedmuch. We may dis-
regard the lesscommonelementsas representinglocal concentrations super-
imposedon the overallpicture.
Therefore,we can statethat elevenelements•S, O, Fe, Cu, •Is, Sb, Pb,
C, Si, Ca and Zn--form the bulk of the "introduced" minerals in these
deposits.
The ore-formingfluid containedat leastthe elevenelementscited above.
Basically
theyreflectthemetallogenetic or geochemicalprovince comprised by
theseore deposits.Mineralscontaining sulfurconstitutethe majorityof the
ore minerals,indicatingthat this elementplayeda leadingrole. Oxygen-
bearingmineralsare secondin importance to the sulfides. Someminerals
containboth sulfurand oxygen. Mineralswithouteithersulfuror oxygen
(i.e.,fluorite,nativeelements
andloe.
llingite)are rare. The factthatthe
gangueis almostinvariablyquartzor a carbonate
(or both) pointsto the
preponderance
of SiO2andCO2. The firstalsoleavesits imprintin theform
of contact-metasomatic
silicatesformed in variousdeposits. However, some
of the SiO2andCO2mayhavebeenpresentin thereplaced rocksor mayhave
beenredistributed
locallyby the ore fluid. Hydratedmineralsas the result
of wall rock alterationattestthe presenceof H•O. Rhodochrosite
is a com-
mon carbonate in those few districts where alabandite has been identified,
suggesting
relativelyhighconcentrations
of manganese
in the corresponding
ore solutions.
Furtherspeculation
on thenatureof the orefluidhasto reston the com-
position
of present
minewaters,of fluidinclusions,
detailed
chemicalbalance
of wall rock alteration,and otherconsiderations.
Undoubtedlyseveraladdi-
• On a relative,economic
scalesilver is undoubtedly
important,and is more abundantthan
in many other provinces.
tional elements(i.e., sodium,potassium,chlorine) were present in the ore

fluid and may havehad a markedinfluenceon ore transportand deposition,yet
leaveno trace or little evidenceof them behindin the ore deposit.
Zonin#.--The majority of the mineraldistrictsin Central Peru are zoned
to a greateror lesserdegree.
In the contact-metasomatic ore depositszoningis not generallyapparent.
However, in the caseof Antamina, the relief of the terrain is suchthat small
lead-zincdepositsare preservedat higher elevationssurroundingthe main
copper-zincdepositlike a halo. If similar halos of lead-zincdepositsonce
existed aboveand around the other contact-metasomatic depositscannot be
determinedbecausethe corresponding volumesof rock havebeenremovedby
erosion. In the Cobriza district three main zonesmay be distinguishedfrom
the deeperpart of the mine upwards and laterally, namely (1) magnetite-
chalcopyrite,(2) pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite, and (3) galena-barite.
The complex copper-lead-zinc-silver deposits(Cerro de Pasco, Yauri-
cocha,Morococha,and Huar6n) are very markedlyzoned. Copperores pre-
dominatein the centerof the districts,whereaslead ores prevail in the mar-
gins. Zinc ores occupyan intermediateposition, overlappingin part the
copperand lead ores. The evidenceaccumulatedon the basisof mineral and
concentratecompositions indicatesthat there is a parallel zoning expressed
by higher As:Sb ratios in the centersof the districtsthan in the fringes,at
leastin Cerro de Pascoand Morococha. The changefrom the center outward
from enargiteto tennantiteas the main coppermineral suggestsa gradation
from sulfur-richto sulfur-deficientassociations along the path followedby the
ore solutions.
About half of the simpleand complexlead-zinc-silverdepositsare zoned.
An analysisof the individualdistrictsshowsthat most of the zoneddeposits
are in the Casapalcaformation or the Cenozoicvolcanics. Any copper or
arsenicpresent tends to be in the center of the district, whereas silver and
antimonyare generallyperipheralto the main lead-zincores.
N'o zoningis apparentin the red-bedcopperdeposits.
Local zoning of individualore bodiesand veins may be superimposed on
the district-widezoning. This is well documented for Morococha(76, 79),
the Ombla manto zoning being perhapsthe best publicizedexample. In
Yauricocha,the orebodiesin the central copper zone show completezoning
from copperin the centerto lead-zincon the margins,whereason the fringes
of the district the orebodiesexhibit only the outer lead-zincores. In Cerro
de Pasco,copperveinsand orebodiesmay have narrow lead-zincborders.
N'ot clearlyrevealedby this study,but apparentto thoseof us who have
spentmanyyearslookingat ore depositsthroughoutPeru is a regionalzoning
that is gradual along the Cordillera and changesrapidly acrossit. Thus,
depositsof nickel, cobalt,uranium and chromiteare essentiallyunknown in
the area under discussion,but exist alongthe Eastern PaleozoicBelt.
ProbableOri#in of the Ore Fluids.--The depositsunderconsideration have
one thing in common,namelythey are all epigenetic. This is clear not only
for the numerousvein depositsbut also for the variousreplacement bodies,
suchasthepyrite-silica
bodyof CerrodePascoor themanto-pipes
of Yauri.-
426 ULRICH PETERSEN
cochaand Morococha. Even in those depositswhere the ore minerals are

largelyconfinedto definitestratigraphichorizons(Cobriza, Colquijirca,Cer-
capuquio)it is difficultto conceive
that they couldbe syngenetic;in somecases
the normal,freshsedimentarybed whichwas replacedis exposedat a short
distancewithoutthe slightestevidenceof a sedimentaryfacieschangeto an
environment wheresulfideswouldbe deposited;in otherinstances the spatial
and zonal relationsare suchas to suggestcloseassociation with an intrusive;
finally, crosscuttingrelations may betray the epigeneticnature of the
mineralization.The latter can be observedin placesin the red bed copper
deposits.
The mineral associationsin those districts in which dikes, sills and small
stocksoccurwithout a striking relation to ore resemblethe mineral associations
in districtswhere a closerelationshipis observed. This has led to the con-
clusion that a closer association between ore and intrusives will be found at
depthor laterally in thosedistrictswhere a closerelation is not evident. Al-
thoughprogressive development hasactuallyshownthisto be the casein a few
instances,and may yet do so in a few more, it doesnot necessarilyfollow that
it will be so in all deposits. For the "red-bedcopper"depositscirculating
groundwatersmay be foundto be adequateto accountfor the existingore.
In manyof the "close"associationsthe veinsactuallycut the igneousbodies,
whichmeansthat the latter musthavebeenalreadypartiallysolidifiedby the
time the ore-fluids circulated. The relation is thus more in the sense of both
igneousrocksand ore-fluidsreleasedfrom a more or lesscommonor parent
sourcein depth. Presumablybothtookadvantageof the sameweakness zones
for their ascent,most likely within a relatively short period of time. It is
even possiblethat in somedistrictsonly ore-fluidswere releasedfrom the
source(a reservoirof magma). Thus, for instance,both ore depositsand
small intrusives,alone or in combination,are related to regional longitudinal
faults. Where ore depositsand intrusivesoccurtogether,as in Antamina,
Cerro de Pasco,Morocochaand Yauricocha,the evidencesuggeststhat the ore
solutionsgenerallytook advantageof permeablezoneson the peripheryof the
intrusives. The existencehere of rocks of contrastingcompetencymay give
rise to fracturingand brecciation;the marginsof the intrusivesare fractured
moreintenselythantheir innerportionsand adjoiningsediments may be ren-
deredpermeable throughchemical attackor maybe replaced by oreminerals.
At Antaminaunderground workingspenetratethe centralpart of the intrusive,
provingthat it is completely fresh,i.e.,hasnot beenaffectedby the solutions
ascending alongthe periphery. In Cerro and Morocochathe veinsare best
developed in the peripheralpart of the intrusions.Zoningsuggests that solu-
tionsascended in this generalarea spreadingtowardthe interior of the in-
trusiveand outwardinto the countryrock. In Yauricochathe intrusivesof
thecentralzoneapparently werenotfracturedat the timeof ascentof the ore
solutionsand thereforemineralizationis confinedto pipesadjoiningthe in-
trusivesor in their immediatevicinity. A similar conclusion was arrived at
recentlyby Stemprock (95) for Sn-W-Modeposits aroundgranites.
Investigationof the isotopiccomposition of sulfurin recentyearssuggests
that mineralsresultingfrom certaingeologicprocesses have S•2/S•4 ratios
fallingwithin a relativelynarrow range,whereasothergeologicprocesses may

lead to widely differing Sa•/Sa4ratios (7, 8, 9, 50, 51). Specifically,sulfur
from silicicand mafic igneousrocks,and from typical hydrothermalore de-
positshas an isotropiccomposition dose to troilite from meteoritesor to the
averagecrustor mantle. The isotopiccomposition of sulfur in mineralsfrom
ore depositsin Central Peru (8) falls within the rangethat is characteristic
for hydrothermalore deposits:
Sa:/Sa•
Cerro de Pasco galena 600 ft level 22.25 --1.8
Cerro de Pasco pyrite 2,300 ft level 22.20 +0.4
Cerro de Pasco native sulfur Interstitial between 22.26 --2.3
pyrite cubesof preced-
ing sample
Morococha galena 22.23 -- 0.9
San Cristobal galena 170 m level 22.12 +4.1
Casapalca galena 1,200 ft level 22.22 --0.5
C-vein north
Casapalca galena 2,700 ft level 22.24 --1.4
The only abnormal values are those reported by Jensen (50) for
arsenicglass (revoredoite)and gratonitefrom Cerro de Pasco; "revoredo-
ite" is enrichedabout4 percentwhereasgratoniteis enriched1.2 percentin
the lighter isotope (Jensen,personalcommunication). Note also that the
native sulfurfrom Cerro de Pascohasthe highestSa•/Sa4ratio recordedfrom
thesedeposits(22.26). This valueis closeto the averageof thirteensamples
of native sulfur from volcanoesin southernPeru (22.32), and to the isotopic
composition of volcanicexhalationsin general.
The lead isotopecompositionof nineteengalena samplesfrom Cerro de
Pasco,Morococha,San Cristobaland Casapalcais reportedby I<ulp, Amstutz
and Eckelmann(64). The valuesobtainedare strikinglysimilarand suggest
one or severalmagmaticsourcesof averagecrustal compositionwith regard
to the U/Pb Th/Pb ratios. Thesevaluesare alsoconsistent with a Tertiary
ageof mineralization.
With this generalsummaryas a background,it is now desirableto examine
someparticularlyinterestingdepositsin greaterdetail.
mAJOR om• Dm'OS•TS
A ntaraina
Antaminais the northernmost depositof the group. It is described

briefly
by Bodenlos and Ericksen(14), who concentrate mainlyon the surrounding
lead-zincdeposits,
andby PetersenandGarciay Garcia(86).' The following
discussionis basedprincipallyon the latter and on unpublishedreports(20,
82).
Antaminais locatednear the heador cirqueof a glacialvalley extending
to the southwest.The main part of the deposit,the copper-bearing tactire,
is exposedat the bottomof the valleyand on the valleysides(Fig. 4). On
theridgescomprising
theglacialcirqueto the southeast,
northeast
and.north-
428 ULRICH PETERSEN
west there are half a dozen small lead deposits,two of which are shownon
Figure4 (FortunaandRositade Oro).
Structure.--Thedominatingstructureis a large anticlineof Machay
limestone,
whichis excellentlyexposedon the southeast
wall of the valleyand
can be traced on surface for at least 1.8 km to the southeast. On the northwest
side of the valley the anticlinalaxis is displacedto the north and the fold is
muchlesspronounced.Detailedstratigraphicstudies(106) indicatethat the
FORTUNA
Km
\
\
ANTAMINA
DE ORO
/' LABERINTO
• . QMP•
USUPALLARES
O I
FIG. 4. Generalizedgeologicmap of Antamina. After unpublishedmaps by

A. BenavidesQ., A. J. Terrones,U. Petersen,H. Varillas and L. Rodriguez S.
Km= Machay formation; QMP -- quartz-monozonite porphyry; t -- tactite; a =
andesite dikes.
bedson the northwestsideof the valleyare stratigraphically

higherthan those
on the southeast.The two linesof evidencesuggesta fault within the valley
bottom,the fault being coveredby overburdenor obliteratedby the intrusive
andthe tactitezone. On the northeastsideof the cirque,thereare smallfaults,
mineralizedfracturesanddikes(not shownon Fig. 4) on the projectionof the
transversefault. About 1.5 km to the southwestthereis a regionalhigh angle
reverse fault bringing the Goyllarisquizgasandstonein contact with the
Machaylimestone.
M•IJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTR•IL PERU 429
IntrusiveRocks.--An irregularquartz-monzonite
porphyryintrusivecuts
the limestone more or less in the center of the Antamina anticline. Where
visibleundergroundon its southside (Laberinto) it is steep-sided.This is
alsoindicatedby diamond-drillholeselsewherealongthe contact. Remnants
of tactiteover intrusivejust southwestof the lake (Taco region) suggestthat
in this area the top of the intrusivewas in the vicinity of the presenterosion
surface. To the east the intrusive extends as a dike that reaches the crest of
the cirqueand can be followedfarther southin the form of a sill (Rosita de
Oro).
Quartz-monzonite porphyrydikesandtactiteare alsovisibleat Usupallares,
aboutonekilometersouthwestof the main mass. Quartz-monzoniteporphyry
dikes and sills without significantcontacteffectscrop out in the limestone,
removedfrom the main mass,in the generalareaof the lead mines(Fortuna,
Rositade Oro, E1 Rey and Traviesoon map). Insignificantandesitedikesof
unknownageoccurin the southeast cornerof the map.
Contact-metasomatism.--A prominentskarnzoneliesbetweenthe intrusive
and the limestonein the lower, centralpart of the district (Taco and Laber-
into). liere it is 100-150 m wide and consistsmainly of garnet and chlorite;
epidote(iron-richvarietypistacite),wollastonite,diopside,tremolite-actinolite.
scapolite(Ma50Me5o),and calcitepredominatein certainareas. The color of
the garnetchangesconsistently from brownto greenon goingfrom intrusiveto
limestone;the other physicalpropertiesof the two types, however, do not
differ significantlyand indicatea compositionabout And7oGross25Alm,. Al-
though garnet and chlorite extend from the intrusive outwards,wollastonite
and epidoteonly occurat a certaindistancefrom the contact,and scapolitehas
been observedexclusivelyin fresh looking and bleachedlimestone. It is
likely that most of the tactite zone representsreplacedlimestoneand occupies
its former place; the contactwith the intrusive is indefinite over a distance
of severalmeters. Contactmetasomaticsilicatesextendalongcertainbedsfor
many hundredsof meters away from the central zone but diminish rapidly
upwards.
./tlteration.--The inner part of the intrusiveis fresh; alterationis restricted
to its outer portion, where diopsidicaugite forms rims about biotite, ferro-
magnesianminerals are chloritized or sericitized (rarely with clinozoisite)
and feldsparsare brokendownto albite,kaolinite,sericite,chloriteand epidote
(pistacite). In the tactite zone some large chlorite areas may representa
"hydration" of the garnet, but the relations have not been worked out in
detail. Adjoining small fracturesin someareas, garnet has been converted
to chlorite,calcite,epidote,quartz and albite.
Ore deposits.--Metallicmineralizationis restrictedmainly to the tactite
zone. Microscopicevidenceand field relationssuggestit was emplacedlater
than the contact-metasomatic silicates,filling spacesbetweenthe crystal aggre-
gates of garnet and replacing it and other silicates. The ore occurs both
disseminatedand in irregular, ill-definedshootsor ore-bodies. The minerali-
zationconsistsprincipallyof pyrite,chalcopyriteand sphalerite,with localmag-
netite,quartz and calcite. Other mineralshavebeenobservedunderthe micro-
scopeor in very small amounts(pyrrhotite, molybdenite,galena,scheelite,
430 ULRICH PETERSEN
bornire,arsenopyrite,wittichenite,tetrahedrite-tennantite,
and probablysuper-
gene"chalcocite"and corellite).
The intrusive is essentiallybarren, exceptfor its margin, which contains
somedisseminatedchalcopyrite,pyrite and molybdenite.
In the outer groupof lead deposits,galenais the mostimportantmineral,
followedby quartz,fluorite,pyrite, sphalerite,calcite,rhodochro.site,
chalcopy-
rite,and tetrahedrite (microscopic:pyrargyrite). Here the ore is in veins
and mantosin limestoneand closelyrelatedto narrow dikesand sills. Small
amounts of ore occur within these intrusives.
Borniteis abundantonlyin onezone,in the southernportionof Laberinto.
This area is characterized
by a scarcityof pyrite and of contact-metasomatic
silicates(the country rock is composedmainly of calcite). The bornite
characteristically
seemsto have exsolvedexcesschalcopyrite as the result of
coolingfrom a highertemperaturebornitesolidsolution. In this generalarea
there is also a commonassociationof chalcopyrite,tetrahedrite,wittichenite
and miargyrite(?),sometimes adjoiningbornite. The intimatelockingof the
grainsof chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite,witticheniteand miargyrite(?) suggests
exsolutionfrom a highertemperaturesolidsolution. 3 Chalcociteis alsomore
abundantin thiszone,but appearsto be supergene in origin.
Chalcopyriteexsolutionblebsin sphalerite
are common, bothin the central
tactitezoneand in the outerlead deposits. Galenasurroundsmany sphalerite
grains,suggestingreplacement
of sphaleriteby galena. In the centralzone
pyrrhotiteinclusions
in magnetite
and the association
pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite
can be observedoccasionally.
On theaveragethereis aboutasmuchzincasthereis copperin thetactite
zone,yet in detailthe two metalsare distributed
independently. All possible
combinations of copperandzincgradesare knownbut thereis a tendency for
copperto predominate towardthe intrusiveandzinctowardthe limestone.
The ratioof eithercopperor zincto eitherleador silver4 is about5:1 in the
tactite zone, whereasin the outer zone of lead depositsa typical ratio is
Pb:Ag:Zn = 2.5:1:1. In theskarnzonethe silvervaluescorrelate
well with
thecopper
valuesandthefewmolybdenum assays available
seemto indicate a
reverserelationship
betweencopperand molybdenum.
In the outerlead deposits it appearsthat quartzmay occurwith either
fluoriteor calcite,but that the latter two seemto excludeeachother. Pyrite
shows
a •:endency
to occurin cubes
in thetactitezoneandaspyritohedra
in the
outer lead deposits.
Cobriza
Cobrizais the only depositcoveredby this studythat is locatedin the

EasternPaleozoicBelt and is•topographically
muchlower than the other
mineraldeposits.
The onlypublication
of anyconsequence
on Cobrizais oneby Fernandez
3Edwards(22, 23) discusses
thesolidsolutionof tetrahedrite
withehaleopyrite
andbornite.
Ramdohr(89) noteswittiehenitecloselyassociated
with and formedfrom tetrahedrite,
and
Edwards(23) lists a bornite-wittlehenite (Klaprothite) solidsolution.
4 Silver contentis expressed in this text in ouncestroy per shortton (oz. ton) and metal
ratios refer to metalsin weight percentexceptfor silver which is in ouncesper ton.
MAJORORE DEPOSITSOF CENTRALPERU 431
U_ N COPAGABANA
FM
% , KILOMETERS
Fro. 5. Generalized
geologic
mapof Cobriza. After unpublished
mapsby
J. FernandezConcha,R. W. PhendlerandH. W. Kobe.
Conchaand Garciay Garcia (24). Further studieshaverevealedthe true

natureof thisdepositandthe followingdescription
is basedmainlyon private
reportsby Kobe(55, 57, 61), andPetersenandThomson(88).
A thick alluvial cover concealsthe bed-rockin large areas. It has been
possible,however,to determinethe generalfeaturesthroughcarefulmapping,
diamond-drilling,underground exploration,geophysical surveysand micro-
scopicstudies.The regionalgeologyis shownin Figure5. The sedimentary
rocksof the regionare upperPaleozoicshalesand limestones.The Cobriza
mineis locatedon the easternflankof a major anticlinewhoseaxis passesclose
to the townsof Coris and Pampalca.
Intrusive Rocks.--To the northeastthere is a large granitic mass. Its
contactwith the upper Paleozoicsedimentsstrikesroughlywest north-west
and,in thisarea,dipsabout75o NE. The upperPaleozoic sedimentary rocks
southof the intrusivehavea similarstrike,but in generala flatter dip. Where
exposednearthemine,theintrusive-sedimentary contactseemsto beparallel
to bedding;theabsenceof markedmetamorphic effectshasbeeninterpretedto
suggesta fault contact.Smallstocksand dikesrangingin compositionfrom
432 ULRICH PETERSEN'
quartz-monzonite
to basaltare scatteredthroughthe districtand are, in part,
post-ore.
Sedimentaryrocks.--The sedimentaryrocksincludeshaleand sandyshale
with a limestoneunit 15-30 m thick. The latter is characterized
by an alterna-
tion of 10-20 cm limestonelayers with 2-4 cm shalelayers. The limestone
unit was folded into tight contortionsand small chevronfolds, whereasthe
shalesaboveand belowit remainedessentiallyunaffectedor exhibitonly large
scale folds.
,41teration.--Over a vertical interval of about800 m (downward extension
unknown) and a strike distanceof at least 2 km, the limestoneunit has been
converted to garnet (And•oGross7o),chlorite, diopside (augite), calcite,
epidote(clinozoisite),siderite,scapolite,actinolite(hornblende),quartz and
muscovite. Also present,but in small amount,are titanite and tourmaline.
The originalcompositional variationsare reflectedby a prominentbandingof
these silicates, which has also influenced the distribution of the metallic
minerals. Garnet seemsto replacehornblendeand the latter to replaceaugite.
Chloritereplaces bothgarnetandaugite.
Ore Deposits.--Pyrrhotiteoccursdisseminated and in bandsthroughout
the whole width of the altered limestone horizon, which is known as the
Cobriza manto. In depth, its place is gradually taken over by magnetite.
Chalcopyrite is also disseminatedand in bands,but it doesnot reachcom-
mercialconcentration exceptin one band from 0.5-2.0 m wide. This band
is at a variable distancefrom the walls, but generallystayswithin the lower
(footwall)halfof themanto. Adjoiningthechalcopyrite
bandon the footwall
is a silicifiedzonein which arsenopyritepredominates
or comprisesthe only
metallicmineral. Handsortedore shippedfor direct smeltingduring a six-
monthperiodaveraged:16.3% S--24.7% Fe•6.73% Cu•0.4% Zn--2.7%
As--2.5 oz. Ag•0.2% Sb--0.1% Pb.
This oreis unusuallyrichin arsenic(As: Sb ratio 1 to 0.1 or less)andboth
zincand silverare low with respectto copper. The sulfurcontentof the ore
is about one half of that in the direct smeltingores of Cerro de Pascoand
Yauricocha,whichis mainly due to the fact that the latter oresare pyritic
whereasCobrizaoreconsists predominantlyof pyrrhotite.
Explorationto thenorthonthelowestlevel(at 1,200m elevation)reveals
that silicationdiminishesin that direction, and small lensesof high-grade
silver-bearing
galenastart to appear. Upwardsthe transitioncannotbe ob-
servedcontinuously; the uppermostlevel exposingsilicatesand pyrrhotite-
chalcopyritemineralization is at an elevationof 2,840m, whereasat around
3,050m lead-bearingoxideswith baritehavebeenminedfrom a smallprospect
(Trinidad). Geophysical surveys indicatethatthisleadprospect
lieson the
upwardand westernextensionof the pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite mineralization.
Farther southwest,and at an even higherposition,relativelyfresh limestone
with smallgalenalensesis exposed in shorttunnels.
To the south-southeast
the mineralizationcan also be traced upward to
Pumagayoc, whichis at an elevation
of roughly3,000m. Here the limestone
is onlypartiallyreplaced
by silicates
andsulfides,
with somebarite. Farther
southeast,
the structureis lost under thick alluvial cover.
In additionto the major minerals(pyrrhotite,chalcopyrite, magnetiteand

arsenopyrite)there are severalthat occurlocallyor havebeenidentifiedonly
under the microscope.The most importantof theseis sphalerite,which ex-
hibits exsolutionblebsof pyrrhotiteand chalcopyrite. Loellingiteand chal-
copyriteare includedin arsenopyrite. Kobe (56) thinks that in general
loellin#iteis replacedby arsenopyrite,and the latter in turn by chalcopyrite.
Pyrrhotitealso seenas to be replacedby chalcopyrite. Sphaleriteand chalco-
pyrite are generallycloselyassociated
(simpleinterlocking,sphaleriteincluded
in chalcopyriteand vice versa), suggestingsimultaneous formation. Chalco-
pyrite blebsin sphaleritesuggestthat both mineralsformed a partial solid-
solutionat the time of deposition. Two typesof pyrite may be present:one
hypogene,
associated
with pyrrhotite,andonesupergene
occurringas replace-
ment of pyrrhotite. Stanniteand galenaare foundin someplaces. Doubtful
microscopicidentificationsincludebornite, cubanite,"orangebornite," enar-
gite, fluorite, and feberite,all in minute quantities. In general,the metallic
mineralization seems to be later than the silicates.
Tentatively,the temperatureof mineralizationis estimatedat 4000-450ø C.
This is basedon X-ray determinations
by Honea (46) on onepyrrhotiteand
two arsenopyritespecimens. The pyrrhotite has d•02--2.0641---0.0004 A
which correspondsto 47.1 atomic percent iron (4, 6), i.e., to a minimum
temperatureof formationof 380ø C (5, 6, 63). The arsenopyritesamples
have da3avaluesof 1.63134- 0.0003 A and 1.63364- 0.0004 A, which corre-
spondto maximumtemperaturesof formationof 370o-490ø and 490o-620ø C.
The coexistenceof pyrite with arsenopyritewould limit the temperatureof
formationto below530ø C for pressures
belowabout2,000 bars (21).
Near the bottom of the Mantaro River there is a series of short northeast
striking, steep-dipping,
narrow stibniteveins. One suchvein was intersected
on 10 level at a very small angle a few metersto the northeastof the main
pyrrhotite-magnetite-chalcopyrite
mantoby a cross-cut
moreor lessat right
anglesto the strike of the manto. When the tunnel re-intersectedthe vein
within the manto, the fracture was found to be empty. This observationis
interestingin the light of the probableincompatibilityof pyrrhotiteand stib-
nite,a pointthat will be discussedby the authorin a subsequentarticle.
Oxidationand 3'uper#eneEnrichment.--Covelliteand chalcocitehavebeen
observedunderthe microscope.Field evidenceindicatesthat both are almost
surelysupergene.In view of the incompatibility of pyrrhotiteand corellite
in the systemS-Fe-Cu (due to the covellite-idaite-chalcopyrite-cubanite-
pyrrhotitecollinearity)their relationships
werestudiedin 51 polishedsections.
Twelve of the sectionscontainpyrrhotiteonly; twenty-onehaveonly corellite
and only four (8%) reveal both pyrrhotite and covellitein the samesection.
In the latter case,however,the two mineralsdo not occur in contactwith each
other. Pyrrhotiteinvariably"breaksdown"to pyrite or a mixtureof pyrite
and marcasite,commonlypassingthroughan intermediatestepor "intermedi-
atemineral"(89, p. 463). The nextstepis for pyrite-marcasite,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyriteand sphaleriteto oxidize directly to form limonite. Covelliteand
subordinatechalcocite
are formedgenerallywithinthis limonite,althoughthey
alsodirectlyreplacechalcopyrite
and,to a lesserextent,pyrite,arsenopyrite,
434 ULRICH PETERSEN
sphalerite andbornite.Subsequentoxidation
thenleadsto limonite.Hema-
titefillingcracks
in magnetite
is probably
alsodueto oxidation.Chalcocite-
covellitecoatings
arereported
onnativecopperbyKobe(58).
KILOMETERS
Fie. 6. Generalized
geologic
mapof Cerrode Pasco. Q = Quarternary;qmp
= quartz-monzonite
porphyry;
Tf ---Lourdesfragmental
andRumiallana agglom-
erate;Tcl= Caleralimestone;
Tcc----Shucolimestone
conglomerate;Jp= Pucar/t
formation;
Pm-- Mitu formation;
Pal-es= Excelsior
Series;ox---oxides.
Cerro de Pasco
Thegreatcopper-lead-zinc-silver
mineofCerrodePasco hasbeenstudied
indetailformanyyears,
resulting
in a voluminous
literature.Fromthepoint
of viewof thegeology
andhypogene mineralization,
themostimportantand
recentcontributions
are by' Boutwell;McLaughlin, Graton,Bowditch &
Burrell;Bowditch;
GratonandBowditch; Moses;KrugerandLacy;Lacy;
Cerrode PascoCopperCorp.,Geol.Staff;Jenks;Terrones; Lacyand
Hosmer;Amstutz, Ramdohr andDe lasCasas; Bideaux; Ward.
The following
presentation
summarizes theoutstanding aspects
of the
geology
of thisfamousminingdistrict.
GeneralFeatures.--The
regionalgeologyof thedistrict
is shown
in Figure
6. CerrodePascoislocated
in oneof thefewareaswherethelowerPaleozoic
Excelsior
formation
(shale,
phyllite,
quartzite)
reaches
anelevation
of4,200m
MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTR•IL PERU 435
or more abovesea level. The Cerro longitudinalfault, which can be traced

north and southfor severalkilometers,separatesthe Excelsior formationto
the westfrom Pucar/t(Uliachin) to the east.
A complexexplosionvent piercesthe Excelsiorformation. Its horizontal
sectionis slightlyoval, 2.7 km (N-S) by 2.3 km (E-W), with the Cerro
longitudinalfault tangentto its easternborder. Three main rock typeshave
beendistinguished within the vent:
Rumiallana agglomerate: a pyroclastic rock; fragments of Excelsior and of
quartz-monzonite porphyry;locallybedded.
Lourdesfragmental:fragmentsof Excelsiorin quartz-monzonitematrix.
Quartz-monzoniteporphyry: intrusive massesand dikes with inclusionsof
country rock; probably multiple intrusions, for the most part pre-ore,
but a few (albitized) dikesare post-ore.
Ore solutionsascended mainlyalongthe easternand southernmarginsof
the vent, resultingin the formationof the huge pyrite-silicabody, lead-zinc
orebodies, copper-silverveinsand the so-calledsilver-pyriteorebodies.
Present open pit mining
Approx.positionof X'
OnE 0 I00 200 $00qOOm

• ,
CUoA•
VEiN
FIG. 7. Generalizedgeologicmap of 400 level--Cerro de Pasco. After C de P

mine maps. py ----pyrite-silicabody; Pb-Zn ----lead-zincore bodies;Ag-py = silver-
pyrite mineralization; ox: oxides; qmp-- quartz-monzoniteporphyry; Tf --
Lourdes fragmental and Rumiallana agglomerate;Jp--Pucar/t formation; Pal-es
-- Excelsior formation.
436 ULRICH PETERSEN
Pyrite-silica
Body.--Thezoneof contactbetweenthe longitudinal fault
andtheventis occupied by a pyrite-silica
bodyof crescentic shape,whichon
surfaceis about1,800m longand300 m widein its centralportion. To the
southit dividesinto two prongs,onefollowingthe rim of the vent and the
otherextendingto the southalongthe longitudinal fault zone (Noruega).
Thepyrite-silicabodyconstrictsintoroot-like massesin depth. Viewedin a
longitudinalsection
thepyrite-silica
bodyhastheshape of an invertedassym-
metriccone;its southernbottomcoincides in generalwith the bottomof the
limestone,belowwhichtheExcelsiorshales constitute
thecountryrockto the
east. The northernbottomof the pyrite-silicabodyis steeperthanthe south-
ern one and has no evidentcontrol. At 850 m below the presentsurfacethe
cross-sectionis so reducedas to discouragefurther exploration (the lower
levelshavebeenfloodedafterexhaustionof commercial coppermineralization).
Figure7 whichis a planof a typicallevel(400 level),andthecross-section,
Figure8, illustratethisfeatureandotherpointsdiscussed
later.
...
400
LEVEL --
800 LEVEL
,,oo,,,,,. /
•100
LE•••
Pal
-es •a•
BRECC 0 I00 •0 m.
Fro. 8. Generalized
East-WestSection,Cerrode Pasco,lookingnorth. After
N. Rivera(unpublished,1960). py= pyrite-silica
body;Pb-Zn=lead-zincore
bodies;
po-- pyrrhotite
masses;43vein-- coppervein;ox= oxides;Tf = Lourdes
fragrnental
andRumiallana agglomerate;Jp-- Pucar/tformation;
Pal-es-- Ex-
celsior formation.
At first sightpyrite seemsto be the predominantconstituent, whichproba-

bly led to the expression"pyrite body"usedin the past. Chemicalanalysis
of severalthousandsamplesshowsthat silicais just as abundantas iron, and
thereforethe term "pyrite-silicabody" has been adoptedrecently. In fact,
quartzis themostabundantnon-metallic ganguemineraland probablyformed
moreor lesssimultaneously with pyrite, althoughto a largeextentit may rep-
resent silica inherited from the replacedrock, which was transportedfor a
relativelyshortdistanceand then redeposited.
The replacement of rock by the pyrite-silicabodyis so thoroughthat it is
difficult to identify the original contactsbetweenvent, limestoneand shale.
In the easternhalf, the distributionof pyrite, silica and unreplacedremnants
of sedimentsdemonstratesclearly that this part was originally Pucar•t, Mitu
or Excelsior formation. In some casesthe original folds and faults can be
reconstructed. Ward (10'5) believesthat over 90 percentof the pyrite-silica
bodyreplacessediments. The westernpart of the pyrite-silicabodypresuma-
bly replacesvent rocks, especiallyin the low levels, below the limestone
(19, 66).
Lacy (66) hasmadean elaborateand detailedmicroscopic studyof Cerro
de Pascopyrite, concluding that thereare at leastsix and possiblyeight types
that can be distinguishedon the basisof color, anisotropism, generalaspect,
shape,polishingcharacteristics, associations and other features. They are
brieflycharacterizedas follows,from the oldestto the youngest:
Anisot- Grain Other
Type ropism Size Shape Association Characteristics
I medium to medium anhedral, main constit- oriented inclusions
strong to some oc- uent of the of pyrrhotite and
coarse tahedra pyrite-silica chalcopyrite;
and body and of minute cracks
cubes Cleopatra intersectingat
vein sys- 120ø
rems
II moderate fine octahedra, lead-zinc ores slightly darker yel-

cubes,py- low than pyrite
ritohedra, I; free from
anhedral inclusions
grains
III weak to medium pyritohedra, enargite-py- compact, light yel-
moderate cubes,oc- rite veins & low, zoned (py- '
tahedra ore bodies ritohedral)
pattern
IV moderate fine pyritohedra, late galena, similar to pyrite II;
anhedral alunite, darker yellow
grains marcasite than pyrites I or
III
V moderate fine acicular alunite, porous; oxidizes

marcasite very rapidly
VI moderate fine pyritohedra light yellow; quan-
titatively un-
important
438 ULRICH PETERSEN
Bowditch(17) suggeststhat the anisotropism

of the pyritemaybe dueto
thepresence
of arsenic.This elementoccursin significantamountsaccording
to Lacy's (66) spectrographic
analyses. TypesI to IV containabout0.01 to
1.0•o As; typeV hasbetween1 and 10•o As. Somerecentexperimental
work did not producesignificantsolid-solution
of arsenicin pyrite (21).
TypesIII andIV are richerin bismuth(0.01-1.0%) thanthe others,whereas
III, IV and V are the highestin antimony(0.01-1.0%). In generalthe
earlierpyritesare purer thanthe later ones.
There is a closebut complexinterrelationbetweenreplacedrock types,
mineralizationtypesand pyrite types. One effectmay predominate in one
area,whereasthe othermay predominatein anotherarea. Ward (105) dis-
tinguishesonly"hardpryite,""softpyrite"and"pyritebreccia"(incl. "micro-
breccia"),arguingthat theyreflectthe differentrockunitsthat were replaced.
In general,however,it appearsthat the nature of the mineralizingsolutions
hada greaterinfluenceon pyritetypesthanthe variationsof replacedrocks.
The pyrite-silicabodyprobablyowesits existenceand form to the inter-
actionof variousfactors. The fluids that depositedthis great volumeof
minerals(in excessof 100 milliontonsof concentratedsulfides)presumably
originatedfrom the samemagmachamberthat fed the original volcanoand
suppliedthe quartz-monzonite porphyry. The fracturinglocalizedat the con-
tact betweenthe longitudinalfault and the vent, and the easewith which the
adjoininglimestonecouldbe replacedweresurelypowerfulcontrols. Finally
the veins in the shalesparallel to the southernborder of the vent suggest
fracturingdueto stressesrelatedto the vent.
Lead-zinc Orebodies.--Importantlead-zinc orebodiesoccur withir• the
easternhalf of the pyrite-silicabodyand alsofollow definitelimestonehorizons.
Most orebodiesare oval in plan with major axes trending north, and may
extendover a vertical range of 400 m. The principalore mineralsare galena
and sphalerite. Contactswith the pyrite massare gradational.
The staff of Cerrode PascoCorp.haspointedout (20) that in a longitudi-
nal (N-S) composite sectionthe area occupiedby the lead-zincmineralization
has the generalform of a cone,which is includedwithin the larger cone of
the pyrite-silicabody; both verticespoint to the generalregion presumedto
be the channelwayfrom whichthe ore-solutions frayed out upwards.
Pyrrhotite and subordinatemagnetiteare associatedwith certain sections
of the lead-zincorebodies. Accordingto one interpretation,the pyrrhotite
pipes,up to 60 x 180 m in horizontalsection,form the coresof theseore-
bodiesin depthand becomereducedor disappearupwards. Pyrrhotite seems
to haveformedat leastin part simultaneously with pyrite I. Sphaleritewith
minorchalcopyrite, arsenopyrite andcassiteriteoccursin thesepyrrhotitezones
andmayhaveformedsimultaneously with thepyrrhotite. Laterallypyrrhotite
givesway first to a porousmixture of marcasiteand pyrite (IV and V) and
subsequently to "normal"pyrite. Outsidethe pyrrhotite"cores"the lead-zinc
orebodiesconsistof sphalerite,galenaand pyrite II.
Sphaleriteis markedlyzoned. Its coreis generallydark brown or black,
gradingoutwardthroughlocalreversalsto a light, almostcolorlessvariety.
Small exsolutionblebsof chalcopyrite are presentin the dark sphalerite.
The first estimatesby chemicaland microchemical meansindicatedan iron
contentof 5-8 percentfor sphalerite
crystalsas a whole,exceptin somelocal
areaswhereonly the dark coreis present,in whichcasethe iron contentwas

estimatedto exceed10percent. Thesefigureshaveessentially beenconfirmed
by recentcarefulX-ray and chemicalwork on individualsamplesand on zinc
concentrates.The latter were foundto containabout8.3% Fe in sphalerite
(by X-ray methods(43, 44, 45)). Similarly, seventeenselectedsphalerite
crystalsgave0.01-0.1% Cu and a variableiron content.5 Two of the samples
were from a vein (96 split of 10 vein) and assayedless than 1% Fe in
sphalerite. The only otherspecimen to containlessthan 1% Fe in sphalerite
wasfrom the highestpart (500 level) sampledon the Cayac-Noruegaorebody,
whichextendsfrom thepyrite-silicabodyinto the Pucar• limestone. Samples
from lower levelsof the Cayac-Noruegaorebodyshowhigheriron concentra-
tionsin sphalerite(up to 6% on 800 and 1000 levels). Specimens from ore-
bodieswithinthepyrite-silica
bodygave2% to9% Fe in solid-solution in sphal-
erite. A samplefrom the H-309 orebody,on th• westernedgeof the pyrite
body,only gave 1.4% Fe in sphalerite. Theseresultsindicatethat sphalerite
has a low iron contentaway from the pyrrhotitezones,i.e., amongthe high-
sulfur associationsin the veins, in orebodieson the border of the vent and in
the upperlevelsof Cayac-Noruega. The iron contentof sphaleritefrom the
innerpartsof the pyrite bodyand in or near pyrrhotiteis high.
Galenaoccursin threegenerations, the first of whichwas depositedsimul-
taneouslywith dark sphaleriteafter pyrite II starteddepositing. Some of
this early galenacontainsblebsof argentiteand polybasite. Someof the lead
may be containedin the mineral hinsdalite(46). Barite is presentin the
easternmost lead ores (Matagente).
The parageneticrelationsand sequenceof depositionof the various min-
erals are complex. They are discussed in detail by Lacy (66) and neednot
be repeatedhere.
Copper-bearingminerals observedmicroscopicallyin these lead-zinc ores
are tetrahedrite,chalcopyrite,covelliteand chalcocite(Kobe, personalcom-
munication). The last two are probablysupergene;note that no enargitehas
beenencountered. Most of the silver in theseoresis presumedto be contained
in tennantite-tetrahedrite.
In general the zinc grade diminishes upward. The silver remains
aboutconstantalthoughits distributionis somewhaterratic. The following
figureshavebeenpublishedby Cerro de PascoCopperCorp. (19):
Between Average
Grade MetalRatios*
levels %Zn oz Ag %Pb Zn:Ag:Pb Ag:Pb
300-375 16.9 5.1 12.0 1: 0.3:0.7 1: 2.4
500-600 18.2 4.9 8.0 1: 0.3:0.4 1: 1.6
800-1,000 18.1 5.4 7.8 1:0.3:0.4 1:1.4
1,200-1,400'* 21.0 3.1 6.5 1: 0.2: 0.3 1: 2.1
Copperaveragesaround 0.15%.
* Zn and Pb in percent; Ag in oz/ton.
** Levelsare designatedby their approximate distancein feet from the surface.
s The samples were assayed for total iron, zinc and copper and for iron in pyrite. The
difference between total iron and iron in pyrite was taken to represent iron in solid-solution
in sphalerite. Results were then recalculated to pyrite, iron in marinatire, zinc in marmatlte
and sulfur in marinatire. In 12 samples the total was sufficiently close to 100 peroent to
consider the results acceptable.
440 ULRICH PETERSEN
Exhaustionof the higher-gradeores and economicconsiderations have

resultedin the inclusionof lowergradeore,but the generalrelationshavenot
changedmaterially.
Assaysfor sulfur,arsenicand antimonyare availableonly for concentrates.
'['hereforetypicalaveragegradesof concentrates
are includedin the following
tabulationfor two six-monthperiodsseparatedby a five-yearinterval:
%S %Fe %Cu %Zn %As ozAg %Sb %Pb %Insol.
Concentrator
heads 24.5 0.17 15.3 3.8 5.2 16.4
Lead con-
centrate* 26.0 15.1 1.34 4.2 0.70 22.3 0.18 48.8
Concentrator
heads 26.4 0.10 11.5 3.1 4.7 17.1
Lead con-
centrate* 28.8 17.6 0.59 6.2 0.63 15.6 0.27 40.6
Zinc con-
centrate** 33.8 11.1 0.18 51.1 0.16 4.1 0.02 2.3
* The lead concentrategradescorrespondto the same time intervals as the

concentrator head.
** The grade of the zinc concentrate applies to a one-month period in a
different year.
In using these figures, it shouldbe borne in mind that iron sulfidesare
discardedin the flotationprocess. They do indicate,however,that arsenic
predominatesover antimony (As:Sb ratios of 2 to 8:1).
The E1 Pilar mineis locatedin the Pucar• limestoneeastof the pyrite-silica
body. Lead and zinc concentratesfrom this mine have a lower As:Sb ratio
(1 to 2:1) than the corresponding concentratesfrom the main mine, as is
shownby the following averagegradesof E1 Pilar concentratesfor the same
periodsas given for the main mine:
%S %Fe %Cu %Zn %As ozAg %Sb %Pb
Concentrator heads 11.0 2.0 5.5
Lead concentrate 21.4 8.3 0.51 7.9 0.18 9.7 0.13 57.9
Lead concentrate 23.2 11.7 0.80 7.3 0.28 21.6 0.14 51.8
Zinc concentrate 30.9 5.4 0.10 52.5 0.10 12.4 0.10 1.2
Copper-silverVeins and Orebodies.--Veins of east-weststrike traversethe

pyrite-silicabody,the easternand southernborderzone of the vent and the
shalesto the south. The veins generallyoccur in the westernhalf of the
pyrite-silicabody exceptin the north, where they crossit entirely. These
veins are arrangedin two systems,one dippingnorth and the other south.
The maximumstrikelengthof a vein is about500 m; vein widthsrangefrom
a few centimetersto 2 m. Many of the veins exhibit suchfracture patternsas
horsetailing,cymoidloops,and simplebranching. Structural detailsare dis-
cussedby Ward (105).
Commercialcopper-silvermineralization extends from the surface to a
depthof 800 m. The central,mostproductiveportionof thesecopper-silver
veinsconsistsmainly of enargite-pyriteore. Severaldozencopper-silverore-
bodiesalso occurin the westernhalf of the pyrite-silicabody, in many cases
associated with east-westveins (or to fracturesrelatedto the veins). In the
northernpart of the mine the copper-silverorebodiesplungesouth,whereas

in the southernpart of the mine they plungenorth. Some orebodiesextend
for 200 m alongthe plunge. The bulk of the pasthigh-gradecopper-silver ore
was derivedfrom theseveinsand orebodies. By far the most commonasso-
ciationis that of enargitewith pyrite and chert,either as inclusionsor growing
in open spaces.
Enargite depositionapparentlystartedshortlyafter pyrite III beganto
be deposited. The two are intimatelyassociated both in spaceand in time.
This pyriteIII followspyriteI in theareasof copper-silver mineralization
and
is rarely found in contactwith pyrite II, which characterizesthe lead-zinc
ores. Pyrite III replacespyrite II in thefew caseswheretheycanbe observed
together. Marcasite,althoughalwaysin subordinate amounts,is widespread
in the copper-silverores. In some areas enargite replacesearlier formed
sphalerite. Enargite depositionceased,but marcasiteand alunitecontinued
as pyrite IV appearedand this was succeeded by pyrite V.
Tennantite-tetrahedrite is, after enargite,the mostabundantcoppermin-
eral. It is generallyintergrownwith chalcopyrite or interbandedwith galena,
sphalerite andpyriteV. In manycasesit is laterthanpyriteV, veiningpre-
vioussulfides. It containsmore arsenicthan antimony.
All other copperminerals,besidesenargiteand tennantite,occur in sub-
ordinateamountsor only locally (chalcopyrite,bornite,"orangebornite,"and
hypogenechalcociteand covellite). The temperatureof formationseemsto
havebeenhigh enoughto permit significantsolid-solution amongthe copper
mineralsas attestedby the relationsexhibitedby the pairs tennantite-chalco-
pyrite (ratio 5: 1), bornite-chalcocite,bornite-chalcopyriteand chalcocite-
chalcopyrite.In fact, sometennantite,chalcopyriteand bismuthinite(?)
mighthaveexsolved from enargite. The relationsbetweenthe copperminer-
als are complexand it is not clearat this stageto what extentthey may be
due to exsolutionor wheretrue replacement has beenthe main mechanism.
In the openpit, at the northernend of the pyrite-silicabody,the pre-
dominant coppermineralis notenargitebuta mineralidentifiedmicroscopically
and by meansof X-rays as luzonite (43, 44, 45). The averageunit cell
dimensions of two samplesgaveao-- 5.3184- 0.001 A_on the tetragonalcell
usedby Gaines (26), which, on an interpolationof the data given by the
latter for pure syntheticluzoniteand famatinite,indicatesthe Cerro samples
to be luz70fma0.Later X-ray data (12) are basedon a cubiccell. Indexing
the Cerro samplesaccordinglygives ao--5.304 A, indicatingluzs9fmn. In
orderto investigatethis problemfurther. many coexistingenargiteand luzonite
crystalswere selectedfrom the openpit, composited into two samplesand
assayedchemically (Cerro de Pasco, ResearchDepartment Lab.). The
enargite
contains
14.7%As and4.70%Sb,whereas
theluzonitehas12.4%As
and 7.00% Sb.
If the As:Sb ratio in the two samplesof many small crystalsfrom the
Cerro de Pascoopenpit is considered
to representcorrectlythe enargite/
famatiniteor luzonite/famatinite
ratio,then
Weight percent Mol percent
enargite ens•fm• ens•fm•
"luzonite" luz74fm26 luz76fm24
442 ULRICH PETERSEN
The As:Sb ratiosdeducedfrom the chemicaland X-ray determinationsdo

not checkamongthemselvesand would fall in the immiscibilitygap between
famatiniteand enargiteor luzonitedeterminedexperimentallyby B. J. Skinner
(personalcommunication).Evidentlyfurtherinvestigation of this problemis
in order. In any event, theseresultssuggestthat the As:Sb ratio decreases
in enargitefrom the lowerandcentralpart of the depositto the upper,northern
cornerwherethe openpit is located,but confirmatoryassaysare needed. The
informationis not conclusivein regardto whether"luzonite"or "famatinite"is
the othermineralin the openpit, but it hasa higherantimonyandlower arsenic
contentthan the coexistingenargite,and the evidenceis slightly in favor
of luzonite.
Luzonite is alsopresentin very minor amountin the undergroundcopper
ore (Cleopatravein system), and an associationwith wolframite and high
gold values has been mentioned (66). In most of the undergroundore
luzoniteforms small patcheswithin enargite,suggestingpartial inversionof
enargiteto its lower temperaturepolymorphluzonite.
Chalcopyriteis commonin only one area of the Cleopatravein system
(2,500 level) and in one copper-silverpipe in the northernpart of the mine
(1,200 level) whereit is associated with hypogenechalcocite,bornite,enargite,
tennantiteandpyrite III. Hypogenechalcocite is alsoabundantin an orebody
on the 2,500 level, replacingchalcopyrite,borniteand quartz. The association
pyrite-enargite-covelliteexists, but is rare.
Bismuthiniteis found with enargiteand tennantitein variousparts of the
mine, mainly in _thepyrite body. Microscopicevidencesuggeststhat some
bismuthinite is pre-enargite,
but in othercasesit appearslate in the sequence.
Stibnite has been reportedfrom one stopewith bismuthinitefrom the main
pyrite-silicabody.
Alunite, elementalsulfur and bismuthinitehave been reported filling rugs
in the enargite-luzonite-pyritepipeswithin the main pyrite-silicabody on the
deeperlevels. Lacy (66) points out the marked tendencyfor alunite and
marcasite to occur in the same environment.
The western ends of the veins in the vent are characterizedby a change
from enargiteto tennantitewith somesphaleriteand galena,in manycaseswith
goodsilvervalues. Similarlysomeveinsin the footwallof 43 vein (the most
prominentvein in the centralpart of the mine) containminor lead-zincore
in the upper levels,whereastheir downwardextensionsconsistof enargite
ore. To the east, the veins fade out with a similar changefrom enargite
to tennantite-tetrahedrite
on nearingthe lead-zincorebodies. In the northern
endof the pyrite-silicabody,galenaand sphaleriteoccurin copperorebodies,
but then generallyon the marginsonly.
Veins in the Exclesiorshalessouthof the vent (Cleopatra-Excelsiorvein
system) contain more gold, chalcopyrite,tennantite,luzonite, wolframite,
coarsepyriteandquartzandlessenargitethanotherveinsin Cerrode Pasco.
They are alsocharacterizedby minor amountsof galenaand sphalerite.
Silver probablyoccursmostlyin solid-solution in the main ore minerals.
It is generallyassociated
with tennantiteandwith highbismuthconcentrations.
Barite is observedin the enargiteveinsand orebodies,and in somecaseswith
bismuthinite,but is generallysubordinatein quantity. It may be partially

replacedby quartz and pyrite.
In 1955copper-silver oresweresentin part to La Oroya for directsmelting
and the rest was concentrated by flotation;all the ore was from underground
sources. In 1961 mostof the copper-silverore was minedin the openpit and
concentrated.A comparisonof the respectiveassaysindicatesthat the ratio
As: Sb is higherfor the underground(mainly enargite) ores:
2nd semester 1955
(Underground)
Direct-smelt-
ing ore 36.4 31.6 2.32 1.0 0.74 2.07 0.16 0.8
Concentrator
heads 27.4 2.28 1.3 2.49 0.9 31.6
Copper
concentrate 42.8 32.4 8.74 4.6 2.15 5.89 0.53 2.1
2nd semester 1961

(open pit)
Concentrator
heads 25.5 1.21 1.0 2.25 0.5 38.4
Copper
concentrate 41.0 30.7 7.40 8.6 1.40 6.14 0.65 2.2
The high As: Sb ratio of the undergroundenargite-pyriteore is alsoborne

out by the followingaveragegradeof copperconcentratesfrom the San Expe-
dito mine. This undergroundore is mined from veins in the vent or in the
westernmostmargin of the pyrite-silicabody:
2nd semester 1961 34.4 18.2 22.1 1.8 7.66 6.8 1.74 0.9
HypogeneLeachingand $ilver-pyrite Orebodies.--Cavitiesseveralmeters

in diameterhave beenfoundin the midst of the pyrite-silicabody at depthsof
300-700 m below surface. Some of them contain collapsebreccias. The
most striking feature, however,is the presenceof boxworks indicatingthat
sulfides(mainly early sphaleriteand galena) have been leachedout. Since
otherhypogenesulfides(seebelow) line thesecavitiesand boxworks,the evi-
dencepointsto hypogene leaching(70, 97).
In the easternpart of the pyrite-silicabody,but generallywestof the lead-
zincorebodies, thereare steep,pipe-like"silver-pyrite"orebodies. They con-
sist of a porousmassof sulfidesand incompletelyreplacedbut highly altered
sediments. A host of late generation sulfides replace all earlier minerals.
The positionof thesebodieson the westernsideof importantlead-zincbodies,
their porousnature,the "corroded"aspectof the pyrite, and the mineralogy
suggestthat they are related to the abovedescribedhypogeneleachingand
enrichment zones.
Sincethe areasof silver-pyriteore and of hypogeneleachingare not gen-
erally accessible,
or, whenrich, are minedout rapidly,thereis no clearpicture
of the mineralogicassociations
exceptfor the microscopicstudiesof specimens.
444 ULRICH PETERSEN
The mineralogyof theseareasis more complexthan that of the lead-zincor

copperores, as indicatedby the followinglist:
Native silver (upper levels) Gratonite (fine intergrows with galena,
Polianite suggesting unmixing from a higher
Hematite temperature solid-solution)
Pyrite IV, V and VI As-glass ("baumhauerite," Lacy, 1949;
Marcasite "revoredoite," Amstutz, De las Casas
Late sphalerite ("waxy," Fe-poor) and Ramdohr, 1955)
Realgat (one of the latest minerals) Stephanire
Argentitc Pyrargyrite (upper levels)
Third generation galena Andorite ?
Bismuthinite Aramayoite (rimmed by pyrargyrite in
Late chalcopyrite upper levels)
Tennantite (freibergite) Vivianite
Emplectite Bournonite
Alunite
Bowditch(17) givesthe followinganalysisfor a composite of typicalsilver-

pyrite oresfrom variouslevels,downto the 800 level: 29.5% Fe-0.17% Cu-
2.2% Zn-0.13% As-28.8oz Ag-0.10% Sb 2.4% Pb-26.6% Insol.
Note that the Pb:Zn ratio is about1:1 as opposed to 2:1 in the lead-zinc
orebodies;and that the As: Sb ratio is closeto 1: 1 as opposedto 2 to 5: 1
for the copperand the lead-zincores. It may also be significantthat the
arsenicglass ("revoredoite") found in thesezoneshas an anomaloussulfur
isotopecomposition as pointedout previously.
During the early 50's these concentrations of rich silver, bismuth and
arsenicmineralswere eagerlysought. Characteristically they occur on the
edgeof the lead-zincorebodiesand are associated with veins or channelways
exhibitinghypogeneleaching. The implicationis that solutionscomingfrom
the westleachedcertainzonesanddumpedtheir loadlater on reachinga given
barrierin the vicinityof the lead-zincores,leadingto "hypogene enrichment."
Lacy (65) notesthat althoughthereis a zoningfrom copperoresin the
vicinityof the vent to lead-zincoresin the limestone,the high-gradesilver-
bismuthoresin betweenare puzzlingif thermalzoningis implied.
Ore Controls.--Several
of the copper-silver
orebodies
are controlledby
east-westveinsor fractures. The sameseemsto hold for the zonesof hypo-
gene leachingand enrichmentand is suspected for the silver-pyriteshoots.
The questionwhetherpyrrhotitepipesand lead-zincorebodies are similarly
controlledby east-westfractures (or sheeting)is subjectto controversy.
There is, of course,no questionthat the dispositionof the originalsediments
andof their partiallyor totallyreplacedrelicsalsoexerteda strongcontrolon
the shapeand size of the orebodies. This control is clearestfor the lead-zinc
orebodies,
and becomes lessdistinctfor the copperorebodies.
[flail-Rock•tlteration.--Wallrock alterationis discussed
in detail by
Bowditch(17), Gratonand Bowditch(27) and Lacy (66). The weakest
alterationof the volcanicandigneousrockscorresponds to what is generally
known as propyliticalteration. Biotite breaksdown first, then orthoclaseand
plagioclase.The products comprise chlorite,calcite,epidoteandsomesericite,
kaolinminerals,rutile,brookiteor anataseandleucoxene. Strongeralteration
leadsto an increasein sericite,free quartzand pyrite (partly fixationof sulfur

by iron alreadyin the rock, partly introduced),whereascalcitedisappears.
Most of the CaO, MgO, and Na20 has beenleachedout by this stage. Ap-
proachingthe copper-silvervein further, there is a seam where barite and
epidote-zoisite
appearto prevail. Thereafteralunite,kaolinminerals,pyrite,
zunyiteand silicificationincreaseup to the vein walls. This alunite-kaolinite
zone,whichreachesa width of 30 m, givesway to the regularsericitezoneas
theenargitemineralization in theveinschanges to tennantiteandeventually to
galena-sphalerite
in their westernmargins. The wall rockalterationsequence
adjoiningtheseveinsmay be represented by the followingequations:
2KA1Si,Os [2NaA1SiaOa
• [2H+
q- 1CaAl•Si2Os
orthoclase 1
q- H•O
COs
plagioclase
2KAI•(A1SiaO•o)(OH)•
muscovite
q- 8SiO• q- CaCO3 q- 2Na+

quartz calcite
muscovite 2H+• • 3Al•Si•Os(OH)4

2KAl•(A1Si30•0)(OH)2
q- 3H20 kaolinire
q-2K+
KAla(A1Si3010)(OH)•
muscovite
q- 4H+ [ (SO4)•=
• • KAla(OH)6(SO0•
alunite
q- 3SiOa
quartz
Acid solutionswould favor displacement of theseequilibriato the right.

The presence of marcasiteand of nativesulfurmay be additionalevidencein
favorof the thoughtthat the solutionsresponsible
for the enargite-pyrite
min-
eralization were acid.
Inasmuchas the Excelsiorshalesconsistmainlyof quartzand sericite,their
alteration is characterizedessentiallyby bleaching,and the most intense
alunite-kaolinite-silicification
stage.
Alterationof limestoneconsistsmainly in the removalof CaO and MgO,
leavingquartzand clayminerals. Small amountsof epidote-zoisite, diopside
and talc indicate that some silicates formed under certain conditions. There
are, however,zoneswhere limestoneadjoining lead-zincmineralizationis
practicallyfresh.
Oxidationand SupergeneEnrichment.--Oxidationhas resultedin an im-
pressivegossan,partsof whichare lead or silverbearing("pacos") with the
corresponding complexset of oxide minerals (1). The depth of oxidation
varies considerably.Limited supergeneenrichmenttook place below the
oxides,mainly in the form of an irregular, discontinuous
blanket of chalcocite,
and corellite. Silver is mainly in chalcocite,but some as stromeyerite.
Supergenereplacement favorsgalena,then sphalerite,whereaspyrite is gen-
erally lessaffected,thus localizingthe enrichmentblanketover lead-zincore-
bodies. In addition,thereis somereplacement
of enargite-pyrite
by chalcocite
over copper orebodies.
GeneralInterpretation.--DuringTriassic-Jurassic
time the sedimentsof
the Pucar•tformationaccumulated to great thicknesses
in a trough east of
Cerrode Pasco. West of Cerrode Pascothe Pucar•tformationis relatively
446 ULRICH PETERSEN
thin. Whetherthe negativeareato the eastwasseparated from the positive

areato the westby the Cerrolongitudinalfault is unknown,but possible. In
anycase,thisfaultis thoughtto havebeenin existence duringthe earlyTer-
tiary, contributingto the formationof the Shucolimestoneconglomerate.At
this stage,the westernsidewouldhave beendepressed and the easternside
uplifted. At some later moment this relation must have become reversed
becauseat presentthe easternblock appearsdepressedwith respectto the
western block.
Sometime duringthe Tertiary the volcanicvent cameinto existenceap-
proximatelytangentialto the trace of the longitudinalfault on surface. Suc-
ceedingigneousactivityled to the formationof quartz-monzonite porphyry
stocksand dikes,the hugepyrite-silicabody,the lead-zincorebodies,
and the
copper-silverveins and orebodies.
Most geologistsbelievethelead-zincmineralization
wasemplacedfirst,then
the coppermineralization(97); a few think the lead-zincorebodiesformed
after the vein systemsdeveloped(105). This controversyresultsfrom ob-
scurefieldrelations,whichcouldconceivably
be construedalsoto fit a picture
of simultaneous formation.
In total, the Cerro de Pascodepositprobablycontainedin excessof two
million tons of lead, four million tons of zinc and one hundred million tons of
pyrite. If the solubilityof lead in a hydrothermalsolutionis assumedto be
500 ppmand that of zinc 1,000ppm,and thisis entirelyprecipitated,then the
amountof leadandzincin Cerrode Pascowouldhaveto havebeendeposited
from at leastfour billiontonsof solution(with 1.5% Fe in solution). This
corresponds to a cube1.6 km to the edgeor 1 x 2 x 2 kilometers. If the
parentacidicmagmacontained5 percentwater and this water resultedin the
postulatedhydrothermalfluid, the parentmagmawould have had to weigh
80 billiontons. If the specific
gravityis assumed
to be 3, this corresponds
to a cubeabout3 km on the edge. On the otherhand,if the postulatedsolu-
tion flowed during 30,000 years,then the averageflow would have had to be
onlyabout4 literspersecond. This wouldresultin a verysmallvelocitywhen
distributedoverthehorizontalsectionof the pyrite-silica
body. Severalalter-
nate calculations
couldbe madeby varyingthe concentration of the solution,
rate or durationof flow,but the abovefiguresserveto illustratethe general
order of magnitude.
In tryingto placelimitson the possible
temperatures
and pressures
pre-
vailing during ore deposition,we are facedwith a dearthof information. As
Bowditch(17) pointedout, comparison of the Cerro vent with othervolcanic
ventssuggests thatthe depthof formationof the oresdid not exceed1,000m.
It is possible
that a carefulstudyof the minoramountof arsenopyrite
in the
lead-zincore may providea furtherindicationof pressureor temperatureof
formationand of the prevailingpartial pressuresof sulfur, arsenicand iron.
Arsenopyriteandpyrite are incompatible aboveabout500ø C; therefore,it is
probablethat the temperature
of deposition
of theseoresdid not exceed500ø
C. One pyrrhotitesamplegaved102= 2.0575(Honea,personalcommunica-
tion)whichcorrest)onds
to 46.6atomicpercent
iron(6), suggesting
a tempera-
ture of about500ø C (5, 6). The iron contentof sphalerite reported
aboveis consistentwith sucha temperatureof formationif depositedin equi-

libriumwith pyrite. Sphaleriteprecipitating
at 580ø C with pyrrhotiteshould
have over 19% Fe (10). Further work on pyrrhotiteand sphaleritecom-
positionsat Cerro is requiredto decideif the experimentalinformationis
consistent with what is observed in nature.
Gaines(25) was ableto synthesizetennantiteonly between250ø C and
575øC. If thisis takento represent
the stabilityrangeof tennantite,
it pro-
videsan estimateof the temperature
of deposition of the copper-silver
ores.
It may be, however,that under different conditionstennantitecould form at
othertemperatures,in whichcasethis approachis of little or no value. On
the otherhand,B. J. Skinner'sexperimental work (personalcommunication)
showsthat the enargite-luzonite
transitiontakesplaceat about300ø C and 1
atmosphere. If we assumethat the pressureeffectis small,this indicatesthat
the undergroundenargite-pyrite.ores
probablyformedabove300ø C, whereas
the openpit luzonite-pyrite oresformedbelow300ø C. In the underground
ores minor amountsof luzoniteare presentin enargiteand may represent
enargitepartially invertedto luzoniteon cooling.
Marcasitedepositedduring the last stagesof copper-silvermineralization,
suggesting that the temperature did not exceed350ø C at that moment(92).
The last phasesof mineralization, includingsilver-pyriteoresand hypogene
leaching,occurredat relativelylow temperatures.This is indicatedby the
presenceof realgat (maximumtemperature320ø C) and nativesulfur (proba-
bly formedbelow 150ø C).
The precedingdiscussionsuggeststhat there was a marked differencein
temperature betweenthe first and last stagesof mineralization.A tempera-
ture gradientfrom a centeroutward, to which zoningcouldbe related,is not
indicated.
Yauricocha
The spectacular oxideoresof Yauricochawere described sometime ago

by Lacy (67, 68), but it wasnot until recentlythat a generalpresentation
by
Ward (104) and a detailedstudy by Thomson (99) becameavailable.
GeneralGeolo#y.NThe Yauricochaore bodiesare closelyassociated with
a granodiorite
intrusive(2 x 2.5 km) locatedon the limb of a major anticline
of Machaylimestoneto the west and a synclineof Casapalcared-bedsto the
east.
In detailseveralsmallerfoldsare superimposedon this structure. Figure

9 showsa subsidiary syncline,thecoreof whichis occupied by the Casapalca
formation;its easternand southernextensions havebeendestroyed by the
intrusive. The westernlimb is Machaylimestonewhichis piercedby satel-
litic granodioriteor quartz-monzonite
porphyrystocks. Figure 9 showstwo
suchstocksin the minearea,but severalothershavebeenencountered
by
undergroundworkings.
448 ULRICH PETERSEN
OREBODIE5 KILOMETERS
• • VEINS
Fro. 9. Generalized
geologicmapof Yauricocha.After K. F. Sigrist(1951,
unpublished),
modified. qmp---quartz-monzonite
porphyry;Tc ---Casapalca for-
mation; Km --- Machay formation.
Intrusive Rocks.--The contacts of the intrusive stocks cut across the bed-
dingof the sediments
andare generallysharp. The bulk composition
of all
stocksis about the same. Granitic textures predominatein their centers,
whereasthe contactzonesare porphyritic,with composition
changingfrom
granodiorite
to adamellite
3-25 m fromthecontactandfinallyto monzoniteor
syenitein thelastfew centimeters.The development of sanidine
in the mar-
ginaladamelliteisnoteworthy.Themargins of thestocks(upto 6 m fromthe
contact)exhibitflow structures
suggestiveof verticalmovementparallelto
thecontacts. Thereis a strongtendencyfor thesestocksto maintaina cylin-
dricalshapefor considerable
verticalintervals(at least300 m in onecase).
Structure.--A strongfault or fracturezone (Chacras"shuffle"zone) is
known 6 km northwestof the mine; it projectsinto the generalmine area or
just westof it.
Theregional
strikeof thesediments
changes
fromnorthnorthwest
to north-
west in the Yauricochaarea. This has beeninterpretedas an expressionof
differential movement of basement blocks.
Two setsof joints predominate.The first set is orientedmore or less
parallelto bedding(northweststrike,steepdip to northeast),whereasthe
secondone is essentiallyeast-westand aboutvertical.
,'11teration.--Theeffectsof the intrusiveson the surroundingsediments
M.4JOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTR.4L PERU 449
are thoseto be expectedfor the corresponding

rocktypes. The red-bedsare
bleachedfor a considerable distance(hematiteis "pyritized"), sandstoneis
alteredto quartziteandshaleto hornfels. Calcareous red-bedsare converted
largelyto garnet,diopside,scapolite,and phologopite, with lessclinozoisite,
epidote,sanidineand chabasite("France Chert"). Relativelypure Machay
limestoneis affectedonlyin theimmediatevicinityof an intrusive,wherelocal,
narrow skarn zonesare developed;at greater distancethe limestoneis only
recrystallizedor slightly bleached(elimination of carbon grains). Skarn
mineralsin thiscasearegarnet(betweenandraditeandgrossularite),diopside,
idocrase,wollastoniteand subordinatephlogopite,chlorite, tremolite and
scapolite.
Alteration associatedwith mineralizationis dependentto a large extent
on the originalmaterialswithin the affectedrocks. Thus propyliticalteration
is restrictedto the igneousrocks. Limestonehasbeenmarmorizedand silici-
fled. Argillization,pyritization,carbonatizationand sericitizationare common
to all rocktypes. The maximumhorizontalextentof alterationof an intrusive
adjoiningan orebodyis 50 m for pyritization,30 m for propylitization and 5 m
for sericiteand extensiveargillization. In the France Chert almostcomplete
argillizationextendsat the most 3 m from an orebody,and then only along
certain beddingplanes.
The outstandingalterationfeatureis the large amountof clay and sericite
aroundthe periphery(3-5 m) and over the tops (over 50 m) of pyritic bodies
in limestone. This clay is presumedto have beenderivedfrom dissolutionof
the original limestoneand from silicatesformed in the limestoneprior to ore
mineralization. Disseminatedpyrite forms broadhalosaroundorebodiesand
along fracture zones,representingthe interactionbetweenintroducedsulfur
and iron presentin the limestoneas hematite. Surfaceoxidationof this pyrite
gives the limestonea characteristicbrownish tinge. Silica also increasesin
the wall rock as an orebodyis approached,but closeexaminationhas failed
to revealany dolomitization.
Copperorebodies
occuronlyin alteredground. Lead-zincore,may,on the
other hand, be found in almost fresh limestone.
Orebodies.--Therich copperorebodies,whichhave sustainedthe bulk of
the productionto date are locatedwithin pipelikepyritic bodiesin limestone
in the immediatevicinity of the satelliticgranodioritestocks. Most of them
adjoin stocks,at leastin their lower reaches. Others are known to depart at
higher elevationsfrom a stock and traverse the limestoneas if the solution
tried to reachthe surfaceby the shortestpossibleroute. The largest one,
Main Catas,followsthe contactbetweenthe Machaylimestoneand the silicified
and silicatedCasapalcared-bedsreferredto as the France Chert. In the latter
casethe channelingeffect of the imperviousFrance Chert is striking. Sub-
ordinate replacementbodies also occur in some favorable beds within the
France Chert. Somelower grade, narrow veinscut the intrusive southeastof
the camp,rarely extendinginto the sediments.
The spacingof the east-westand north northwestfracturesvaries. Close
spacingin certainareasresultsin a rhombohedral pattern of east-westand
north northwesttrendlines. The intersectionof the trendlinesamongthem-
450 ULRICH PETERSEN
selvesor with the Machaylimestone-France chertcontactseemto haveexerted

a strongcontrolon the locationof stocksand orebodies. Most orebodiesare
elongatedin an east-westor north-northwestdirection. Controlby coral reefs
in the limestonehas been proposedby Ward (104) but is unlikely because
a) reefs are rare or absent in most of the surrounding,fresh limestone;
b) structuresfaintly reminiscentof reefs within the orebodiescan be inter-
pretedjust as well or betteras a consequenceof the normalprocessof minerali-
zation; and c) it wouldrequirevery specialized coralsthat knew whereto grow
in spaceand time so as to coincidewith later intersectionsof different fracture
systemsor of fracture systemswith the Machay-FranceChert contact. (This
would result in their completedestructionby intrusionsand mineralizing
fluids.) There are indeeda few remainssuggestive of corals,but their control
on mineralizationhasbeennegligible.
Brecciasare associated closelywith mostorebodies. Elongatedfragments
tend to be vertical on the sides of the ore-bodies and arch.over blind orebodies.
The origin of brecciasand complexstructuresin the orebodiesare ascribedto
a processof stopingby the mineralizingsolutions.
Thomson (99) classifiesthe commercialmineralizationinto three types:
1. Pyrite-quartz-enargite, with subsidiary chalcopyrite and bornite; pyritic
pip.
esin limestone
(Main Catas,WestCatasandSouthCatasorebodies)
andin
veins in intrusive.
2. Pyrite-quartz-enargite-chalcopyrite;
there is commonlyconsiderableenrich-
ment, especiallyof the bornite by hypogenechalcocite,digenite,and covellite;
mainly in orebodiesin limestone.
3. Pyrite-galena-sphaleri•te-chalcopyrite
in a matrix of limestone,clay and
quartz (subordinate);forms an irregular envelopearoundthe first two typesof
ore.
Pyritemakesup 60-80 percentof the sulfideorebodies.Under the micro-

scopeThomson(99) distinguishes five typesthat succeed eachotherin time
and •fromthe countryrock into the centerso•fthe orebodies.Type I is the
oldestand farthestfrom the orebodies,
type V the youngestand in the center
of the orebodies. Thesetypesdo not correlatewith thoseestablished
by Lacy
at Cerro de Pasco. In generalthe cubicforms are earlier, whereaspyrito-
hedra and octahedra are later and more abundant toward the centers of ore-
bodies. For mappingpurposespyrite is classifiedas "soft" (loose,friable)
and "hard," the latter generallyconstitutingshootsor coreswithin the more
abundantsoft pyrite. The texturesin the hard pyrite are in many casesin-
herited from the soft pyrite. Ward (104) suggeststhat these pyrite types
reflectoriginalvariationsin the rock that was replaced. Thornsoh's(99)
interpretationthat they are the resultof the normalprocessof mineralization
alongpipesappearsmore likely. He presentsresultsof 31 spectrographic
analysesof pyrite, which showno systematicvariationswith type, depth or
distancefrom ore. Significantamountsof copperand lead in the pyrite are
attributedto impurities. Lacy (68) notedpyrrhotiteas smallorientedblebs
in pyrite (apparenfiyexsolvedfrom pyrite) in one specimenfrom the Catas
orebody,465'level.
Thomson(99) alsodistinguishes three typesof marcasite,formedin the
MAJOROREDEPOSITSOF CENTRALPERU 4:51
earlystages
of mineralization
aroundtheperipheries
of thecopper
orebodies.
In this locationmarcasiteis interbandedwith pyrite and speculariteand en-
velopedby chalcopyrite,
galena,sphaleriteand quartz.
By far themostimportantcopper-bearingmineralis enargite(confirmed
by X-ray diffraction),
whichwasdeposited withquartzandsomepyriteV.
It generallyshows
mutualboundaries withtheothercopper minerals,replacing
themonlyto a minorextent. Massiveenargiteseems to replacepyriteand
perhaps alsoquartz,butotherwise
it appearstohaveonlyfilledopeningsin the
existingpyrite-quartzcrystalmesh. Small amountsof late chalcopyrite,
bornite and covelliteline rugs in enargite.
Etchingof largerenargitecrystalsrevealsmarkedzoning. This may ex-
plainto a certainextentthe variationof the concentrations
of minorelements
obtainedby Thomsonon smallportionsgougedout of crystalsfrom various
levelsof the Main Catasorebody. Finding no systematicvariationhe con-
cludedthat all but silverandantimonyare presentasinclusions
of bismuthinite,
nativegold,stanniferous "orangebornite"and perhapsgallite. Arsenicis
decidedly the major constituent;
antimonyneverexceeds2 percent. There
is a faintsuggestion
in thespectrographic
resultsof a reduction
in theantimony
contentwith depth,belowthe 410 level. The arithmeticaverageof the four-
teen valuesis 0.7% Sb. This is not far from the amount reportedin a
chemicalanalysisof a selectedenargitecrystal (ResearchLab., Cerro de
Pasco Corp.).
Yauricocha Theoretical enargite
S ? 32.6%
Fe 2.40-/0 --
Cu 45.1 48.4
As 17.4 19.0
Sb 0.74 --
It is believedthat the bulk of the gold in Yauricochaores occurswithin

the enargite,althoughsomeis alsoreportedfrom lead-zincore.
Voids with crystaloutlinesare frequentlyseenin enargiteores. They
havebeenvariouslyinterpretedas beingafter bariteor gypsum.
Small amountsof luzoniteform very fine grainedaggregatesin the bornite-
chalcopyrite-enargite-pyrite type of ore. Its identity (but not its As: Sb
ratio) hasbeenconfirmedby X-ray diffraction.
Chalcopyrite is themostabundant coppermineralafter enargite. Bornite
is generallyassociated with chalcopyrite,and lesscommonlywith enargite.
Three varietiesof digeniteare recognized on the basisof opticalproperties.
It is very likely that oneof the varietiesis djurleitewhichhasbeenrecently
definedand identifiedas the major constituentof specimens from Yauricocha
labeled "chalcocite" (90). Digenite, djurleite, chalcocite,covellite, idaite,
tennantite-tetrahedrite,
and "orange bornite" occur mainly (some of them
exclusively)in the bornite-richores.
The relationsbetweenthe variousmineralsare very complexin Yauri-
cochaand are given in detail by Thomson(99). He thinksthat bornitedis-
sociated
into chalcopyrite,
corellite,digenite,chalcocite
andidaiteon cooling,
452 ULRICH PETERSEN
and that duringlate hydrothermalactivitybornitewas alsoreplacedby chalco-

pyrite, covellite,digenite,chalcociteand sphalerite. Thomsondescribesthis
as late-stagehypogeneleachingand enrichment. In the light of the extraordi-
nary ability of the coppersulfidesto diffuseand adjust,even downto tempera-
turesbelow100ø C, andof the remarkabletexturesproducedby Brett (18) by
coolingmixturesin the systemS-Fe-Cu at varying rates, I am inclinedto
considerthe bulk of the process and of the texturesas the resultof the cooling
historyof solid-solutioncrystalsof variouscompositions.There is good rea-
sonto believethat somechangesin stabilityrelationstake placein the tempera-
ture intervalinvolved,whichmay be anotherfactor,togetherwith polymorphic
transitions,contributingto the rather complexrelationsobservedat Yauri-
cocha. However, there is alsoevidencefor somelate stageredistributionof
ore minerals.
The marginsof the enargiteorebodies are characterized
by the presenceof
tennantite,which is locally replacedby enargite. Tennantitemay also be
observedin subordinate amountswithin chalcopyrite.It is generallythought
that the silver is mainly in solid-solutionin tennantite.
"Orangebornite"occursin suchsmallamountthat positiveidentification
has not beenpossibleso far. Thomson'sspectrographicanalysesof three
specimensrevealover2,000ppmsilver,2,500-4,000ppmbismuth,1,000-3,000
ppm tin and 500-1,000 ppm lead. Germaniumis absent. It resembles
"orange bornite" from Morococha,which has a similar X-ray pattern to
renierite from Tsumeb, SouthwestAfrica (93). It is characteristicallyen-
closedin bornite,in a few placesas smallcrystalsin enargiteor chalcopyrite.
Thomsonreports"orangebornite"and bismuthinitein cleavagevoids in
enargite. RecentX-ray work on "orangebornite" from Yauricochaindicates
it is zincian stannite (46).
Bismuthinite, stannite(?), emplectiteand gallite (?) occurmainlyin the
enargite-pyrite
ore. Realgarandorpimentoccurin verysmallamountson the
marginsof the orebodies,especiallyon the upper levels,cuttingenargiteore.
The followinganalysesgive an idea of the composition of the direct smelting
copperores during two representative six-monthperiods. Note the high
As: Sb ratio.

2nd semester
1955 32.7 26.4 4.76 2.1 1.32 2.6 0.12 1.3
1961 32.4 27.2 5.08 2.5 1.16 4.0 0.18 1.1
The lead-zincoresare of subordinate

importanceand havebeenminedonly
incidental
to theexploitation of copperore. Their Pb: Zn ratiois about0.5: 1
andremarkably constantovertheverticalintervalexposed in the mine. Chal-
copyrite,
or lesscommonly tennantite-tetrahedrite,
is thecoppermineralaccom-
panyinggalenaand sphalerite. Galenamay containexsolvedpolybasite, and
spectrographic analysisof fragmentsrevealsignificant amountsof silver,gal-
lium, antimonyand minor bismuth. Exsolutionblebsof chalcopyriteare
common in sphalerite
especially if it adjoinschalcopyrite
grains. Most of the
sphaleriteis iron-bearing,excepta small amountof late generationlight
coloredsphalerite.Fluoriteand arsenopyrite
are minorassociates
of lead-
zinc ores.
Bournonite
isnotcommon.In several samples it isintergrownwithgalena
andhasa partialrimof tetrahedrite-tennantite.
In onesample fromthemain
mineenargitereplaces bournonite.Plagioniteis reportedto occurin the
PurisimaConcepcionWestprospect withgalena,pyriteandarsenopyrite. In
the SanJosede Alis prospect,
northof Yauricocha, geocroniteoccursinter-
grown with galena. Whether this can be consideredto be a remotemanifesta-
tion of the Yauricochamineralizationis not clear.
Thomson
(99) distinguishes
fourtypesofquartz,
all except
typeIV' pre-
cedingwith pyritethe mainperiodof sulfidemineralization.Barite is not
common and,likequartz,seemsto haveprecededtheeconomic sulfides; solu-
tionsdepositing
eithercopperorlead-zinc
appear tohaveleached
early-formed
barite. Latecalcite
is associated
withquartzandsphalerite
surroundingthe
orebodies.
Zoning
in Yauricocha
wasrecognized
firstbyLacyin 1949andlaterpre-
sentedin detailby Thomson(99). Their zonesare summarized
in TableVI.
Theoutstanding
feature
is existenceof localzoningsuperimposed ondistrict-
widezoning. Thusthepipesin theverycenterof thedistricthaveThornsoh's
zones
A, B,E andF (arranged
fromthecenter
outward)
butwithonlynarrow
outerzones;orebodies
onthefringesof thedistrictonlyexhibitthelastzones
(E andF).
TABLE IV
ZONING IN THE YAURICOCHA DISTRICT

Lacy (1949):
I---enargite, epidote,zunyite
II---enargite, chalcopyrite,
bornitc,tennantite
III---chalcopyrite,
tennantite,
galena,sphalerite,
fluorite,carbonate
IV--sphalerite, galena,carbonate
V--galena, sphalerite,polybasite,carbonate
Thomson (1960):
A. Enargite,
withsubsidary
eovellite
andbismuthinite;
pyriteI-V (especially
V), quartz
IV,
minor quartz III.
B. Enargite
withtennantite,
subsidary
bismuthinite,
corellite,
ehaleoeite,
bornitc,
ehaleopyrite,
and rare "orangebornitc"; pyritesI-III and V; quartzIII-IV.
C. Enargite,
chalcopyrite,
bornitc,digenite,
eovellite,
tennantite,
ehaleoeite,
tetrahedrite,
idaitc,minor"orange
bornitc,"
andlatesphalerite;
pyritesI-III; quartzIII-IV.
D. Chalcopyrite,
tennantite,
sphalerite,
galena;pyritesI-II, somepyriteV; quartzII-IV
(minor serfcite).
E. Galena,
serfcite.
sphalerite,
ehalcopyrite
(rare);pyriteI; quartzI-III; hematite,
siderite,
calcite,
F. Galena,sphalerite,
polybasite;
quartzI-III; serfcite,calcite.
Oxidation
andSupergene
Enrichment.--Oxidation
andsupergene
enrich-
mentarespectacular
in someorebodies,
reaching
from the surfacedownto the
lowestlevels
ofthemine;otherorebodies
arevirtually
unaffected.
Thispro-
tection
fromoxidation
seemstobeduein partto theoverhanging
impervious
France chertbutmainly
dueto cappings
of clayovertheorebodies.Super-
genesulfides
are covellite,chalcocite
anddigenite. The oxideoresexhibita
variedmineralogy
andarein partrichin silver.For mapping
purposes
"transported
oxides"are distinguished
from "residualoxides."
454 ULRICH PETERSEN
Morococha
Morocochais, like Cerro de Pasco,an old mining district that has been
extensivelystudiedand described in the literature.
Consequently only a summaryis given below. Additionaldetail may be
foundin the followingcontributions,whichcomprisethoseof greatestinterest
from a geologicalpoint of view: Boutwell (16), McLaughlin,Graton,Bow-
•Km
FIG. 10. Generalizedgeologicmap of Morococha. Modified after Haapala

(1952, unpublished).qmp= quartz-monzonite porphyry; d -- diorite; Km ---
Machayformation;Iig ----Goyllarisquizga
formation;
Jp-- Pucariformation;Pc=
Catalina volcanics.
ditchand Burrell (74), Moore (76), Trefzger (101), Schmedeman

(91),
Mark, Faulknerand Graton(71), Henshaw(42), McLaughlinand Moses
-(75), Terrones(96), Haapala(28,29), CerrodePascoCopper
Corp.Geol.
Staff (19), LacyandHosmer(70), Nagell(78, 79), ThomsonandMiller
(98)' andWalker (102).
Mineralizationin Morocochais spreadout over a considersable
horizontal
extent,some50 sq.km (Fig. 10).
MA.IOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRAL PERU 455
The mainfeatureof the geologyof Morococha is a complex, gentlynorth

northwestplunginganticline. Intrusivescut its southwest flank.
Strati#raphy.--ThePermianCatalinavolcanics makeup the coreof the
anticlinefrom the surfacedown to the deepestlevel (1,700 ft level) in the
minearea. Lower PaleozoicExcelsiorphyllitesreachthe 1,700ft levelin the
Kingsmillor Mahr drainagetunnelto the southeastof the district; they also
cropout at the tunnelportal wherethey occupythe coreof the Yai•li dome.
A largeportionof theprincipalmineareais occupied by the Pucar/tforma-
tion, locallyknown as the Potosi formation. It consistsof severallimestone
horizonsof varyingcomposition whichhavebeenaltereddifferentlyas a con-
sequenceof intrusion and mineralization. Terrones (96) subdividedit as
follows:
Horizon A: thin-bedded limestone and shale max. 38 m

Upper Churruca breccia: limestone breccia 24 m
Horizon B: thin-bedded limestone av. 12 m
Lower Churruca breccia: limestone breccia, limestone, marl av. 19 m
Horizon C: limestone av. 12 m
Montero Basalt av. 17 m
Horizon D: shale, marl, calcareous sandstone, black silica lenses 62 m to 108 m
Upper Laura: dolomitic limestone av. 18 m
Sacracancha Trachyte 5m
Lower Laura: dolomitic limestone, shale, sandstone, silica lenses av. 87 m
Horizon E: sandstone, shale, dolomite, silica nodules av. 26 m
Horizon F: dolomitic limestone, silica nodules av. 64 m
Potosi red-beds,sandy shale, conglomerate av. 24 m
The lowerpart of the Pucar/tformationhasbeenthoroughlyalteredduring

intrusion and mineralization. It is therefore not clear if Mitu sediments were
presentabovethe Catalinavolcanicsor not. Recent careful studieson the
1,700levelindicatethat thereis a relativelythin sequenceof sedimentsbetween
the Catalinavolcanicsand the anhydritecomplex,which couldvery well be
alteredMitu red-beds(103).
The Morococha"anhydritecomplex"it also locatedat the base of the
Pucar/t. Gypsumpredominates abovethe 1,000 level, anhydritebelow. Its
origin is subjectto controversy. Moore (76), Mark, Faulkner and Graton
(71) and Cerro de PascoCopperCorp. staff (19) considerit to be an altera-
tion product related to the general processof intrusion and mineralization.
Haapala (29) advocates a sedimentaryorigin on the basisof comprehensive
and detailedstudies. Most geologistsconcernedwith Morocochain the last
decadeagreeessentially
with Haapala(48, 103) with the exception
of Nagell
(78, 79). If theanhydritecomplexis sedimentary
it wouldcorrespond to the
Mitu formationor to the baseof the Pucarfi and was redistributedduring
intrusion, deformation and mineralization.
In theupperhalfof the Pucar/tformationthe Sacracancha
trachyteandthe
Montero basaltmembersconstitutegoodmarker horizons.
The Goyllarisquizgasandstone(locallycalledSanto Toribio-Buenaventura
formation)andthe Machaylimestoneare exposedon the northeastand south-
westmarginsof the district.
456 ULRICH PETERSEN
Structure.--The structure of the Morococha district is discussed in detail

by Nagell (79). Superimposed on the regionalanticlineare severalfoldsand
faults. The most importantsubsidiarystructuresare the Gertrudis and
Potosi-Toldofolds. Both consistof a combination of tight overturnedfolds
with longitudinalthrust-faults. The first is locatedon the west flank, the
secondon the eastflank of the Morocochaanticline. Axial planesand fault
planesdip away from the centerof the main anticlinalaxis. Other folds are
shownontheaccompanying generalized
geologymapof Morococha (Fig. 10).
Sedimentarybrecciasare reportedby Terrones (96), but mostbrecciasin
the district are probablytectonicin origin. Zones of brecciationare asso-
ciatedwith certainsectionsof the longitudinalthrust-faults. Other breccias
are attributedto differentialmovementduringfoldingof rocksof contrasting
competency(76, 28), to stressesrelatedto igneousintrusionor to collapse
of solutioncaves(71).
IntrusiveRocks.--Twomainagesof igneousactivityare recognized in the
Morocochadistrict. The oldestis represented by the Anticonaintrusive,the
youngestby the numeroussmall stocksof the Morocochaseries. The Potosi
intrusive,whichformspart of the latter series,is the only stockon the eastern
flank of the main anticline.
The Anticonaintrusiveis quartz diorite in compositionand occupiesthe
westernpart of the district. Its easterncontactgenerallydipswest; as a result
the intrusivein placesoverliesaltered Pucarfi sediments.
Numerouscross-cutting relationsprovethat the quartz-monzoniteporphyry
stocksand dikes of the Morococha series are later than the Anticona series;
however the age differencemay be relatively small. The most important
quartz-monzonitestocksare the Potosi, San Francisco,Gertrudis and Yantac;
Toro Mocho and San Nicolas are small subsidiaryigneousbodies. Aplitic
dikes are associated with the Potosi stock. On the basis of weak circumstan-
tial evidencethe agesof the three main stocksare consideredto be in the order
Potosi,San Franciscoand Gertrudis(from the oldestto the youngest). The
enlargementof the horizontal cross-sectionof the stocks on passing from
Catalinavolcanicsto Pucarglimestoneis striking.
ContactMetasomatism.--Theemplacement of Anticonadiorite resultedin
only moderatealterationof the country rock. On the other hand alteration
dueto the Morocochaintrusivesis spectacular, especiallyaroundthe San Fran-
cisco stock. Later mineralization altered the intrusives and further affected
the sedimentaryand volcanicrocks. Separationof effectsdue to intrusion
from those due to later mineralization is difficult.
Detailedstudiescarriedout by Moore (76) and Haapala (29) supplythe
main facts related to alteration of the Pucar• formation. The feeblest altera-
tion of the Pucar• formation is bleaching,recrystallizationto marble and some
dolomitization. The latter increases near orebodies. This weak alteration
generallyappears150 m or morefrom the intrusives. More intensealteration
resultsin the formationof a great variety of minerals. Haapala established
two main subdivisionsof this intensealteration,namely anhydroussilicate
alterationand hydratedsilicatealteration. The mineralsoccurringin these
alteration zones are:
Anhydrous Hydrated
silicate alteration silicate alteration
abundant diopside serpentine

2
garnet • chlorite •
talc
tremolite-actinolite
common epidote magnetite
quartz sulfides (pyrite-pyrrhotite)
biotite
'sulfides silica
carbonate hematite
adularia ludwigire
plagioclase biotite
scapolite tremolite-actinolite
rare wollastonite
enstatite (hyperethene)
vesuvianite
olivine (forsterite)4
hedenbergite•
andalusite ?
• Grossularite-anhydrite,n = 1.76 -- 1.83, i.e. And •-•o Gross40-8•.

2 Antigorite and chrysotile.
3 Penninite,biaxial positive,small 2V, n = 1.570 (79 b), B = 1.590 (76).
4 Positive optic sign; monticellite.
• Generally associatedwith sulpidemineralization.
The anhydroussilicatealterationtendsto followhorizonsD and E of the
Pucargformation,althoughin someinstances it surrounds intrusivesirrespec-
tive of stratigraphy. It extendsto more than 1.5 km from the intrusives.
Tremolite-actinolite
appearsto increaseon approaching the intrusivesand
generallyreplacesdiopside. Garnet is almostabsentin horizonD, and is
commonly associated
with epidoteand diopside.
Hydratedsilicatealterationprevailsin the vicinityof the intrusivestocks
and of orebodies and may encroachon the anhydroussilicatealteration,re-
placingit. Hydratedsilicatealterationalsooccursinterbedded with anhy-
drous silicatealteration,in the central part of the mine. Farther out,
anhydroussilicate horizons alternate with marble or with fresh limestone.
Serpentineoccurspreferentiallyin rocksof the Laura horizonand, like talc,
in the stratabelowhorizonE. The mineralslistedundoubtedly reflectthe
originalcompositionof the sediments andthe elements introducedduringig-
neousactivityand mineralization.In someareas,chloritereplacesgarnet.
Talc andsomechloriteappearto be moreabundant nearore. Moore (76)
pointsoutthatpyrrhotitereplacesmagnetite andis in turn replaced
by pyrite;
this wouldbe expectedif the partialpressureor activityof sulfurrisescon-
tinuouslyduringthe process, but in detailthe process is complex.
The originof the anhydriteand gypsumis controversial.They form a
bodyof approximately100 milliontonsthat occursbelowthe 750 level on the
westernflankof the Morococha anticline,in the generalvicinityof Gertrudis
and SanNicolasstocks.If theyare sedimentary theywereat leastpartly
redistributed
duringintrusionandmineralization.Anhydriteis clearlyseen
to replace
marble,anhydroussilicatealteration
andhydrous
silicatealteration
458 ULRICH PETERSEN
mineralsin somepartsof the mine,and gypsumis foundin someof the veins.

If gypsumand anhydriteare productsof alterationthey are intermediatebe-
tweenmarble and the anhydroussilicatealterationand are relatedto the
Gertrudisand San Nicol/tsstocks. Disseminatedpyrite grains in the anhy-
drite are partly rimmedby magnetite(79). The strongcontrolexertedby
the anhydritegroundon fracturingand ore-deposition rulesout a supergene
origin.
Ore Deposits.--Thecomplexgeologichistoryandthe numerousrocktypes
with different compositionsand strengthhave resultedin a great variety of
mineraldeposits,both structurallyand in termsof mineralogy.
Mineralizationoccursin veins and in elongate,irregular pipe-like bodies.
Both openspacefilling and replacementare abundantlyrepresented.
The main veins of the district have a strike close to east-west. Differences
in strike (W-NW vs E-NE) and dip (N vs S) are interpretedby Nagell
(79) as separatefracturesystems. Fractureschangein strike and dip con-
tinuouslyand thereforedistinctionof varioussystemsmay be unwarranted.
Displacements along fracturesare small; where observed,normal fault dis-
placementis the rule, but faultedveinsor orebodiesare rare.
The breaksdiffer in accordwith the competencyof the rocks involved.
Strongfracturestend to developin Catalinavolcanicsand intrusives;silicified
and silicated limestoneare less competent. Hydrated limestonefractures
poorly,whereasveinsare virtuallyabsentin the anhydritecomplex. Absence
of veinsin the lower part of the Gertrudisstockmay be due to the "cushion"
of anhydriteandhydratedlimestonethat surroundsthis stock. Fracturestend
to join in depth,resultingin fewerveinsin the lower levels.
Four major compoundbreaks, consistingof veins aligned en echelon
extend across the district:
Alejandrla-Ombla-Amistad-Cobriza
Gertrudis-Central Danubio-Cecilia
Toro Mocho-San Francisco-La Paz-Perfi
San Miguel-Rectificadora-La
Joven
The longestof them, San FranciscoVein 4-La Paz 146, is 1.8 km long.
Smaller veinsare erraticallyinterspersedbetweenthesemajor breaks. Vein
widthsvary from a few centimeters to 6 m, but generallyaveragearound1 m.
Some orebodiestend to be localizedalong the contactsof the intrusivesor
Catalina volcanicswith the altered Pucar/t formation, whereas others are en-
tirely withinthe latter. Crosscutting
(pipe) and concordant (manto) rela-
tionships exist. In Morocochatheyare all calledmantos,althoughmantosin
the senseof tabularconcordantreplacementbodiesare rare. Many orebodies
followbeddingpart of the way, thencut acrossthe sediments(manto-pipes).
Their sizesand shapesvary markedly. The largest manto-pipeworked in
recentyears,the "Omblamanto,"has a long axis of about850 m and its
greatestcross-section,
onthe 1,200level,is 100m by 200 m. Its plungevaries
from 45ø in the upperlevelsto 20ø in the intermediatepart and 60ø in the
lowerlevels. A groupof relatedorebodies is designated
an ore clusterby
McLaughlin,Graton,Bowditchand Burrell (74). Small volumesof dis-
seminated coppermineralization
areknownin the SanFranciscoandGertrudis
stocks.
Many ore shootsin veins are locatedon the margins (but inside) of in-
trusivesand of' the Catalina volcanics. In severalcasestheseveins and ore
shootsare closelyrelatedto a mantoin the adjoiningalteredPucar/tformation;
the mantogenerallyfollowsthe contactbetweenthe intrusiveor the volcanics
andthe alteredPucar/tformationor is within 50 m of it. In otherplacesore
pipesgradeupwardsinto veins. In someinstanceszoningsupportsthe con-
clusionthat mineralizationrose first alongthe restrictedchannelwaysof the
ore pipesand spreadlaterallyand upwardsinto fractures.
The structuralcontrolsof ore depositionare described in detailby Nagell
(79), Thomsonand Miller (98), and Walker (102). Veins and orebodies
vary markedlyaccording to the physicalandchemicalpropertiesof the various
rock types. For instance,in the Ombla-Gertrudissectionore shootsin veins
coincidewith silicatedlimestonehorizonsand not with unalteredlimestone,
and plungein accordwith the inclinationof the wall rocks.
The numberof mineralsreportedto occurin Morocochaoresis remarkable:
Hypogene
Abundant:
quartz chalcopyrite I, II
pyrite tennantite-tetrahedrite
sphalerite I, II
galena I, II
Common:
hematite rhodochrosite
magnetite rhodonite
fluorite anhydrite
pyrrhotite barite
covellite scheelite
chalcocite barite
molybdenite gypsum
calcite wolframite
Rare:
native arsenic stromeyerite

alabandite famatinite
marcasite emplectite
dj urleite proustire
greenockite stephanire?
millerite ? matildite
siderlte dolomite
cubanire ?x bournonite
idaire ? aikenite
"orange bornire' '•' ankerite
arsenopyrite I, II alunite
luzonite clay minerals
Supergene
chalcocite gypsum
chalcopyrite native copper
jarosite hisingerite
covellite
Probably idaire.
Probably zincian stannite (45).
460 ULRICH PETERSEN
The composition of the solid-solution

tennantite-tetrahedrite
is not known
in detail. Both arsenicand antimonyseemto be presentand their proportion
appearsto vary through the district. These mineral namesare used inter-
changeably by all investigatorsof Morocochaoresand a great dealof confusion
exists.
Regionalzoningwith superimposed
local zoningis well displayed. Its
center is in the region of the San Franciscoand Gertrudis stocks. Quartz-
molybdeniteveinletsoccur principally within these stocks. Enargite is re-
strictedmainlyto veinsandorebodies withinthe intrusivesandtheir immediate
surroundings,especiallyin the upper and intermediatelevels; it is generally
closely associatedwith tennantite-tetrahedrite. The latter mineral extends
howeverbeyondthis environment,out to the marginsof the district. In the
central zone chalcopyriteis common,sphaleriterare and galena practically
absent;quartz and pyrite are the main gangueminerals,and sericitealteration
predominates.
Farther outwards,in the intermediatezone, tennantite-tetrahedrite, sphal-
erite and chalcopyritebecomeabundant;galenais common,and rhodochrosite,
ankeriteand calcitelocallysupersede quartz and pyrite in the gangue. The
marginsof the districtare characterizedby sphalerite,galena,calciteand silver-
bearing tetrahedrite (freibergite, up to 6% Ag). Wall rock alteration is
negligible. In termsof the major economicmetalsthe regionalzoningis from
copper-silver to copper-zinc-silver
andfinallyto lead-silver. It is well brought
out by the Cu:Ag ratio of the ores.
The rich copperoresof the centralzoneare almostexhausted. Production
is now derivedfrom lower grade ores in the central and intermediatezones.
The followingaveragegradesof concentratorheadsand of bulk coppercon-
centratefor two representative six-monthsperiodsgivesan ideaof the chemical
composition of theseores:
Conc. heads 1 13.7 2.5 0.9 2.9 0.2 57.6
Cu Conc. 1 35.1 23.0 16.8 7.3 3.70 17.7 0.70 0.9
Conc. heads 2 15.0 2.1 1.3 3.8 0.3 55.7
Cu Conc. 2 35.6 23.6 15.4 11.1 3.05 26.6 0.90 2.0
The oresof the Puquiocochamineare derivedfrom the intermediatezone,

north of San Franciscostock. The copperconcentratesfor the same six-
monthsperiodsused aboveand typical zinc concentrates(for a different
period) assayasfollows:
Heads 1 24.2 2.8 1.6 3.9 0.9
Cu conc. 1 34.6 21.1 19.5 8.2 4.1 27.3 1.8 3.9
Heads 2 25.2 2.2 2.4 4.0 1.0
Cu conc. 2 32.5 19.8 29.8 10.0 4.1 2.1 3.0
Z.n conc, .32.:• .3,.5 1.8 55.8 0,4 5,4 0.• 0,1
The Arapa mine is locatedin the southeastern

margin of the district.
Typical leadconcentrates
assay:
US %Fe %Cu %Zn %As ozAg %Sb %Pb
Pb conc. 2 14.4 6.1 0.34 9.2 0.53 47.4 0.37 42.2
The changein the As: Sb ratio from the centerof the districtoutwardmay
be appreciated
bestby comparing
the copperconcentrates
of the main mine
with thosefrom Puquiococha.
Althoughmetalratiosin veinstendto be restrictedto a smallrangewithin
a givenore shoot,they certainlyvary amongthe ore shoots,laterallyand up-
ward. This local zonin# is well illustratedby numerousexamplescited by
Moore (76) and Nagell (79). Vertical zoningin pipes is commonlyfrom
barrenpyrite at depthto copperoresto zinc-leadoresat the top. This same
zoningis commonalsofrom-the centerof an ore pipe to its margin. In the
Omblamanto-pipe, whichtraverseslimestone, the pyrite (and minor quartz)
coreis successively surroundedby chalcopyrite-pyrite; chalcopyrite-tennantite-
sphaleriteand sphalerite-galena.Subordinatebornite and corellite occur
further away from the core than the chalcopyrite-pyrite zone. Upwards the
pyrite core diminishesin cross-sectionat the expenseof valuable minerals
(chalcopyrite,sphalerite,minor bornite and enargite). Similarly, veins may
go fromquartz-pyritein depthto copperto lead-zincoreslaterallyandupward.
Anisotropicpyrite is rare. First generationdark (marmatitic) sphalerite
replacespyrite and is in turn replacedby coppersulfides. The iron content
of sphaleritedecreases from the center of the district outward. Exsolution
blebsof chalcopyrite in sphaleriteare common. The secondgenerationsphal-
erite is ruby red.
Borniteoccursin smallquantitiesthroughoutthe mine and is only locally
abundant (for instancein Ombla). Tin-bearing "orange bornite" is com-
monlyassociated with it.
Galena containsgenerallyless silver than tennantite-tetrahedrite,and not
enoughto exsolvein the form of discreteminerals. Only on the fringesof the
district does most of the silver occur in galena.
Barite is sparselydistributedthroughoutthe mine, the tendencybeingfor
it to occurat the fringesof the district. The association galena-tennantite-
tetrahedrite-rhodochrosite has not been observedwith enargite or bornite.
Pyrrhotiteandarsenopyrite are knownas veinmineralsonlyfrom onelocality
on the 1,700levelwheretheyoccurtogether. Bournoniteoccurstogetherwith
aikenite and tennantite-tetrahedrite.
In the copper-lead-zinc-silver
veinscuttingthe Catalinavolcanics quartz,
pyriteandsphalerite arethemostabundant minerals andweredeposited early.
They are followedby lesseramountsof chalcopyrite and enargiteintergrown
with tennantite-tetrahedrite.
Carbonates (dolomite,ankerite,siderite,calcite,
rhodochrosite)are late (76). In the ore-pipesin alteredlimestone pyriteis
the predominantgangue mineral and quartz is subordinate. Fluorite and
carbonates
occuron the edgesof someof the manto-pipes.The bottomsof
many orebodiesare characterizedby strongsericitization.
462 ULRICH PETERSEN
The generalizedparageneticsequenceis as follows:

Hematite, magnetite
Quartz, molybdenite
Pyrite
SphaleriteI (Arsenopyrite)
Enargite
Bornite, chalcopyrite,tennantite-tetrahedrite
Galena I, Carbonates
Barite
SphaleriteII, galenaII
Each later mineral may replacethe precedingminerals.

Alterationof theigneousrocks(intrusivesand Catalinavolcanics)exhibits
the familiarprocesses of bleaching,propylitization,sericitizationand silicifica-
tion. Pyrite, calcite,chlorite,epidote,quartz, diopside,magnetite,tremolite-
actinolite,sericiteand adularia resultedfrom the interaction of solutionswith
various rock minerals. The ferromagnesianminerals generally break down
first. Biotite is in most casesreplacedby chlorite. Plagioclasealters more
readily than orthoclase,both changingto sericite. Epidote and calcite are
productsof alterationof feldspars. Formation of adularia is believedto be
closelyrelated to the mineralizationprocessbecauseit is also presentamong
the alterationproductsof the limestone(76). Tremolite-actinolite
occursas
an alterationproductonly within 60 m of a contactwith altered limestone.
The alterationof limestoneby intrusivesand mineralizationhas beendiscussed
previously.
Hypogeneleachinghasbeenobservedin severalof the veinsin the Moro-
cochadistrict (70). It affectschieflylead-zincveins,but onecaseof leaching
of enargiteis reported. The first mineralto be leachedis barite, then galena,
sphalerite,pyrite and tennantite-tetrahedrite and finally the carbonates.
Quartz doesnot seemto be attacked. Small amountsof newly deposited
pyrite, chalcopyriteand hematiteline the boxworks. Late generationgalena,
sphalerite,
tetrahedriteandcarbonates,associatedwith highsilvervalues,are
foundin the veinsbeyondthe zonesof strongleaching. Theselate generation
mineralsmay be the result of redepositionof metalsleachedfrom the veins
elsewhere.
Supergenechalcociteand covellitefavor replacinggalenaor borniteover
any other mineral. Chalcopyriteis replacedin preferenceto sphalerite,
whereasenargiteand tennantite-tetrahedrite
seemto be very inert to super-
geneenrichment. This processis economicallyunimportantin Morococha.
San Cristdbal
The designationSan Crist6balmining district includestwo important

mines,San Cristobaland Carahuacra. The first of thesetwo is describedby
the staff of Cerro de PascoCopperCorp. (19), Hosmer (47), and Wright
(107), andthesecond
by Tosi (100).
MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRAL PERU 4,63
The stratigraphiccolumnof the area extendsfrom the lower Paleozoic

Excelsior phyllites to the CretaceousMachay limestone. As in Morococha
the Mitu red-bedsare essentiallyabsent;their positionis occupiedby the
Catalina volcanics.
The principalstructureis a northwest-trendinganticlinelocallycalledthe
Chumpeanticline (Fig. 11); the Excelsior phyllitescrop out in the core of
this anticlineand also form the highestpeaks in the region. The Chumpe
anticlineis superimposed on the southernpart of the Yauli dome; the Moro-
cochaanticlineis superimposed on the northernpart of the Yauli dome.
Monzonite porphyry stocks and dikes intrude Excelsior phyllites and
Catalinavolcanicsin the core of the Chumpeanticline.
\
\
Pal-
es\\
\ Pal-es
an
SAN
Pal-es
•- qmp
dp
REPLACEMENT BODIES O I 2 Km
• i • VEINS
FiG. 11. Generalized geologicmapof San Crist6bal. After unpublishedmaps

by J. B. Stoneand R. W. Phendler. qmp--quartz-monzonite porphyry;a-
alaskite; dia -- diabase;an -- andesite;Km -- Machay formation; Kg -- Goylla-
risquizgaformation; Jp-' Pucar•tformation; Pc -- Catalinavolcanics;Pal-es-'
Excelsior formation.
464 ULRICH PETERSEN
Ore occursin veinscuttingthe Excelsiorphyllite and Catalinavolcanics,

as well as in brecciasand replacementbodies(mantos) along the contactbe-
tween Catalina volcanics and Pucar• limestone. The main veins of the dis-
trict strikenortheast,i.e., more or lessat right anglesto the axis of the anti-
cline. They are moresharplydefinedin the volcanics;on enteringthe phyllites
they changeto wide, indefinitezonesof complexlyinterlacedveinletsand
slippage planes. The mainveinof SanCrist6balis 1 to 8 m wide,dips500-60ø
southeast, and changesits strike from North 55ø East to North 75ø East on
passingfrom the volcanicsto the phyllites.
Sphaleriteand pyrite are the most abundantminerals. Galena,chalco-
pyrite,tetrahedrite-tennantite,carbonates(calcite,siderite),quartz,and mar-
casiteare commonor locallyconcentrated. Hematite, argentite,pyrargyrite
and barite are rare. Native silver is reportedby Tosi (100) with ruby silver
from the upperpart of Carahuacra. Accordingto Tosi the parageneticse-
quenceat Carahuacrais: 1. sphalerite-argentite, 2. galena-chalcopyrite, 3.
pyrite-marcasite-quartz.
VOLCAN IC EASTERN PHYLLIT E DIKE
...... • ".:'•
-".':.- WOLFRAMITE
..................................... -.... .-•7..• :•.:•:.;:•:•..
::,.•"w-,• QUARTZ
• ('.'-::,
.._•..• .....• ..... CHALCOPYRITE
....•ii!;:":[•;:.?;!i!il;•!L-'-i?•?.:•i?i::,?3:"5.'.,.
::.:/::• __ :..,•_ __ SPHALERITE
_? .................... GALENA
.....,•. -,....,.
.......... BARITE
''• '''
''"•--"
....
''"'
'' ........ CARBONATE
FIG. 12. San Crist6bal--Distribution of mineralization, after Wright.
RecentlyO. Medranoand Wright (107) have madea detailedstudy of

paragenesisandzoningin the mainvein of San Crist6bal. They document a
well-definedzoningfrom the centerof the anticlineoutward,with the earlier
mineralspredominating in the centralzoneand the late mineralstoward the
margins. In time,the generalizedsequence of depositionis pyrite, wolframite,
quartz,chalcopyrite, sphalerite,galena,barite and carbonates.At any one
locationonlya few of thesemineralsmaybepresentandtheir proportions vary
from one vein zone to the next, as illustrated diagramaticallyby Figure 12.
The associationwolframite-quartzis locallyabundantwherethe San Crist6bal
vein crossessomeporphyry dikes.
In San Crist6balproportionsof mineralschangefrom one shootto the
next, which may be along the hangingor foot wall in the samevein zone.
Contouringof assayvaluesof the mainvein suggests that silveraccompanies
M,4JOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTR,4L PERU 465
boththe copperand the lead-zincore (107). Silvermineralsoccuras inclu-

sionsin galena. Sphaleritecontainschalcopyriteblebs. The ore averages
about1.0% Cu, 10.0% Zn, 5 oz. Ag and 1.0% Pb.
Structuralcontrolsof mineralizationare discussed by Wright (107). He
attributesthe increaseof pyrite andchalcopyritein the volcanicsadjoiningthe
phyllitesto intensefracturingof the volcanics,which resultedin greater per-
meability and surfacearea. This in turn causeda marked drop in pressure
and temperatureof the solutions,conceivably boilingand providedincreased
opportunitiesfor reactionbetweenfluidsand wall-rock. Other structuralcon-
trols wouldbe the shapeof the volcanics-phyllite
contactand the orientationof
shear stresses in the rocks.
The majority of the ore treatedat the Mahr tunnelconcentratoris from San
Crist6bal,but unfortunatelydifficultiesin obtaininga commerciallysatisfactory
concentratehave resultedin variablemetallurgicalpractice. Copperand lead
concentratesare generallyhigher in arsenicthan in antimony. Concentrates
of Carahuacra ore are obtained in a different concentrator and indicate more
antimony than arsenic in the ore:
Carahuacra Pb
conc. 22.3 8.8 2.1 13.6 0.1 299.0 0.5 46.2
Carahuacra Zn
conc. 28.3 4.7 0.5 55.8 0.1 15.1 0.1 0.1
Wall rock alteration outward from a vein in volcanics consists of silicifica-

tion, sericitizationand chloritization. In the phylliteswall rock alterationis
restrictedto somesilicificationand bleaching.
Casapalca
The Casapalcaveinsare describedby McKinstry and Noble (72), the
Staff of Cerrode PascoCopperCorp. (19) and Overweel(81).
GeneralGeolo#y.--Theregionalgeologyof the districtis shownin Figure
13. Red-bedsand conglomeratesof the Casapalca formationand volcanicsof
the CarlosFranciscoformationmake up the stratigraphiccolumnof the dis-
trict. The red-bedsconsistof shaleand sandstone,both calcareousto a certain
but variableextent. Finely dividedhematiteis responsible for the red color.
The volcanicsare tuffs,breccias
andflows,generallyof andesitic composition.
The mainstructuralfeatureof Casapalca is a north-trendingrelativelytight
anticlinewith a subsidiarysynclinealongits axis, calledthe Casapalca anti-
clinorium. A fewlongitudinal
faultsmodifythisstructure,
butonlyin detail;
many of them passalong their strike into folds. Outside of the mine area
severalimportantfaults, suchas the Yauliyacu fault, strike northwest.
The intrusiverocksof the districtcomprise
albite-diorite
or soda-syenite
(Tarucaporphyry)andvery subordinate monzonite
porphyry. Part of what
is mappedas Carlos Franciscoporphyry may be intrusive. Diabase dikes
traverse the red-beds at the Veintiuno de Setiembre mine.
OreDeposits.--The
principalveinsof Casapalca
(C, M, L) are part of a
466 ULRICH PETERSEN
northeaststriking,70ø northwestdippingfracturezonewhichis about5 km

long and extendsover a vertical interval of at least 1,300 m. About 3.5 km
of the 5 km have beenexploredby mine workings. The southwestpart of
this fracturezone (C-vein) is calledthe Aguas Calientessection,the northeast
part the CarlosFranciscosection(M and L veins). In the Carlos Francisco
sectionof the mine thereare severalother northwestdippingveins (Rayo A,
P, O, S) which either branchfrom the main veins, are p•trallelto them, lie
en echelon("shingles") or cut them at variousangles. On Figure 13 they
appearto radiateout from a pointon the mainfracturezonebetweenthe Carlos
Franciscoand Aguas Calientessections. The veins of the Casapalcadistrict
are generallylessthan 2 m wide, averagingabout1 m.
Fro. 13. Generalizedgeologicmap of Casapalca. Modified after unpublished

maps by H. E. McKinstry, J. A. Noble, R. H. Kimball and R. A. Still. d--
diorite; Tvcf--Carlos Francisco formation; Tcl '-Bellavista formation; Tee=
Carmenconglomerate;Tcrb -- Casapalcaformation.
In the upperlevelsbranchesand subsidiaryfracturesare commonwhereas

in depththe fracturesbecomebetterdefined. The natureand strengthof the
veinsis alsorelatedto the typeof rockin whichtheyoccur. In the Americana
districtsomechalcopyrite occursdisseminated in theTertiaryvolcanics
(3, 54).
Recent structural studies suggesta certain amount of pre-ore faulting.
Post-ore faulting is present,but appearsto be of subordinateimportance.
The largestfaultdisplacement is about30 m. Overweel(80, 81) analyzesthe
structuralaspectsin detail in terms of fracture systemsand orientationof
stressesand suggests a structuralcontrolfor the main ore shoots.
MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRALPERU 467
Ore mineralsof the district comprise:

Abundant:
quartz carbonate (calcite, manganiferous

pyrite calcite and rhodochrosite)
sphalerite chalcopyrite
galena tetrahedrite
Locally abundant or rare:

orpiment arsenopyrite
realgar miargyrite
argentire polybasite
stibnite boulangerite
rhodonite jarnesonite
barite bournonite
huebnerite ruby silver
bornite geocronite
owyheeite
diaphorite
The sequence
of deposition
established
by McKinstry and Noble (72) is
essentiallyas follows:
1. Quartz, calcite, manganiferous calcite and rhodochrosite (with quartz
perhaps later than the carbonates)
2. a) Pyrite
b) Sphalerite
c) Galena
3. a) Tetrahedrite (and chalcopyrite?)
b) Quartz, chalcopyrite
c) Bournonite and pyrite
4. Quartz and calcite
Quartz and calciteoccurtogetherin mostveins. Dark sphaleritecontains

numerousblebs of chalcopyrite,whereas light-coloredsphaleriteis free of
them. Tetrahedritehas a relativelylow arseniccontentas evidencedby the
followingassay(Cerro de PascoCorp. ResearchLab.):
%
Cu [ 34.3
As 2.6
Ag 3.0
Sb 18.6
Pb ' 2.8
As:Sb 1:7.2
In CasapalcatetrahedriteCu + Ag + Pb -- 40.1%.
Accordingto McKinstry and Noble (72) tetrahedriteis alteredto chalco-
pyritealongthe marginsin oresfrom the AguasCalientessection. They also
mentionthat "bournoniteis commonlyassociatedwith the tetrahedrite,and its
characteristic
positionis in a band of irregular width lying betweengalena
and the gray copper." There is, however,also somelate-stagebournonite
which grew as independentcrystals(see sequenceabove).
468 ULRICH PETERSEN
The followingtypicalassayaveragesillustratethe nature of theseores:

Conc. heads 1 8.3 0.6 6.5 6.6 3.6 59.6
Cu conc. 1 30.5 17.8 26.2 4.1 4.7 173.3 3.5 10.3
Pb conc. 1 18.2 6.2 2.7 4.8 0.4 62.6 0.3 64.4
Conc. heads 2 7.5 0.7 5.1 6.4 2.8 63.8

Cu conc. 2 31.6 22.2 23.1 4.3 3.5 166.7 3.3 11.0
Pb conc. 2 19.9 4.1 4.0 7.7 0.9 62.4 0.6 53.6
Zn conc. 32.4 2.9 0.6 60.7 0.05 2.5 0.02 0.7
The silver grade of the concentrates

is in accordwith the amountof silver
in the individualminerals. Ten chemicalassayson selectedcrystalsfrom six
samplescollectedfrom variousparts of the mine (53) showthat tetrahedrite
has the highestsilver content(700-800 oz/ton) followedby galena (40-55
oz/ton). Only between0 and 25 oz/ton Ag is containedin chalcopyrite,
pyrite and sphalerite,probablyin this order. The iron contentof the sphal-
erite, which containsnumerouschalcopyriteblebs,is 3.4 4.4% Fe.
In many instancesgalenaand sphaleriteare etched,whereasthe late-stage
sulfidesare not. This hypogeneleachingwas recognizedby McKinstry and
Noble (72) for veins from both the Carlos Franciscoand Aguas Calientes
sections. Lacy and Hosmer (70) note in addition that barite is the first
mineral to be leached,then the sulfides (in the order tetrahedrite-galena-
sphalerite,pyrite and chalcopyrite)and finally the carbonates;depositionof
new sulfidesterminatesthe process.
Oxidation and supergeneenrichmentare negligibleat Casapalca.
Zoning.--Zoningis prominentin a horizontalsense,i.e., the long axis of
eachzoneplungesat a very steepangleresultingin steepore shootswith great
verticalextent. The only verticalzoningseemsto be the presenceof argentite,
ruby silverandothervaluablesulfosalts with pyrite and quartzin the highest
levels. This is followedbelowby a leanzoneup to 100m deep,after whichthe
main mineralsof the depositpredominateand are zoned,as mentionedabove,
preferentiallyin a lateralsense. No relationto intrusivesis apparent.
McKinstry and Noble (72) describea Central Zone betweenthe Carlos
Franciscoand AguasCalientessections, with changesto the north and south
throughan IntermediateZone to an Outer Zone; this zone is also character-
izedby hotminewaterthatdeposited
calciteon the surfacebeforebeingtapped
TABLE V
COMPOSITIONOF AGUAS CALIENTES WATER, CASAPALCA

pH 6.8 HCOa 107 mg/l
Ca/Na 13 SO4 1,460 mg,/l
Mg/Ca 0.04 CI 21 mg,/l
K/Na 0.10 Ca 519 mg/l
HCO3/C1 5.1 Mg 23 mg/l
SO4/C1 70 Na 40 mg/l
B/c 0.02 K 4.0 mg/l
B 0.4 mg/1
TABLE VI
Hypogene goning• Casapalca
After: Cerro de Pasco Copper Corp., Geological Staff (1950)
Zone I Zone II-A Zone II Zone III
Cu low high high low
Zn moderate high high moderate
Ag low low high moderate
Pb moderate low high moderate
pyrite cubes cubes and cubes and pyritohedra

pyritohedra pyritohedra
sphalerite present present present present
galena present present present present
chalcopyrite present
tetrahedrite present present present
other arsenopyrite bournonite,geo-

minerals hubnerite ½hronite, stibnite
carbonate rare common(b•) abundant (I4n) abundant (•)

silicific, intense moderate mild weak
sericite rare common abundant abundant
by mine workings. Warm water still risesfrom the floodedpart of the mine at
a rate of 2,000-3,000 gals/min. The chemicalcompositionof this water is
given in Table V. On the basis of elaboratecontouringof metal values,
metal ratiosand omegaindex of carbonates, Lacy (65) and the Staff of Cerro
de PascoCorp. (19) arrived at a somewhatmore complexbreakdowninto
three main zones (I, II, III), zone II having two variants (II and II-A).
I prefer to reversethe order of listingzonesII and II-A becausethis provides
a morelogicalprogression for the observedchanges. The zonal arrangements
are reproducedin Table VI and Figure 14, and needno further comments,as
the pertinentvariationsare readilyapparent. Note that ZonesII and II-A of
CarlosFranciscoand Consuelomay be conceivedof as the marginsof Zone I,
the threeforminga singleore shoot(the CarlosFranciscoshootin its broad
sense.)
Wall-rock Alteration.--Wall rock alterationfollows the normal sequence
from propylitizationat a distancefrom a vein to pyritization, sericitizationand
silicificationnear the vein. Where the latter are intensethe originalnature of
the rock cannot be discerned in most cases.
470 ULRICH PETERSEN
In the volcanicshornblendeis replacedby chlorite and calcite; epidote,

zoisiteand pyrite are locallypresent. Subsequently, toward the vein, plagio-
claseis convertedto sericite. The most intenselyaltered rock consistsof
quartz, sericite,feldsparremnantsand pyrite. Somecalcite-adulariaveinlets
are present (72).
In the red-bedsthe first sign of alterationis bleaching. Chemicalanalysis
of several samplesindicatesa partial conversionof ferric to ferrous iron.
Next, toward a vein, zeolite (probablychabazite),chlorite,epidoteand dis-
seminatedpyrite appear. The strongestalterationis characterizedby intense
silicificationand pyritization. This alteration sequencewas recognizedby
McKinstry and Noble (72).
I000 2000 FT
AGUA$ CAL. I[NTE[$
FIG. 14. Generalizedlongitudinalsectionof Casapalca--Zoning.

After C de P Staff.
V iso-•lruri
This district doesnot qualify as a major ore deposit. It is, however,in-

cludedbecause it typifiesthe vein depositsin Tertiary volcanics. Most studies
of the Viso-Aruri districthaveremainedunpublished or are mainlyof historic
interest. The following summaryis basedon a comprehensive examination
by Petersen (83, 84).
The regionalgeologyis illustratedby Figure 15. Flat-lying to moderately
foldedTertiary volcanicscomprisemostof the district. Tightly foldedMeso-
zoic limestoneis exposedin the bottomof the Rimac valley in the southwest
cornerof the district. Rhyolite, trachyteand dacitedikes (not shownon the
map) traversethe andesiticvolcanicflows.
Ore mineralsoccurin very narrow fracturesand shearzones (generally
lessthan 1 m wide) of considerable horizontaland vertical extent. The main
veins dip steeplyand form a conjugatesystem;they strike either N-NE or
NE-ENE. Ore shootsare structurallycontrolled(inflexions,cymoidloops,
intersections,junctions). Ore textures are open in the higher part of the
district,bandedin the intermediatepart and massivein the lowestexposed
levels.
UBAN•AYO
o • ,• Km
FIG. 15. Generalizedgeologicmapof Viso-Aruri Region. After Ulrich

Petersen. Tv = Tertiary volcanics.
Minerals reportedfrom theseveinsinclude:
native silver stibnite chalcopyrite
quartz galena arsenopyrite
magnetite calcite tennantite-tetrahedrite
pyrite rhodochrosite ruby silver
sphalerite barite gypsum?
Vertical zoningis quitemarked,but no relationbetweenzoningand intru-
sivesis apparent. Arsenopyrite
is restricted
to the upperpart of the district;
chemicalanalysesindicatea contentof about1 oz Au and 24 oz Ag per ton.
Rhodochrosite is closelyassociated with the arsenopyrite.Chalcopyrite
increases relativeto othermineralsin depth;it alsooccursas exsolutionblebs
in sphalerite. The latter mineral occursover a considerable vertical extent,
beingpresentto lower elevationsthan galena;sphaleriteis in part marmatitic.
Galenacontains80-250 oz Ag per ton, but essentially no gold. On assaymaps
the lead values appear to be proportionalto the silver grade (about 1 oz
Ag/ton for every 1% Pb). In generalthere is no relationbetweensilver and
gold content. Tennantite-tetrahedrite is silver-bearing(up to 3,000 oz/ton?)
but restrictedmainly to the upper part of the district. Ruby silver, native
silver, and stibnitecharacterizethe near surfaceportionsof the veins in the
upper levels; in fact, the first two may be supergene. Pyrite and quartz are
present at all elevations,whereasmagnetiteis observedin only one small
472 ULRICH PETERSEN
depositat the bottomof the Viso Valley, considerably lower than all other
depositsmentioned. Barite, calciteand gypsumare rare. Pyrite dissemi-
natedin the wall rockstendsto form cubes;in theveinsbothcubesandpyrito-
hedra are present.
Pyrite and quartz were the first mineralsto be depositedin the veinsand
probablycontinuedto do so throughoutthe period of mineralization. The
othermineralsapparentlyfollowedthe order (chalcopyrite),sphalerite,galena,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite,tetrahedrite,rhodochrosite (sphalerite),and calcite.
Wall rock adjoiningveinsis bleached,pyritized and silicified. The ferro-
magnesianmineralsand feldsparsare replacedby sericite,chlorite,calciteand
epidote.
Oxidation and supergeneenrichmentare negligible.
CONCLUSIONS
A reviewof the geologyand mineralogyof thirty ore depositsin an area of

about100 km by 500 km in the Andesof CentralPeril showsthat they are all
epigeneticand mostare associated with igneousactivity, having correspond-
ingly characteristic
sulfur isotopecompositions.A great variety is repre-
sented,from quartz molybdeniteveins through contactmetasomatic,hydro-
thermaland red-bedcopperdeposits.
An examinationof the chemicalnature and mineralogyof the oresleadsto
the conclusion
that the ore depositsform part of a metallogenicor geochemical
provincecharacterizedby copper,zinc, arsenic,antimony,silver, lead and
bismuth. The bulk of the elementspresumablyintroducedby the ore fluid
comprisesS, O, Fe, Cu, As, Sb, Pb, Zn, C, Si and Ca.
General geologicconsiderationssuggestthat the depth at which these
depositsformeddid not exceedin general,a few thousandmeters. The simul-
taneouspresenceof quartzand calciteindicatesthat the ore solutionsrarely, if
ever, exceeded400o-500ø C. The centralzonesof the complexcopper-lead-
zinc-silverdepositsare characterizedby enargitemineralization,presumably
formedabove300ø C. Luzonitein the upper and northernmostpart of the
Cerro de Pascopyrite-silicabody may representmineralizationjust below
300ø C. Marcasite,orpimentand realgar are presentin severaldeposits,
pointingto temperaturesof formationbelowabout350ø C. At Cerro de Pasco
temperatureapparentlydiminishedfrom about500ø C to below150ø C during
the depositionof the ores.
As a first approximationthree broad associationswithin the system
S-Fe-Cu may be considered to representtypicalore depositsor portionsof
complexdeposits:
1. Pyrite with covellite,chalcocite,djurleite, digeniteor bornite, alone or
in combination.
2. Pyrite with chalcopyrite.
3. Pyrrhotite with chalcopyrite.
The high-sulfur association1 has enargite, the low-sulfur associations2
and 3 have tennantite or arsenopyriteas characteristicarsenic-bearing
minerals.
Sphaleriteis rare and low in iron in association

1, commonand with low
to moderateiron contentin association
2, and iron rich in association3 (Cerro
de Pasco).
The associationarsenopyrite-pyrite is commonin ore depositsof Central
Peru andplacesa maximumof about530ø C on the temperature of formation.
Many of the districtsexhibitclearzoning. The changesin mineralogyare
not due so much to changesin equilibriumconditionsof the mineralsas to
changesin bulk compositionof the mineralsdepositedfrom the solutions.
From the centerto the marginsthe changesare from copperto zinc to lead,
from arsenicto antimony and from high-sulfur to low-sulfur associations.
Reaction with susceptiblecountry rocks (i.e., limestone) may cause rapid
deposition
of sulfidesandleadto localzoningsuperimposed on thedistrict-wide
zoning. This in turn is conditionedby regionalzoning.
HARVARDUNIVERSITY•
CAMBRIDGE• MASS.,
Oct. 15, 1964
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Principal de San Crist6bal: presented at 8a La Convenci6n de Ingenieros de Minas del
Peril, La Oroya. Sec. Geologifi, p. 10-28.

Regional Geology and Deposits

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Regional Geology and Deposits

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ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF

VOL. 60 MAY, 1965 No. 3

REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS

Abstract .............................................................. 408

The regional geologyof the Andes of Central Peril is summarizedas

MININa is an importantfactorin the economyof the Republicof Peril, and

General summariesare presentedby McLaughlin (73), Steinmann (94),

Fro. 2. Generalizedgeologicmap of CentralPeru. Modifiedafter

D. R. S. Thomson,G. E. Walker, and J FernandezConcha. Similarly, I

The area under discussionlies between942

Locally,and toward the east, the Carboniferous

Formation Dominant Rock Type Thickness

Goyllarisquizga sandstone Variable, 30-1,800 m. 'Generally

tion of the Mitu red-beds. A large amountof volcanicflowsand pyroclastics

z GEOLOGIC FORMATION E v E NT S o FORMATIONEVENTS

/Quat. Thirdstageof uphft of Cordiliero•

Their total thicknessis generallybetween1,000m and 4,000 m. The portion

Fro. 3. Diagrammaticcross-sectionillustrating Andean anticlinorium. TQv =

Broadlyspeaking theAndesrepresent in cross-section,

blanket. It was preservedas a "belt" alongthe westernslopesof the Andes.

crossfoldsand for somefolds that seemto occurisolatedin relatively undis-

The mineralogyin the zonesof oxidationand supergeneenrichmentis

ORE DEPOSITS OF CENTRAL PERU

biineral Principal Elevation of Approximate Present Possible

Antamina Cu 4150-4650 (4) 2.$ x 3.0 IV A

Muallanca Pb-Zn-Ag 3700-4900 11 x 17 IV B

Tuco-Chira Pb-Zn 4250-4600 5 x 6 IV

Rondoni Cu 4000-4350 1 x 2 IV D iS)

Raura Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4600-4925 3 x 4 III C

Atacocha Pb-Zn 3600-4300 (4) 1 x 7 I

Colquijirca Pb-Zn-Ag •100-4400 I x 3 III

Huaron Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4300-4800 3 x 4 I A

ChunEar Cu-Pb-Zn 4350-4550 1.5 x 2.0 III C

Santarider Pb-Zn over 4400 m 0.5 x 2.0 III

Janchisocha Mo over 4000 m 1.5 x 2 IV C

Morococha Cu-Pb-Zn-ag 4000-5200 (4) 5 x 8 l A

Venturosa Pb-Zn 4475-5000 1.5 x 1.5 IV C

Casapalca Cu-Pb-Zn-ag 3475-4950 (4) 1.5 x 4.0 I A-B

Minerai Principal Elevation of Approximate Present Possible

Pacococha Pb-Zn-Ag 4600-4900 4 x 6 III C

Dona Basilia Cu 4600 I x 6 IV D

Yauricocha Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag 4300-4800 1.5 x 2.0 II B

Cercapuquio Pb-Zn 4300-4400 ? III C

Huacravilca (Fe) 4500-4800 1.3 x 1.8 IV D (5)

Julcani Ag-Si-Pb 4100-4600 1 x S III B

(1) Arranged from north to south

(2) I - 1000-5000 tons/day

(3) A - probably over 10 million tons

(4) Ore in lowest level

striking when travelling through the Andes. Large tracts of sedimentary

Veins in the shalesand phyllitesof the Excelsiorformationare generally

Upper Paleozoic limestone member:

The upper Paleozoiclimestonemembermineralizedin Cobrizais the only

Host-rock Alteration.--Alteration takes place in responseto the chemical

Garnetcompositions corespond essentially

Amongthe alterationmineralsthe followingstandout:

Sucha statisticalanalysisover-emphasizes relativelyrare elements

tional elements(i.e., sodium,potassium,chlorine) were present in the ore

cochaand Morococha. Even in those depositswhere the ore minerals are

fallingwithin a relativelynarrow range,whereasothergeologicprocesses may

mAJOR om• Dm'OS•TS

Antaminais the northernmost depositof the group. It is described

FIG. 4. Generalizedgeologicmap of Antamina. After unpublishedmaps by