Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X

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Dextral transpressional shearing and strike-slip partitioning developments

in the Central Myanmar Basin during the collision between the India Plate
and West Myanmar Block
Kyi Khin a, *, Aung Moe b, Myo Myint c, Kyi Pyar Aung d
a
BLK 402#05-16, Admiralty Link, Singapore 750402, Singapore
b
Saarlandstr. 40, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany
c
Win Geological Consulting Ltd., 45 Arbour Crest Terrace NW, Calgary, Alberta T3G 4S2, Canada
d
Department of Geology, Banmaw University, Kachin State, Myanmar

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Central Myanmar Basin (CMB) lies between the two major strike-slip faults: Sagaing Fault to the east and Kabaw
West Myanmar Block Fault to the west. Central Volcanic Line of Myanmar emplaced en-echelon array of P-shears along the fault zone,
Central Myanmar Basin (CMB) which was active dextral as surrounding major faults at a low angle about 15◦ to the shear zone boundary. CMB
Indo-Myanmar Ranges (IMR)
was developed as strike-slip partitioned transpression model as proposed in this study. The transprsession tec­
Strike-slip partitioning
Dextral transpression
tonic is common with oblique convergence subduction as well as collision of India Plate to West Myanmar Block,
Sagaing Fault especially effects on the CMB. Structural evidence are occurred as en-echelon folding and fracturing by satellite
Kabaw Fault photos, field observation and 3D strain ellipsoid construction showing plane strain by pure shear upon ideal
Myanmar strike-slip with simple shear. In this study, two types of transpression distinguished as homogeneous and strike-
slip partitioning which are developed within the frame of the strike-slip fault with progressive deformation.
Under the condition of the strike-slip partitioned transpression, strain partitioning is distinctly occurred together
with progressive deformation and reactivation of pre-existing structures such as cylindrical fold to double
plunging fold, normal fault to oblique slip fault and positive flower structure. Deformation process related to the
India Plate movement deduced the period of Late Miocene and Pliocene-Pleistocene based on the structural
analysis in Rakhine Coastal region, western Myanmar. During the period between the Late Miocene to Pliocene-
Pleistocene, pre-existing ophiolite zone in the Indo-Myanmar Ranges (IMR) was split up different zones by the
Sagaing Fault displacement, accompanied to the West Myanmar Block movement with India Plate subduction.
Accordance with the Sagaing Fault displacement and group of mud volcanoes shifting, the CMB moved north­
ward about 450km with displacement rate 5–7cm per annum by the 45–50◦ convergent angle of India Plate
collision to Eurasia Plate. Transpression deformation of northward compression was developed in the CMB,
simultaneously on the other side transtension as pull-apart basin was formed by Andaman Sea opening at the
south on the Sagaing Fault. During the Miocene time, collision of India Plate to Eurasia Plate was principal and
caused the deformation at northern border the India, in which India Plate moved both in northwards and rotated
anti-clockwise, whereas West Myanmar Block together with Sibumasu Block rotated clockwise becoming final
closure of the northeasternmost Assam and Myanmar regions. During the Oligocene time, deposition of the
shallow marine Barail formation in the Bengal Basin and shallow marine to continental shelf sequences in the
CMB started as twin trough. This study provides the transpression deformation in the CMB and related regions
during syn- and post-collision of India Plate to West Myanmar Block with position and kinematic structural
interpretation.

1. Introduction the India Plate to West Myanmar Block well preserved as accretionary
prism included flysch sedimentation with obducted ophiolite in the IMR,
India microcontinent movement with the collision of India Plate to volcanic arc and horizontal shortening as folding in the CMB.
Eurasia Plate is already documented, especially oblique convergence of Transpression deformation was introduced by Pivnik et al. (1998) in

* Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaesx.2021.100055
Received 14 February 2021; Received in revised form 27 March 2021; Accepted 28 March 2021
Available online 2 April 2021
2590-0560/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K. Khin et al.
the CMB, showing deformation structures of positive flower structure,
thrust fault, oblique reverse fault and inverted basins during Pliocene-
Pleistocene, but lack of transpression-position and -setting. Trans­
pression is totally opposite from transtension and formed by compres­
sion with dragging movement between a broad-zone of two major strike-
slip faults. Nowaday, transpression is very common to use in a tectonic
zone, especially in the CMB by the collision of the India Plate to the West
Myanmar Block with oblique convergence. Transpression tectonic that
occurs on a regional scale along the plate boundaries is characterized by
oblique convergence and a type of strike-slip deformation that deviates
from simple shear because of a simultaneous component of shortening
perpendicular to the fault plane. Thus, transpression describes a state of
strain that combines strike-slip motion, horizontal shortening and ver­
tical extension. Ridges form in response to transpression, a combination
of strike-slip displacement and compression that yields a component of
shortening across the fault. The relative amounts of shortening and
strike-slip can be expressed in the convergence angle alpha (α) which
ranges from zero (ideal strike-slip) to 90◦ (ideal convergence) (Fig. 1).
More locally, transpression occurs within restraining bends in strike-slip
fault zones.
Sloan et al. (2017) has been stated that there was, however, a sig­
nificant change in behaviour of the fault zone towards a more trans­
pressional style around the end of the Miocene and the beginning of the
Pliocene. Further offshore, however, the fault zone shows no strong
indications of transpression and exhibits a major horse-tail-splaying
style in a very thick (>6km) Pliocene depocentre as the fault transfers
displacement to structures in the central Andaman Sea. Kyaw Lin Oo
et al. (2015) following to Pivnik et al. (1998) and Rangin et al. (1999)
stated that it is probably related to the hyper-oblique convergence of
India along the western Myanmar; the northward motion of India
coupled with the Burma Plate and collided with Asia during Mioce­
ne–Quaternary, resulted in extensional to transpressional deformations
in Myanmar.
Naing Maw Than et al. (2017) following to Pivnik et al. (1998) stated
that the changes in paleocurrent directions in Irrawaddy Formation are
likely to be related to the Pleistocene inversion of previously existing
normal faults to form the south eastern uplifts and the 20◦ N uplift of the
Salin Sub-basin in Central Myanmar, caused by a switch from trans­
tensional to transpressional deformation. Morley et al. (2020) stated
that major transpressional deformation affected the IMR and Central
Basin of West Burma Terrane in Late Miocene to Recent.
On the other hand, transtension is totally opposite from trans­
pression. Transtension is a combination of horizontal extension, vertical
shortening, and strike slip. Topographic depressions reflect transtension,
a combination of strike slip and extension. The relative importance of
extension versus strike slip can be represented by the divergence angle
alpha (α), which ranges from zero (ideal strike-slip) to 90◦ (ideal
extension) (Fig. 1). Transtension zones are characterized by lithospheric
thinning and are sometimes the sites of deep sedimentary basins such as
pull-apart basins.
Licht et al. (2018) has been stated that precise age constraints for the
other Cenozoic units of the forearc basin for a detailed back stripping
Fig. 1. 3D model of transtension and transpression with related strain deformation (after Teyssier and Tikoff, 1999).
2
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
analysis and basin-wide seismic lines are as of yet still lacking, pre­
venting us from unequivocally confirming pull-apart subsidence as the
main mechanism here; however, our interpretations show that the onset
of basin pull-apart formation and strike-slip deformation of the basin
margin dates back to at least 39Ma, if not older. The forearc basin is
partitioned into two basins with varying subsidence rates likely due to
pull-apart subsidence; the Minbu Sub-basin in the south remains open to
the proto–Bengal Bay to the west and the south, while in the north,
quasi-closed estuarine conditions develop in the Chindwin Sub-basin.
Basically, a pull-apart basin is a structural basin where two overlapping
(en-echelon) faults or a fault bend creates an area of crustal extension
undergoing tension, which sinks down to cause the basin, frequently as
rhombic or sigmoidal in shape.
Pivnik et al. (1998) following to Tankard et al. (1994) have also
stated that sub-basins of the Ayeyarwaddy delta, Prome, Salin, Shwebo,
Chindwin and Hukawng may have formed as series of pull-apart basins
in the early Eocene as the Burma Plate moved northward relative to the
Asia and the Pegu Yoma Sub-basin, part of the eastern back-arc basin,
may have been developed as a series of pull-apart basins as the West
Myanmar Block moved northwards during the subduction of India
relative to Asia. Rangin et al. (1999) mentioned that the Central belt
basins were formed due to diachronous development of pull-apart ba­
sins, during the northward movement of India Plate from 43Ma to the
present. This pull-apart basin system was inverted during the Late
Miocene and en-echelon NW-SE folds and thrust were then developed in
the whole Central Basin.
Licht et al. (2014) following to Pivnik et al. (1998) stated that
transition between the Himalayan orogeny and the Indo-China margin,
the CMB is separated from the Bengal Basin by the Indo-Burman Ranges
and includes two troughs of pull-apart subbasins that have been quasi-
continuously filled during the Tertiary. Kyaw Lin Oo et al. (2015)
following to Pivnik et al. (1998) and Rangin et al. (1999) had stated that
the CMB containing sub-basins may have developed as a series of pull-
apart basins since the early Eocene as the Myanmar Plate moved
northwards during the motion of India to the north with respect to Asia.
Naing Maw Than et al. (2017) following to Pivnik et al. (1998) and
Rangin et al. (1999) mentioned a provenance study area was conducted
in the Pegu Yoma Sub-basin, which is part of the eastern back-arc basin.
These sub-basins may have been developed as a series of pull-apart
basins as the Burma Plate moved northwards during the subduction of
India relative to Asia from Early Eocene time. The overlying channel
(CH1) consists of imbricated, crudely bedded, channel lag gravels (Gm)
showing a reversely northwards-directed current, related to the inver­
sion of the pull-apart Salin Sub-basin in Central Myanmar.
Licht et al. (2018) and Rangin et al. (1999) described that the high
subsidence rates in the Chindwin Sub-basin are in agreement with strike-
slip deformation and pull-apart subsidence as the main mechanisms for
forearc basin partitioning. Licht et al. (2018) has been described that
precise age constraints for the other Cenozoic units of the forearc basin
for a detailed back stripping analysis and basin-wide seismic lines are as
of yet still lacking, preventing us from unequivocally confirming pull-
apart subsidence as the main mechanism here; however, our
K. Khin et al.
interpretations support that the onset of basin pull-apart formation and
strike-slip deformation of the basin margin dates back to at least 39Ma, if
not older. The forearc basin is partitioned into two basins with varying
subsidence rates likely due to pull-apart subsidence; the Minbu Sub-
basin in the south remains open to the proto–Bengal Bay to the west
and the south, while in the north, quasi-closed estuarine conditions
develop in the Chindwin Basin.
Licht et al. (2018) mentioned that the 39–38Ma window thus appears
to be a period of significant change for the subduction margin, with the
emergence of the inner wedge of the IMR, the first evidence of exhu­
mation of the metamorphic belts, and the first indication of pull-apart
partitioning of the forearc basin. Pull-apart subsidence partitioned the
forearc basin into two basins: the Chindwin Sub-basin to the north and
the Minbu Sub-basin to the south. Westerweel et al. (2019) following to
Licht et al. (2018) stated that this hyper-obliquity provided a mechanism
for the full partitioning of the Myanmar subduction margin relative to
Indochina and its coupling with the Indian Plate motion. It is also
consistent with the inferred onset of pull-apart subsidence in the
Chindwin Sub-basin.
These interpretations of pull-apart basins in the CMB are not in
agreement with the available geological evidence and the paleontolog­
ical records. Mawgyi nappe (Mitchell, 1993) in the Banmauk area is
known as Mawgyi Volcanics consists of basaltic andesite and basalt
pillow lava. At the time of 1993, Mitchell interpreted that the Mawgyi
ophiolitic rocks as a nappe correlated to Woyla group of Sumatra and
Maratus ophiolite southeast Borneo. Mitchell et al. (2020) described that
the Triassic flysch of Chin hill is overlain by pillowed basalts, then
regarded as part of the ophiolite, but here interpreted as equivalent to
the Mawgyi Volcanics.
The areas around the India Plate collision are same environment and
age, but different in tectonic setting, nevertheless some authors are
correlated around the areas of India Plate without geological evidence
since Mitchell (1993). After Mitchell (1993), some authors followed
him, using Mawgyi nappe by Metcalfe (2005, 2011), Barber and Crow
(2008), Watkinson et al. (2008) and Metcalfe and Kyi Pyar Aung (2014),
but Zhang et al. (2017) and Bandopadhyay and Carter (2017) following
to Morley (2012) described as Mawgyi-Woyla arc was separated from
the West Myanmar Block.
In this study, we propose that the subduction of the Neo-Tethyan or
Indian oceanic crust induced partial melting of the mantle wedge and
produced voluminous basaltic magmas (Ophiolite), with a significant
involvement of subducted sediments for the first occurrence of mid-
Cretaceous magmatic rocks in the IMR, which is included in the West
Myanmar Block.
1.1. Regional geology
Myanmar has been divided geomorphologically and tectonically into
four main regions described by Stamp (1922), Chhibber (1934), Tainsh
(1950), Maung Thein (1973, 1983, 2000), and Win Swe (1981). These
four regions are starting from the West to the East, the Rakhine coastal
and offshore Islands, the IMR, the central low lands which are separated
into fore-arc and back-arc troughs by the Central Volcanic Line, and
finally the Eastern High Lands.
The Indo-Myanmar Ranges (IMR) of Myanmar, the eastern extension
of the Yarlung-Tsangpo Neotethyan belt of Tibet in China, contains
mélanges with serpentinite, greenschist facies basalt, chert, sericite
schist, silty slate and unmetamorphosed Triassic sandstone, mudstone
and siltstone interbedded with chert in the east, and further north high-
pressure blueschist and eclogite blocks in the Naga Hills mélange (Zhang
et al., 2017).
The Central Volcanic Line is a distinct discontinuous north- south
trending series of volcanic cone and massif. This line includes Mount
Taungthonlon, the Wuntho Massif, Mount Popa and scattered volcanic
outcrops in the Chindwin Sub-basin and some isolated outcrops on the
Pegu Yoma. According to Curray et al. (1979) and Bender (1983), this
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
volcanic chain continues offshore where it separates the West, and East
of Moattama or Martaban Gulf. Accepting the latest theory that the India
Plate subducted against the Eurasia Plate starting from Early Cretaceous,
the Burma Platelet was developed between the subduction zone in the
west and the Shan High Lands in the east during Late Cretaceous. It was
during uppermost Eocene and Early Oligocene that same basinal cross-
highs located 18◦ , 22◦ , 24◦ and 26◦ north latitudes of the Central Low
Lands were formed the interval and two degrees (Bender, 1983). They
were closed by the Central Volcanic Line that was then uplifted and
therefore some sub-basins which were like landlocked basins in nature
were created and separated. The Hukawng sub-basin and Chindwin sub-
basins are typical examples. They received influx of a variety of sedi­
ments from both the neighbouring and surrounding land sources (Aung
Khin and Kyaw Win, 1969).
However, to the south of 22◦ north latitude, there was an extensive
sea in the Central Land. The Mesozoic to Miocene siliciclastic sediments
were deposited with cycles of the regressions and transgressions. From
the geological and geophysical records, no cross-highs were developed
east of the Central Volcanic Line during Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
Therefore, the Sadwingyi area (where the Oligocene sediments were
deposited) in the northern part of Pegu Yoma in the Shwebo-Monywa
plains is considered to be continuous with the southern part, accumu­
lated Middle Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene sediments. Most of these
sediments were sourced from the Eastern High Lands, some were from
the Central Volcanic Lines and shallow to deep marine sedimentation in
the southern part during Miocene time.
The fore-arc trough should be termed as the Central Belt of Myanmar
as there are well known and well-defined sedimentary basin developed
all along the fore-arc trough developed from the 14◦ north latitude to
26◦ north latitude. There are six sedimentary sub-basins trending in a
north south direction, such as the Hukawng sub-basin, the Chindwin
sub-basin, the Salin sub-basin, the Pyay Embayment sub-basin, the
Ayeyarwaddy delta sub-basin and Ayeyarwaddy offshore sub-basin,
respectively (Fig. 5B). These sub-basins were developed starting from
the Mesozoic to Tertiary all of which are endowed with their own
microfauna and microflora.
According to Rangin et al. (1999), the basins in the Central belt were
formed due to diachronous development of pull-apart basins, during the
northward movement of India Plate from 43Ma to the present. This
interpretation is not in agreement with the available geological evidence
and the paleontological records. Myanmar arc was opened to the ocean
in Middle Eocene and the IMR was not yet uplifted sufficiently to pro­
vide a barrier to influx of detritus from the east. The exhumation of the
IMR commenced prior to late Eocene and the Kabaw Fault zone profile
may describe the exhumation was active by the latest Eocene (Najman
et al. 2020). Although Najman et al. (2020) tentatively consider that
Eocene exhumation of the IMR, the thermochronologic data are weak;
therefore this conclusion remains open to reinterpret for future work.
2. Transpression and Strike-slip partitioned transpression
Transpression (Homogeneous): Transpression model differs from
wrench type simple shear, in which transpression represents structural
features within the fault-bounded zones of deformation, e.g., the CMB.
They may form in a broad zone between two major strike-slip faults as in
the Sagaing Fault to the East and Kabaw Fault to the West (see Fig. 5B, C
and 6) and the transpression zone involved a combination of pure shear
and simple shear (Sanderson and Marchini, 1984).
Transpression results in the reduction of surface area and constant
volume can be maintained by vertical extension. Hence, result of strain
ellipsoids tend to be oblate, maximum horizontal extension directions
(both instantaneous and finite) are less than 45◦ to shear-zone boundary.
The deformations in transpression zone can be distinguished as: 1.
flattening (oblate) strain, 2. steep cleavage and stretching lineation, 3.
folds and thrust at small angles to the zone, 4. normal faults, dykes, vein
and other extensional structures at a high angle to the zone and 5. crustal
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

thickening and vertical uplift.

Transpression (Strike-slip partitioning): Strike-slip partitioning is
a part of the wrench ccomponent and taken up by vertical strike-slip or
fault oriented parallel to the transpression zone boundary (Fig. 2) for
any angle of convergence, which increased in the component of
contraction (pure shear) zone of deformation. Therefore, the direction of
maximum instantaneous shortening becomes increasing perpendicular
to the plate boundary as the degree of strike-slip partitioning increases.
If all of the wrench component is taken up by discrete slip along the
fault, an extreme case of partitioning, the direction of maximum short­
ening is perpendicular to the plate boundary, even in case where the
convergence vector lies at a low angle to the plate boundary.

2.1. Strike-slip fault

This study is mainly focused on the mechanism of strike-slip fault by

Sylvester (1988) which showing degree of convergent and divergent
geometry with the position and orientations of associated folds and
faults, local extension and shortening. Regarding to Sylvester (1988),
two mechanisms are dominated in pure shear and simple shear, in which
the simple shear displacement, such as sinistral shear (left lateral) and
dextral shear (right lateral). The strike-slip fault system developed the
fractures, such as Riedel (R) synthetic shear faults, conjugate Riedel (R′ )
antithetic shear faults, secondary synthetic shear faults (P-shear) at an
angle of -θ/2 to the Principle displacement zone, extension fractures (T
fractures or normal faults) 45◦ to the Principal displacement zone,
Principal displacement zone (PDZ) and thrust fault perpendicular posi­
tion to folds or the axis of shortening (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Plan view of geometric relations among structures according to two-

dimensional dextral strike-slip tectonic model for a vertical fault striking NS
with rigid simple shear (Sylvester, 1988). Thick arrows = compression, thin
arrows = extension.

2.2. Progressive deformation (Rotation of structures with finite strain)

Progressive deformation of the India Plate movement effected on the

CMB, which can be explained with the structural features of strike-slip
fault model of Sylvester (1988). The end result, some of the folds and
faults will be rotated to form into orientations parallel to the Principal
displacement zone (Sylvester, 1988). When the deformation continues,
the fold axes will rotate according to the amount of shearing: as much as
19◦ for a shear strain of unity (Ramsay, 1967). Thus, we propose as a
hypothesis of the continuation of deformation is not only rotation of
folds, faults and finite strain, but also the reactivation of faults into
strike-slip and reverse fault which are showing particle paths are parallel
to the shear-zone boundary as an ideal strike-slip fault system. Initial
stage of dextral strike-slip movement, structural features can be
occurred as model of Sylvester (1988) in a compressional strike-slip
zone. If the deformation continues, e.g., stage 1 to stage 3 (see in
Fig. 4), the folds become tight in shortening direction and increase in
extension. Some fold hinges would begin to rotate toward a vertical
orientation, found as left vergence asymmetrical folds (Fig. 4).

2.3. Strike-slip geometry and CMB

Regarding to strike-slip geometry of Sylvester (1988), the Myanmar

Fig. 2. 3D model in different types of transpression. A. Homogeneous trans­ tectonic style is coincidence with the type of dextral shear fault (right
pression and B. transpression with strike-slip partitioning (Modified after lateral), that we proposed combined with pure and simple shear dis­
Teyssier et al., 1995) represents the CMB. placements. In this case, the present CMB was developed by polyphase

4
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 4. Instantaneous strain (Blue circle): as a result, an initial extensional
structure (e.g. a normal fault) may become reactivated as an oblique or strike-
slip fault and then inverted as a shortening structure such as a reverse fault
(Brown arrow and teeth = reactivation). Max-horizontal extension directions
(both instantaneous and finite) are less than 45◦ to shear-zone boundary.
(Explanation in Fig. 3). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
deformation (Pivnik et al., 1998). The structural fractures were devel­
oped between two strike-slip faults: Sagaing Fault to the east and Kabaw
Fault to the west (Fig. 5B).
Sagaing Fault: The Sagaing Fault (Fig. 5) (named by Win Swe, 1972)
plays an important role in the tectonic history of Myanmar and SE Asia,
e.g., three granitoid belts of Myanmar completed in post Eocene (Khin
Zaw, 1990), northward dextral strike-slip since Late Miocene (11Ma)
(Curray et al., 1979), a possible Mesozoic plate boundary along the
Sagaing-Namyin fault (Mitchell, 1981). The Sagaing Fault generally
runs NS close to the E margin of back-arc basin (eastern trough of Stamp,
1922), piercing through a sedimentary cover and underlying oceanic
crust continuous with the Andaman basin (Myint Thein et al., 1991).
Win Swe (1981) has been reported as strike-slip fault zone and right-
lateral movement by the lateral offsetting of stream channels and
creek in the Thabeikkyin area. Further north, in the north of Tagaung,
the splay faults from the Sagaing Fault extends NW and NE; a fault
system branches off to the east from the Sagaing Fault and runs in an arc
via Bhamo (Banmaw) and east of Myitkyina to the north, and another
5
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
fault system branches northwards to Putao.
Further South, in the east flank of the Pegu Yoma Ranges, the fault
cuts through the Upper Cenozoic non-marine sediments but the fault
trace is vague and it appears to vanish under an undisturbed Quaternary
fluvio-Estuarine deposits (compare with the observation of Brunnsch­
weiler, 1966). The Southern end of the fault acts like a transform fault in
the Andaman basin opening where seafloor spreading along short ENE
striking spreading centres are offset by NNW striking transform faults
(see Curray et al., 1979). The major Hninzee Fault (Dey, 1968), recog­
nized as a dextral strike-slip structure and renamed Sagaing Fault by Win
Swe (1972), coincides with the Province boundary south of Tagaung.
Kabaw Fault: The Kabaw Fault (Fig. 5B) was originally interpreted
as an east-dipping fault that approximately marks the abrupt boundary
between the Central Basin to the east, and the IMR and extends almost
the full length of the ranges (Win Swe, 1972). Later east-dipping in­
terpretations have been made by Wang et al. (2014a) and Steckler et al.
(2016a). The fault zone has been interpreted as a west-dipping fault by
Hla Maung (1987) and Curray (2005). Maurin and Rangin (2009) show
the core region of the IMR is thrust eastwards over the CMB along the
reverse dextral strike-slip, west-dipping Kabaw Fault. The Kabaw Fault
in this type of section can be viewed as a backstop to the accretionary
wedge. Maurin and Rangin (2009) interpret the arcuate Kabaw Fault as
extending almost the entire length of the IMR, and passing into a dextral
strike-slip fault in the south. Wang et al. (2014b) follow the same type of
backstop wedge model as Maurin and Rangin (2009), but only for the
southern IMR and the Andaman Sea.
Kabaw Fault runs along the eastern boundary of the IMR has led to
concern as a major fault zone for its potential seismic hazard (e.g. Wang
et al., 2014b). However, lack of GPS data and a significant drop in
displacement passing across the Kabaw Fault, unlike the Sagaing Fault
(e.g. Steckler et al., 2016a). According to Steckler et al. (2016a), fold
belt-parallel displacement rate across the Sagaing Fault is about 20mm/
yr, and the Kabaw Fault, the decrease of around 6mm/yr is more diffuse
(Steckler et al., 2016b). Possibly the Kabaw Fault was a more active
feature in the past, and strike-slip activity has migrated westwards as a
broad bow-shaped course in time.
The Kabaw Fault lies at the boundary between the IMR units and the
Central Basin units (Bannert et al., 2011). Win Swe and Win Naing
(2008) stated that it could have been reactivated during the Pliocene-
Pleistocene time following the collision of the India Plate to West
Myanmar Block. The west-dipping interpretation for the Kabaw Fault is
structurally the simplest one, as the older, more highly deformed, higher
metamorphic grade rocks (including ophiolites) in the hanging wall
over, the younger, sedimentary rocks in the footwall. Regarding our
observation, it was formed a west-dipping thrust and reactivated again
as a strike-slip fault, predominant in the south part and thrust dominant
in the northern part.
The structures perpendicular to the extension direction include
normal faults, joints and perpendicular to the shortening direction form
planar fabrics produced by shortening such as cleavages, folds, reverse
faults. In other directions, R- and R′ -fractures show in a conjugate
relationship 30◦ on either side of the shortening direction and P-frac­
tures that link R fractures into a through-going fault. As the secondary
shear faults, P-shear are correlated with the Central Volcanic Line for the
emplacement of volcanic rocks along the shear zone, which is θ/2 angle
to principal displacement zone and measured about 15◦ . Furthermore,
the compression angle can be calculated about 50◦ to shear zone
boundary and then the subduction angle of the India Plate to the West
Myanmar Block can be deduced as 45–50◦ (see Fig. 5). The Riedel (R)
faults and conjugate Riedel (R′ ) faults can be calculated with the strike-
slip geometry on the map. The extension fractures (T fractures) are
developed as well as normal faults in the study area and in regional
wide. Thrust faults form a perpendicular position to folds axis or
shortening axis (see Fig. 5C).
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 5. (A) Schematic map of the South East Asia (modified Bender, 1983) showing major tectonic boundaries. Location of Fig. 5B marked. (B) Schematic map of
West Myanmar, modified from Kyi Khin et al. (2020), showing major tectonic units. Location of Fig. 5C marked. (C) The structural map of the Central Myanmar
(modified after The Geological map of Burma, 1977, Bender, 1983, Pivnik et al., 1998) compared with the orientations of fractures development within the
transpression zone. Upper left window = 2D dextral strike-slip model (Explanation in Fig. 3) to compare with structure development.

6
K. Khin et al.
2.4. Strike-slip partitioned transpression and CMB
Regarding to the model of strike-slip partitioning of Teyssier et al.
(1995) (Fig. 2), we introduce the CMB as a transpression zone, which
may form in a broad zone between two major strike-slip faults; the
Sagaing Fault to the East and the Kabaw Fault to the West with Central
Volcanic Line (Volcanic Arc) of Chhibber (1934) as a P-shear for the
strike-slip partitioning (Fig. 6).
The Central Volcanic Line plays an important role as a Volcanic Arc
in the plate tectonic subduction model and it divides the basin as fore-
arc anf back-arc basins. According to the strike-slip partitioning model
of the CMB (Fig. 6), although between the Sagaing Fault and the Central
Volcanic Line expose the Pegu Yoma Ranges until Yangon, west-trough
of the Cental Volcanic Line can be occurred the Pyay Embaymant.
Regarding to strike-slip partitioning with the proceeding of trans­
pression, the west-trough is higher deformation than east-trough.
Mitchell (2018) stated that the basins comprising the west-trough
(fore-arc) of the CMB contain a thicker succession than the east-trough
(back-arc) referring to Naing Maw Than (2014) and implies the model
with a major discontinuity along the boundary between the fore-arc and
the back-arc basins.
There were two major tectonic phases in the eastern part of the CMB:
First, compression at the end of the Miocene with the formation of an­
ticlines and synclines in the Peguan beds and second, the strike-slip
movement along the Sagaing Fault forming en-enchelon faulting and
fracturing in both the Peguan and Irrawaddian sediments (Naing Maw
Than et al., 2017). The Ayeyarwaddy River is probably not older than
Pliocene, because the Irrawaddian Group sediments of fluvial-marine
origin are Pliocene (Khin Zaw, 1989). Pliocene-Pleistocene movements
of the India Ptate to West Myanmar Block dominated the pure shear
(compression) and simple shear as strike-slip partitioning transpression
was caused for combining the two river systems (Ayeyarwaddy-Chind­
win) into one, causing together with the Mount Popa Volcanism
(younger volcanics) in the CMB.
In the west-trough of Central Volcanic Line, direction of fold axis is
subparallel to the shear-zone boundary, which is the same as the end
result of Sylvester (1988), some of the folds and faults were rotated into
orientations parallel to the Principal displacement zone.
In the east-trough of Central Volcanic Line, en-echelon fold system is
well developed (Fig. 9) and fold axis is trending NW-SE in direction (N
40◦ W or 30◦ to shear-zone boundary) in the Pegu Yoma area. Progres­
sive deformation of the India Plate movement also affected on folding,
resulted the folds become slightly west vergence asymmetrical in the
east-trough. Reactivation of faults related to folding are developed in the
West-trough of Central Volcanic Line, e.g., reactivation of the
Chaungtha Fault with the Yedwet Uplift (Fig. 17) and formed positive
flower structure of the Sinbaungwe (Fig. 19) (Pivnik et al., 1998) area
shown in Fig. 5. These changes in direction of faults are likely to be
related to the Pleistocene inversion of previously existing normal faults
to form the south eastern uplifts and the 20◦ N uplift of the Salin Sub-
basin in CMB, caused by transpressional deformation (Pivnik et al.,
1998).
2.5. P-shear and the Central Volcanic arc
The P-shears of strike-slip model form as a consequence of the
reduction of shearing resistance along the R shear, producing new faults
that strike at an angle of -θ/2 to the principle displacement zone. In
which P-shear forms as en-echelon shear at a low angle about 15◦ to the
shear zone boundary (in this study it was 15◦ , threfore θ angle should be
30◦ ).
Sense of slip along P-shears is the same as shear zone, in the trans­
pression zone. According to the hypothesis of Tikoff and Teyssier
(1992), overlap of the en-echelon array of P-shears controls the shape by
volcanics passively emplaced in the CMB (Fig. 7). A common charac­
teristic of P-shears is a large overlapping, continuous dilation as
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
tensional bridges (Fig. 7) which are elongated along the shear zone,
which is covered by the emplacement of volcanics, e.g., the Mount Popa
volcanics are formed with basement fractures or faults (Stephenson and
Marshall, 1984) and presented to other intrusions along the Central
Volcanic Line. According to Lee et al. (2016), magma generation were
related to the India–Asia collision that caused regional plate reorgani­
zation, a transition from oblique subduction to dextral movement in the
Miocene, and subsequent “rollback” of the subducted Indian oceanic
lithosphere in the Quaternary. Therefore, the arc volcanism ceased at ca.
15Ma and, after a 10Ma magmatic gap in the region, volcanism revived
in the Quaternary. Zhang et al. (2020) also mentioned that this short-
lived, small-scale and low-degree melting of Quaternary volcanism in
Myanmar was triggered by its position above a slab window resulting
from the tearing of the oceanic lithosphere from buoyant continental
lithosphere of the Indian Plate.
The Central Volcanic Line lies from north the area east of the Jade
Mine to Wuntho – Monywa (Salingyi) – Shinmataung – Popa – Aunglan
(East) – Pyay (Zigon) – Tharrawaddy – Twante (Natsingon) line con­
tinues to the south up to active volcanoes of Burren and Narcodam
Islands and was finally uplifted (Chhibber, 1934, Aung Moe, 1980). The
oblique subduction of the India Plate adjacent to the Asia Plate had been
directly related to the formation of Sagaing Fault and the West Myanmar
Block. This Central Volcanic Line divides as a Volcanic Arc in in the CMB
contains fore-arc and back-arc basins in the India Plate subduction
model.
Regarding to above mentions, P-shear arrays are common in trans­
pressional regimes, on this account, P-shear arrays are commonly
developed in oblique convergent arc settings and characterized by the
combined strike-slip and compressional tectonics as transpression zone.
Clasts of schist, slate, quartzite and amphibolite in the Mount Popa
volcanics attest to the presence of metamorphic rocks underlying the
CMB as well as West Myanmar Block (Stephenson and Marshall, 1984,
Pivnik et al., 1998). Therefore, the underlying metamorphics of the West
Myanmar Block can presumably correlate the oldest age of the Creta­
ceous rocks in the IMR (Li et al., 2013).
Referring to the age dating of magmatic rocks (Kyaw Linn Oo et al.,
2015) and types of emplacement (Chhibber, 1934), the Central Volcanic
Line distinguishes as two phases, such as intrusives (older phase in the
age between Cretaceous to Oligocene) and extrusives (younger phase in
the age between Miocene to Pleistocene). Since late Jurassic or early
Cretaceous, magmatism of the West Myanmar Block was existed ac­
cording to Chhibber (1934) and the age dating of Jade Mine Area (Shi
et al., 2009). The older phase intrusives present from the Salingyi–Jade
Mine Area segment and the younger phase extrusives is from the Mount
Popa–Salingyi segment. From the Twante–Mount Popa segment,
dolerite intrusions in the post-Peguan Group (Chhibber, 1934) are well
occurred as possible third phase.
According to the P-shear movement, the Mount Popa–Salingyi
segment of the Central Volcanic Line was cut through the southern
Chindwin Sub-basin about 100km and that could be the latest phase of
India Plate collision to the Mynmar Block during Pliocene-Pleistocene
time (Fig. 8). Salingyi area is well preserved as the tensional bridge
(dilation) with the alignment of volcanic exposures (see Fig. 8) within
the dilation along the P-shear, however the Mount Popa Area is inferred
for the tensional bridge.
The Mount Popa-Salingyi segment is totally different from the
Salingyi-Wuntho-Jade Mine Segment in rock types and different
emplacement age, even in same the Central Volcanic Line. Futhermore,
the direction of Mount Popa-Salingyi segmnet is nearly NNW-SSE trend,
but the Salingyi-Wuntho-Jade Mine segment is NE-SW trend, therefore
P-shear movement was continued to the Chindwin Sub-basin (Fig. 8).
Further to the South Twente–Mount Popa segment, P-shear is single
alignment as NNW-SSE trend together with the Mount Popa–Salingyi
segment.
Salingyi-Wuntho-Jade Mine Segment is assigned to the Upper Cre­
teceous age by age dating (Yuia et al., 2013; Kyaw Lin Oo et al., 2015;
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 6. 3D model of strike-slip partitioning in an oblique convergence zone between the India Plate and the West Myanmar Block during Late Miocene to Pliocene. A.
Generalised Tectonic arc map of Myanmar. B. Leading transpression arc setting with the combination of strike-slip and contractions between fore-arc and back-arc
areas (Modified after Tikoff and Saint Blanquat, 1997) (white arrow = plate movement, big black arrow = fixed plate, small black arrow = convergent direction and
a = angle of convergence).

8
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 7. Map of Volcanics of Cental Myanmar (Central Volcanic Line of Myanmar by Chhibber, 1934) up Pyay (Zigon), Aunglan (East), Mount Popa to Salingyi area.
Our interpretation of volnanics emplacement along the en-echelon array of P-shear line (from Satellite-Image) postulated to tensional fractures within the trans­
pression zone. Upper right window- 2D dextral strike-slip model (Explanation in Fig. 3) to compare with P-shear.

Barber et al., 2017). During this period, the West Myanmar Block was an
oceanic basin with intra-oceanic subduction model (cold subduction) for
the Jade Mine Area with high pressure-low temperature (HP/LT) (Shi
et al., 2009, Ao and Bhowmik, 2014) and western granitoid belt (I-type
arc magmatism) of the Salingyi-Wuntho area was emplaced during the
late Cretaceous (Khin Zaw, 1990; Mitchell et al., 2012). We proposed
that P-shear with strike-slip partitioning along the Central Volcanic Line
is possibly moved northward the West-trough (fore-arc) separately
relative to east-trough (back-arc).
3. Structural evidence of strike-slip partitioned transpression
3.1. En-echelon folding
In the Pegu Yoma area, foldings are generally double plunging
asymmetrical having steeper west flanks (Horizontal Inclined plunging
folding) (Fig. 14). NW-SE trending fold axial traces are mostly cut and
compartmentalized by the cross-faults to form separate blocks. All of the
folds observed in the Yemethin west area, Pegu Yoma, are found as
NNW-SSE trending en-echelon arrangement associated with faults.
Regionally, the back-arc basin together with the Yamethin west area has
still remained the en-echelon fold pattern (Fig. 9A). This type of folding
is a typical compressional features related to the crustal shortening by
the oblique convergence of the India Plate from the SW direction adja­
cent to the West Myanmar Block in the CMB.
En-echelon folding has often attributed to wrench tectonics with
simple shear (Sanderson and Marchini 1984). Simple shear mechanism
and scale of the process are involved in the formation of the remarkable
series of en-echelon folds associated with faults. Typicallly, en-echelon
folds are distributed in a relatively narrow and persistent zone above

9
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 8. P-shear movement with Mount Popa-Salingyi segment in the Central Volcanic Line in CMB. P-shear cut through the Chindwin Sub-basin as dextral shear
about 100 km.
or adjacent to the main strike-slip fault. With regards to the force of
India Plate subducted under the West Myanmar Block, the West
Myanmar Block is responsible for the lateral movement on the strike-slip
faults. In the CMB, the en-echelon folds are formed in a broad zone
between the two major strike-slip faults in the Sagaing Fault to the east
and the Kabaw Fault to the west.
The major phase in the Salin Sub-basin and the Pyay Embayment
shows as en-echelon asymmetrical anticlines, partly filled with shallow
oil and gas or gas in the Mann and the Pyay oil fields (Ko Ko, 2016).
These folds have received much attention from the petroleum industry,
because they are attractive prospective traps for hydrocarbons (Harding,
1974). All of the onshore petroleum discoveries to date have been made
in the fore-arc domain.
According to their geographic localities, those anticlines and syn­
clines are tentatively named as (1) Segan-Patled Taung-Nattaung anti­
clines, (2) Aindo-Pyazi synclines and (3) Lezan Taung anticlines. Segan-
Patled Taung-Nattaung anticlines are double plunging asymmetrical
anticlines whereas the Aindo-Pyazi synclines and the Lezan-Taung an­
ticlines plunge towards south angle of 15–20◦ , respectively in the
Yamethin west area.
Major folding system is mainly occurred only in the Peguan strata
and there are small-scaled anticlines and synclines along their strikes in
short distances, see Figs. 10 and 11. The axial planes of the small anti­
clines and synclines are generally NNW-SSE in direction, however, in
places they show crumpling and contortion. Moreover, the longitudinal
faults are present on the flanks of both anticline and synclines parallel to
the axial traces. Some of these folds are dislocated by small scale cross
faults (Fig. 9B), giving drags in nature, see Fig. 12. Early formed folds are
later cut complexly by thrust, normal faults and R shears. Folding ex­
tends progressively further from the principal displacement zone with
increasing displacement over time.
3.2. En-echelon fracturing
There are three major prominant fault systems in the Pegu Yoma
area, described as follow:
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
NEE-SWW and NNE-SSW fault system: This system is right-
steeping en-echelon fracturing system and mainly observable in the
eastern part of the area. On the other hand, these fractures are
bisected and dislocated at the flanks of the anticline and synclines.
These fractures are coincided with Riedel shears (R and R′ shear)
associated with en-echelon folds, which are common in strike-slip
fault zone (Sylvester, 1988). They were formed mainly by exten­
sion in the simple shear movememt.
NWW-SEE fault system: This system is locally developed in the
Taungtalon Sandstone. This system could be R′ shear by the pro­
gressive shear movement, most of the strike of the faults are NWW-
SEE in direction. The horizontal displacement and dislocation of
the anticlines are observable both in the field and aerial photos.
NNW-SSE fault system: This fracture system is parallel to the major
fold axes and mainly occurred in the flanks of both anticlines and
synclines. This system is thought to be formed firstly related to the
major strike-slip movement. The faults of the NWW-SEE system are
nearly parallel to the regional strike of the rock units and also follow
along the crestal part of the folds.
Diagonal or oblique-slip faults, both NEE-SWW (tension) and NNE-
SSW (normal fault) and another dip slip cross-faults normal to fold
axis, are occurred at the Ye-Htwet Chaung and the Pyazi chaung, see
Fig. 13A and B. Oblique-slip faulting can be differentiated both dip-slip
faulting and strike-slip faulting. It is caused by a combination of shear
and compression forces. Most of the faults have some component in both
dip-slip (normal or reverse) and strike-slip. A oblique fault requires both
dip and strike components which can be measurable and significant.
Some major faults are striking nearly NNE-SSW (Riedel shear) and
their extension can be traced for 8-miles (about 13km). The southern
blocks of the faults are seen as down-thrown sides with oblique shearing
sense. The horizontal or strike slip displacement of the fault is about half
mile at the Ye-Htwet Chaung. (Grid-437662) in Fig. 13A.
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 9. (A). Satellite perspective image showing the Central Volcanic Arc with Mount Popa volcano and different en-echelon fold development between fore-arc and
back-arc. Light green = Volcanics, Blue = Dome, Dotted-white = Basin, Yellow = Alluvium (Colluvial sediment), Red line = fault, Red line with arrows = strike-slip
fault, and Red line with teeth = Thrust. Lower left black window = 3D en-echelon fold compares with regional scale fold development. 9 (B). Gentle anticline with
minor faults in Moza Formation near Nat Sone Hmaw (milepost 268/5), south of Chaungmagyi Bridge at Yangon-Mandalay Highway; Looking West (N 20◦ 32′ 40′′ ; E
95◦ 47′ 55′′ ). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

11
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 10. Plunging fold in sandstone and shale alternations of Moza Formation
(Middle Miocene). Note: yellow arrow shows north direction and, fold axis
direction = S15◦ E, plunge angle = 45◦ . Red dotted arrow represents fold axis.
Yamethin west, Pegu Yoma. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article)
Fig. 11. Symmetrical fold structure in Kabo Sandstone showing concentric fold
style with circular fold surfaces and radial open joints (thin yellow lines) sub
parallel to the axial plane (red dotted line). Yellow arrow shows north direction.
Yamethin west, Pegu Yoma. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3.3. Strain ellipsoid
The strain ellipsoid in the study area is constructed by referring
generally double plunging asymmetrical folds with steeper west flanks,
which characterized as horizontal inclined plunging folding (Fig. 14).
NW-SE trending fold axial traces are mostly cut and compartmentalized
by the cross-faults to form separate blocks. The dip amounts of the
western flanks of the anticlines range from 18◦ to 25◦ . Both northward
and southward plunge of the folds have their amounts ranging from 15◦
to 20◦ and 15◦ to 18◦ , respectively.
In general, the way we determine the 3D strain ellipsoid is to make
cross-sections of the strain ellipsoid with ellipse-surfaces on 2D strain
ellipses and then, recombine the ellipses into an entire ellipsoid. A single
number of the strain ratio was specified by the shape of the strain ellipse
in two dimensions. In three dimensions, two ratios of the principal strain
axes fully characterize the shape of an ellipsoid: The ratio R1 of the
longest (X) and intermediate axes (Y) and the ratio R2 between the in­
termediate (Y) and shortest axes (Z): therefore, R 1 = X/Y and R2 = Y/Z.
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Fig. 12. Isoclinal minor folds in Khabo Sandstone showing overturn to left side
(West). Note: red dotted lines represent fold axes and yellow arrow shows north
direction. Thickness of white sandstone layer (sst) thickening in the anticlinal
hinge and thinning in synclinal hinge, Yamethin west, Pegu Yoma. (For inter­
pretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
The different shapes of the finite strain ellipsoids can then be distin­
guished using the value: K = R1-1/ R2-1
Notice that 1.0 is the minimum value of R1 and R2. Every ellipsoid
can be reported as a point in the Flinn diagram (Flinn,1965), where R1 is
plotted vertically against R2 and K values describe slopes of lines passing
through the origin.
K = ∝ is Coaxial stretching ellipsoid (plot along the vertical axis).
∝ > K > 1 -Prolate strain (plot between vertical axis and plane strain
line)
K = 1 is Plane strain at constant volume.
1 > K > 0 -Oblate strain (plot between plane strain line and nera
horzontal axis)
K = 0 is Coaxial flattening ellipsoid (plot along the horzotal axis).
Therefore, strain ellipsoid can be developed as horizontal shortening
(YZ = vertical ellipse) and vertical extension (XZ = horizontal ellipse
and XY = vertical ellipse). In this case, it can be calculated the mea­
surement of strain axes (X, Y and Z) in the above formular and plot in the
Flinn diagram (Flinn, 1965). The ellipsoid is distinguished as vertical
oblate form as K = 0.86 (Fig. 15).
All of the folds observed in the study area are found as NNW-SSE
trending en-echelon arrangement associated with cross faults. Refer to
Treagus and Treagus (1981), the non-cylindrical folds with variably
trending and plunging fold hinge lines are showing double plunging
geometry and are materialised as deviation from pure flattening towards
constriction. The fold hinges in the study area are still relatively sub­
parallel to each other and have a trend roughly NW-SE-oriented and fold
plunges are not exceeded 20◦ . We interpreted that the finite strain in the
study area is approximately plane strain or nearly K = 1. Plane strain
deformation where the Y-axis of finite strain ellipsoids keeps constant
during the deformation and there is neither extension nor shortening
along the Y direction and all displacements due to the deformation occur
in the XZ plane.
Many diagrams for strike-slip show the orientation of the instanta­
neous (infinitesimal) strains in strike-slip zones, and were assumed as
simple shear. If strains are small, it is assumed that the principal stresses
are parallel to the infinitesimal strain axes, so these diagrams have been
used to predict and interpret the orientations in which structures were
formed. Ideal simple shear is a plane strain, and can be treated in 2D,
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 13. (A). Normal Fault (red dotted line) in Moza Formation, Yamethin west,
Pegu Yoma. Photo facing toward SW. (B). Minor fault in Moza Formation, north
of Chaungmagyi Bridge at Yangon-Mandalay Highway; Looking east (N
20◦ 35′ 57.29′′ ; E 95◦ 49′ 04.64′′ ). (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
though the ’plane’ is horizontal in this case. Hence, a map view is more
informative than a cross-section. Cross-sections may show either short­
ening or extension, depend on the orientation of the line of section and
the sense of shear.
Describing the transpression as a state of strain, it must be considered
strike-slip motion, horizontal shortening and vertical extension. Trans­
pression zones are typically characterized by oblate (flattening) strains,
but the ideal strike-slip with simple shear is a plane strain, in horizontal.
On the other hand, we presumed that the back-arc situated study area at
the east-trough of P-shear, may be possible less deformation than west-
trough. Mitchell (2018) has stated that the basins comprising the
western (fore-arc) domain of the CMB contain a thicker succession than
the eastern (back-arc).
3.4. Strain partitioned deformation in the CMB
Most of the oblique convergence contraction and transcurrent are
active simultaneously, therefore transpressional deformation with
wrench fault system is accommodated by discrete slip on orogen parallel
faults (Tikoff and Teyssier, 1994) (Fig. 16) as in the West Myanmar
Block. The effect of the pure shear component of crustal thickening in
the folded mountain building process and the wrench motion are
portioned into discrete strike-slip faults, showing contractional
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Fig. 14. (A). Geological map of study area, Yamethin West, Pegu Yoma (Kyi
Khin, 1991), CMB. B. Strain ellipse from the double plunging fold of study area.
C. Construction of 3D strain ellipsoid with kinematic strain axes X, Y and Z.
movement since strike-slip motion takes up a part of the simple shear
component of the transpression model.
In convergence angles greater than 20◦ , shortening is predominated
over the strike-slip shear, and the vertical finite strain axis becomes the
longest as oblate strain. It is seen in the history of many shear zones and
is an indication of pure shear dominated transpression. Therefore, the
instantaneous strain axes remain at 45◦ to the shear zone boundary
throughout the deformation in ideal strike-slip. Transpression zone with
maximum horizontal extension directions (instantaneous strain) are less
than 45◦ to the shear zone boundary.
In this partitioned transpression model in the CMB, the finite strain
deformation is different in the deformation zone and more contraction
than homogeneous (no partitioning) transpression (Fig. 16). As a rotated
finite strain model, structures may not end up with the orientation, in
which they formed. The finite strain is possible to predict the rotation of
structures with simple shear. The diagram shows the eventual rotation
of structures formed in response to the instantaneous strain. Folds in
transpression zones may nucleate early in the strain history, and rotate
progressively towards the shear zone boundary.
The maximum horizontal axis of finite strain rapidly becomes near
parallel to the transpression zone boundary if the partitioning is large,
even in case of wrench dominated transpression. We recognised that
strain deformation was different between fore-arc and back-arc which
were separated by the Central Volcanic Arc as well as the wrench fault
system. The axis of finite strain is about 25◦ to transpression zone
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 15. Strain ellipsoid construction from double plunging fold of the study
area. A. Asymmetrical double plunging fold, B. Strain ellipse on ZY, XY and XZ
plane, C. Flinn (1965) diagram plot with Oblate strain ellipsoid (original form
= yellow and deformed form = Red). (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of two plate converging at an angle alpha, with
transpressive deformation. A. transpression with no partitioned (Homoge­
neous). B. partitioned displacement. The strike-slip partitioned is more pure-
shear component than no partitioned case. (After Tikoff and Teyssier, 1994).
boundary in the back-arc trough, but the axis of finite strain is about 15◦
with transpression zone boundary in the fore-arc trough (see in P-shear
and Central Volcanic Line).
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
3.5. Reactivation of structural features
Normal faults were reactivated into sinistral strike-slip movement
and thrust into dextral strike-slip movement. Normal faults were then
inverted as a shortening structure such as a thrust fault (Fig. 4) based on
some of the thrusted anticlines dextral strike-slip displacement found
near Yedwet area, Pegu Yoma Ranges. However, the finite strain axes
become progressively rotated into clockwise in the dextral strike-slip
movement (Fig. 4), thus individual structures may rotate from the
field of extension into the field of shortening.
Fault systems can be reactivated in the long geological period with
different succesive kinematics movements, such as basin inversion (fault
inversion) (Van der Pluijm and Marshak, 2004), and normal fault
formed since rifting reactivated as a thrust fault or a strike-slip faults. As
a result, an initial extensional structure like normal fault was reactivated
as an oblique or strike-slip fault and then inverted as a shortening
structure such as a reverse fault. Pivnik et al. (1998) interpreted the
Chaungtha fault have been an east-dipping normal fault during the
Miocene and the later it was reactivated as an oblique-reverse slip fault
during the deformation of Pliocene and Pleistocene (Fig. 17). And then
Seismic data and well data of the Yedwet uplift indicate that the Miocene
stratigraphic section is thicker on the hanging wall of fault, which may
have originally formed as a normal fault, but later was inverted.
Contact of the west bank of Pegu Yoma Ranges was primarily P-shear
vertical wrench fault, and then become an east dipping thrust causing
the progressive simple shear with northward compression and dragging
movement of the India Plate collision to the West Myanmar Block. P-
shear between the Yangon and the Salingyi area is differently activated
according to character of occurrences, as the Yangon - Mount Popa
segment is east dipping thrust, and the Mount Popa - Salingyi segment is
lineament by a wrench fault until south of the Chindwin Sub-basin
(Fig. 8).
In the Pegu Yoma area, diagonal or oblique-slip faults are both NEE-
SWW (tensional fault) and NNE-SSW (normal fault) and another dip slip
cross-faults normal to fold axis are occurred at the Ye-Htwet chaung and
the Pyazi Chaung, See Fig. 13. Oblique-slip faulting can be differentiated
both dip-slip faulting and strike-slip faulting. A oblique fault requires
both dip and strike components which can be measurable and signifi­
cant. The combination of pure shear (compression) and simple shear
forces reactivates the pre-existing structures: such as strike-slip to thrust;
cylindrical fold to double plunging fold as en-echelon fold (Fig. 18B);
normal fault to oblique-slip fault and positive flower structure. Most of
the faults have component of both dip-slip (normal or reverse) and
strike-slip (Fig. 18A). Thickening of the Miocene succession on the up­
thrown side of the Yedwet fault (Fig. 9) is interpreted by Pivnik et al.
(1998) as Pliocene-Pleistocene inversion on a Miocene normal fault.
3.6. Flower structure
Flower structure is associated with strike-slip fault system which is
located within the strike-slip zone and splay into separate faults in the
near surface. In a cross-section, positive flower structure is a typical
product of extrusion from a transpression zone.
Pivnik et al. (1998) stated positive flower structures were formed
with steep, north-striking reverse faults showing in the seismic data, and
overlied on the east dipping reverse fault at the east of Sinbaungwe and
the Yedwet uplift (Fig. 5). Some of the folding within the basin is young
and formed during late Miocene to Recent. Thrust faults, oblique reverse
faults, normal faults and strike-slip faults are showing in positive flower
structures and related to NW-directed extensional deformation in the
Miocene and then, followed by ENE-directed transpressional deforma­
tion in the Pliocene-Pleistocene (Pivnik et al., 1998) (Fig. 19).
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 17. Schematic east–west cross section showing present position of Chaungtha Fault and Mindigye Fault of Miocene normal faulting inverted into reverse faulting
during the Pliocene time. Location shown in Fig. 5 (C). (Red arrow = reactivation of Faulting) (after Pivnik et al., 1998). (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3.7. Deformation process with the India Plate movement on the West
Myanmar Block
Kyi Khin et al. (2020) interpreted three episodic movements of the
India Plate based on the deformation structures of the F1-, F2- and F3
fold at the Baronga Islands in the Rakhine Coastal Region, during the
India Plate subduction to the West Myanmar Block. Collision of the India
Plate to the West Myanmar Block also affected on the CMB as episodic
transpressional deformations, which represent structural features in a
broad zone between two major strike-slip fault-bounded zone of Syl­
vester (1988). Hence, the West Myanmar Block was progressively
deformed like the Bengal Basin due to the India Plate movement during
Miocene to Recent (Fig. 20). However, the progressive deformation was
deduced on the West Myanmar Block by tangential convergence in late
Miocene, compressive trajectories force dragged on the IMR as well as
the CMB during Pliocene to Pleistocene.
Regarding to the F1-, F2- and F3 fold of the Rakhine Coastal Region,
the CMB under transpression (combination of pure and simple shear)
can be induced the infinite strain and orientation of geological structures
with their progressive deformation in time (Fig. 20). If the deformation
continues, e.g., B to D (see in Fig. 20), the folds become tight in short­
ening direction and increase in extension. Compression direction or
convergence angle begins to rotate toward a vertical orientation of the
fold axis.
4. Interpretation of the Myanmar Block position
4.1. Ophiolite belt development and transpression zone
The ophiolite belt of Myanmar was developed in the West Myanmar
Block under transpression zone during the subduction of the India Plate
into the West Myanmar Block. The transpressional deformation is
bounded by the dextral strike-slip movement of Sagaing Fault in the
east. The ophiolite zone was diverted into different zones in the northern
Myanmar by the transpression movement of Sagaing Fault.
Hla Htay et al. (2017) noted ophiolitic rock associations in three belts
trending nearly north–south parallel with each other (from west to east);
the Western Ophiolitic Belt (WOB), the Central Ophiolitic Belt (COB)
and the Eastern Ophiolitic Belt (EOB) by field occurrences. The ophiolite
of Myanmar can be defined into five zones: 1. Myitkyina-Putao zone, 2.
Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina zone, 3. Indawgyi-Hukawng
zone, 4. Wuntho-Jade Mine zone and 5. Western-Range zone based on
the associated rock sequence (e.g. Flysch, Triassic-Cretaceous rock,
ophiolite) using the satellite Image (Fig. 21). Liu et al. (2016) studied the
systematic geochemical compositions of mantle peridotites that crop out
in both Kalaymyo and Myitkyina ophiolites. Their data show that
15
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
different types of mantle peridotites occur in both ophiolites. Most of the
Kalaymyo peridotites represent mantle residues originated in a mid-
ocean ridge (MOR) setting. In contrast, the Myitkyina peridotites are
more refractory and have experienced hydrous melting, which might be
originated from the supra-subduction zone (SSZ) setting.
Our proposed scenario for the Myanmar ophiolite is single belt
model, but it was truncated by not only the Sagaing Fault movement but
also a large gap at the northern end of the present Shan Massif Block in
the Sibumasu Block during the final closure of the India Plate collision to
the West Myanmar Block and the Sibumasu Block. All of the ophiolite
zones contain dismembered, incomplete ophiolitic sequences with rare
occurrences of dunite, and the absence of cumulate ultramafic and mafic
rocks (Hla Htay et al., 2017).
During the India Plate collision to the West Myanmar Block, the
Myitkyina-Putao zone and the Tagaung- Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina
zone equivalent to the eastern ophiolite belt of Hla Htay et al. (2017) are
generally moved together along the pro-Sagaing Fault over the Shan
Massif Block and thrusted over the western margin of Sibumasu Block.
Hla Htay et al. (2017) interpreted positive gravity anomalies as a root
zone of nappe structures along the western margin of the Shan-Thai or
Sibumasu Block. We also found the west dipping thrust along east
margin of the Myitkyina-Putao zone and the Tagaung- Bhamo (Ban­
maw)-Myitkyina zone. The Kalaymyo and other ophiolites in the IMR
represent the mid-oceanic ridge–typed Tethyan oceanic lithosphere
derived from a downgoing plate and accreted into a westward-migrating
subduction-accretion system along the eastern margin of India. The
Kalaymyo and other Cretaceous ophiolites exposed in the IMR have a
tectonic evolutionary history different from their counterparts in the
southern Tibet, (Niu et al., 2018).
The Tagaung- Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina zone was moved again
and thrusted over the Myitkyina-Putao zone (Fig. 22) due to the
northward movement of the West Myanmar Block by the collision of the
India Plate. The Indawgyi-Hukawng zone was moved northward along
the Kumon Ranges until reach to the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ)
or the Myitkyina-Putao zone and formed the Hukawng Valley. We
noticed that the west dipping thrust along the Kumon Ranges, and the
Wuntho-Jade Mine zone was formed by the India Plate’s easteward
compression and dragged northward and, then broke up the northern
West Myanmar Block including the Hukawng Valley and continued
along the Kabaw Fault until Putao area.
The Western-Range zone was continuously moved along the present
position as thrusted over near Putao area. The ophiolites of Western-
Range zone are rootless thrust slices, sandwiched between or thrusted
over the thick Cretaceous–Eocene sedimentary strata of the IMR (Sen­
gupta et al., 1989, 1990, Acharyya et al., 1990). Ovung et al. (2020)
studied comprehensive whole-rock geochemstry of peridotites and
K. Khin et al.
Fig. 18. (A). Cartoon showing the kinematic structure development of the
CMB, especially crossing Pegu Yoma as a transpression zone under pure shear to
progressive simple shear, implicated to the reactivation of geological structures,
such as strike-slip to thrust; cylindrical fold to plunging as en-echelon fold;
normal fault to oblique-slip fault and positive flower structure. 18 (B). North-
plunging anticline observed in Moza Formation (Middle Miocene), near Ma
Gyi Gone village (UTM Map No. 2095–14; 84P/14), West of Pyawbwe. Yellow
arrow shows North direction. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
volcanic rocks from the IMR ophiolites. The MORB-Arc basalt
geochemical signatures of the IMR volcanics are attributed to the
evolving magma as the extent of mantle melting increases under the
influence of fluids/melts from the dehydrating slab/sediments in the
later stages of subduction initiation (SI). In this case, we assumed that
16
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Fig. 19. Seismic data of east Sinbaungwe showing a positive flower structure
with faults strike approximately North-South and seismic line East-West (after
Pivnik et al., 1998).
the Wuntho-Jade Mine zone and the Western-Range zone are formed
simultaneously by the nature of exposures (see Fig. 21B). The CMB as
well as the Chindwin Sub-basin was collided against the Wuntho-Jade
Mine zone, and then, northern part of the Chindwin Sub-basin was
broken up into many pieces by the northward movement and thrusted
over the Wuntho Massif to the east.
To the further North, in the N of Tagaung, the splay faults from the
Sagaing Fault extends in NW, North and NE. The fault system branches
off to the East from the Sagaing Fault and runs in an arc from Bhamo
(Banmaw) and East of Myitkyina to the north. Another fault system
branches northwards to Putao, and northwest to the Jade Mine (Fig. 22).
As a result, the splay lines of the Sagaing Fault in northern part is exactly
coincident with the boundaries of ophiolite zones, and the movement
during late Miocene to Pliocene-Pleistocene ophiolite zones are sepa­
rately truncated along the splay lines of the Sagaing Fault (Fig. 21).
4.2. Displacement of the Sagaing Fault
Northward movement of the West Myanmar Block has resulted in an
Andaman Sea opening of 460km of the rifting system since the late
Miocene (11Ma) (Curray et al., 1982). Regarding to the Andaman Sea
opening related to the Sagaing Fault with ophiolite zones displacement
was tried to reveal by many authors in different ways.
The dextral movement about 430km on the Sagaing-Namyin Fault
has been reported by Mitchell (1977). Hla Maung (1987) interpreted an
offset of at least 425km of the original Ayeyarwady River to form the
present dual Ayeyarwaddy and Chindwin river system which is
compatible with the Andaman Sea opening of 460km. Moreover, Khin
Zaw (1990) assumed that 250km is an optimum value of northward
dextral along the Sagaing Fault since post Lower Miocene.
Myint Thein et al. (1991) reported the dextral movement about
203km in the late Miocene (11Ma) by measuring on the lateral
displacement of the Sagaing Fault using the offset segment of the
Mayathein metamorphics (Mayathein complex by Mitchell, 1981),
26km N of the Tagaung on the west and the Sagaing metamorphics by
systematic mapping of the rock units on the E. The Metamorphic rocks in
the Sagaing Hills are overlapped by the Pliocene-Pleistocene sandstones
of the Irrawaddian Formation and younger terrace gravels (Win Swe,
1981).
Morley (2017) estimated the displacement of the Sagaing Fault by
the restoration of the Jade Mine Belt joining with the northern extension
K. Khin et al.
of Shan Scarp Fault in two ways: one for 600km and the other for
400km. Hla Htay et al. (2017) made a restoration of ophiolite belts in
Myanmar in their pre-displacement position, assuming an optimum
value of 300km northwards dextral movement along the Sagaing Fault
since Late Miocene.
In this study the truncation of ophiolite zones was revealed by Sat­
ellite image with rock sequence of obducted ophiolite and measured the
total displacement. This case was focused basically on the study of Myint
Thein et al. (1991) mentioned the dextral movement about 203km be­
tween the Sagaing and Mayathein. The West Myanmar Block was
juxtaposed with the west margin of Shan Massif in the Sibumasu Block in
the late Miocene (Fig. 23D), which is performed as a pro-Sagaing Fault
during the India Plate oblique subduction jointly by the West Myanmar
Block moved northward.
During the Late Miocene, the collision of India Plate to the Eurasia
Plate or slowly northward movement of the West Myanmar Block, the
ophiolite zone of the Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina-Putao
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Fig. 20. Diagrams showing the orienta­
tions of fractures in the transpression
model of the CMB correlated with India
Plate movement. A. Different stages and
directions of the India Plate movement.
(Kyi Khin et al., 2020). B. Plan view of
orientation of fractures development
(Modified after Sylvester, 1988), C, and
D. Progressive changes in the angle of
compression axis with deformation of
fractures related fold development and
clockwise rotation strain ellipse (dotted
circle). (B, C and D explanation see in
Fig. 3).
moved over the Shan Massif Block and thrust over the west margin of
Sibumasu (Fig. 23C), referring to the slightly thrust over contact (e.g.
parallel alignment along the contact on the horst rock unit).
In the Pliocene-Pleistocene time, the continuous subduction of the
India Plate compressed and dragged northward against the Shillong
Massif on the West Myanmar Block, and the Namyin Fault NNE splay of
the Sagaing Fault cut through the Katha-Gangaw. The Kumon Ranges
towards the Putao and Taikri Fault NNE splay of the Sagaing Fault run
through until the Hukawng Ranges which moved faster to form the
imbricated ridges structures (Fig. 21) on the extension of the Kumon
Ranges. These imbricated ridges structures are formed by pre-existing
ranges under the compression and stretching between two faults:
Namyin and Taikri Faults (Fig. 24). Above two splay faults of NNE di­
rection were oriented by the compression of the Shillong Massif to the
North Eastern Gap of Sibumasu (Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina-
Putao zone) due to the India Plate northward movement, therefore the
IMR was broken up and crinkled to form future Hukawng Valley and
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 21. A. Satellite image of northern Myanmar, IMR and Shillong Massif (India), showing the major structures. B. Interpretation of the Ophiolite zones of Myanmar:
1. Myitkyina-Putao Zone, 2. Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina Zone, 3. Indawgyi-Hukawng Zone, 4. Wuntho-Jade Mine Zone and 5. Western Range Zone and the
deformation of northern Chindwin Sub-basin.

Jade Mine area (Fig. 23B). Mayathein complex comprised of Triassic
rock and ophiolite exposed in the southern extension of the Minwun
Ranges is different from the other ophiolite zones as which is a relict
before splaying of Namyin and Taikri Faults. North of the Mayathein
shows well distinct lineaments connection with Namyin and Taikri
Faults (Fig. 25), Therefore, it can be interpreted as the Mayathein
metamorphics belt was connected together with the Katha-Gangaw
Ranges and the Kumon Ranges.
During the progressive northward movement of the West Myanmar
Block by the India Plate, the Shaduzup Fault splay (Ridd et al., 2019)
and the Taung Chaung Fault splay were formed the Hukawng Valley and
pro-Jade Mine and the Shinbwiyan-Lonkhin Ranges (Fig. 24), referred to
deformation style of the Minwun Ranges showing transtension between
the two dextral strike-slip faults. Oligocene rocks are exposed in the
Minwun Ranges (Morley and Arboit, 2019) which is the same age of
Peguan Group at back-arc basin, were tightly deformed by two dextral
shear movement (Fig. 25).
Continuously, the IMR was broken up again and moved towards NNE
direction and changed to the East direction along the Patkoi Ranges until
Putao (Fig. 23A) and, formed the Phakant-Tanaika Ranges referred to
the flow wave structures and twisted rope structures due to ductile
deformation (Fig. 21) in the Western Ranges. Acharyya (2007) pointed

18
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 22. Ophiolite zones of Myanmar and its development process in age. A. Present ophiolite zones, B. Cartoon showing the Process of ophiolite zones development.
Number explanation in A, Teeth = Thrust and subduction zone.

19
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 23. Displacement of the Sagaing Fault based on the generalised ophiolite zones (e.g. Triassic-Cretaceous flysch and Ophiolite) with splay faults and the
measurement on lateral displacement between Sagaing and Mayathein Metamorphics (Myint Thein et al., 1991). A. Present day setting. B. Hukawng valley setting. C.
Tagaung-Myitkyina-Putao zone setting. D. West Myanmar Block with Sibumasu Block setting. IMR = Indo-Myanmar Ranges, JM = Jade Mine, HV = Hukawng Valley,
TBMP = Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myitkyina-Putao.

Fig. 24. Local names of Faults and Ranges in the ophiolite zone. (Explanation see in Fig. 23).

out that two sets of ophiolites that were accreted during the Early were emplaced during the late Oligocene collision between the
Cretaceous and mid-Eocene are juxtaposed in this belt. These are Myanmar and Indo-Myanmar-Andaman microcontinents. Ophiolite oc­
inferred to be westward propagated nappes from the Eastern Belt, and currences in the Andaman Islands are generally interpreted as upthrust

20
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 25. A. Deformation structures of Minwun Ranges including Mayathein complex (Mitchell, 1981) and development of dextral Sagaing Fault splaying into the
Nanyin Fault, Taikri Fault, Shaduzup Fault and Taung Chaung Fault. Trace of Namyin and Taikri Faults from North of Mayathein Complex. B. Schematic progressive
deformation stage 1 to 3 under simple shear, clockwise rotation of bedding and bedding to thrust development in the Minwun Ranges showing transtension between
two dextral shear faults.

oceanic crust, accreted due to prolonged subduction activity to the west
of the island arc. This phase of subduction began only in the late
Miocene and thus could not have produced the ophiolitic rocks, which
were accreted in the late Early Eocene.
Therefore, we presumably measured the displacement from Sagaing
to Mayathein about 203km by Myint Thein et al. (1991) and Mayathein
to Hukawng Valley (along Taikri Fault: nearly North direction) straight
forward about 250km, all together 450km (Fig. 23A and 24) which is the
same as Curray et al. (1982) an Andaman Sea opening of 460km of the
rifting system. Actually, the displacement of ophiolite belt is more than
that of Sagaing Fault displacement, but the contraction and flowing as
ductile deformation along the Lelon-Tapu Fault or Churachandpur-Mao
Fault (in Singh et al., 2008, Sloan et al., 2017) (Lelon Fault in Najman
et al., 2020, and the Kabaw Fault (Fig. 21) until Putao at the present
position and every splays of the Sagaing Fault were belonged to different
phase. Steckler et al. (2016a) used fold belt-parallel displacement rate
across the Sagaing Fault about 20mm/yr, but we proposed total
displacement rate is about 5–7cm/yr by using total displacements of the
Sagaing Fault with its splay-faults in time.

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K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

4.3. Mud volcanoes and its displacement
Mud volcanoes are very common in subduction zones, on the
accretionary prism as well as in front of the subducting plate (Charvet
and Ogawa, 1994). Kopf (1999) described a simplified cross section that
the path of the sediment has taken from the passage of the deformation
front (outer ridge), transport along the decollement, and upward
migration along back-thrust faults finally extruded on the sea floor
(inner ridge) (Fig. 27).
The mud volcanoes of CMB along the accretionary complex of IMR
are related to the back-thrust faults located at the rigid backstop side of
Myanmar Block, e.g., Minbu mud volcano which is still active.
Chemical analysis of the Mount Popa (Stephenson and Marshall,
1984, Aung Moe, 1980) obtains 200km depth in oceanic setting by the
value SiO2 = average 52.86 and K2O = average 2.17 in the diagram of
K2O versus SiO2. Mitchell (1973) also reported that development of
Cenozoic island arcs, above the Benioff zones at depths of 120–200km
which were mostly inclined at more than about 35◦ . Therefore, the
depth of Pyay region (mud volcanoes) can be calculated as minimum
25km on accretionary prism (150km EW of IMR) and obduction angle of
ophiolite emplacement (Kabaw Fault).
Referring to the study of Kyi Khin et al. (2020), Ramree and Cheduba
Islands are situated on the southern extension of Kaladan Fault as well as
the trench border of subduction zone or deformation front (Fig. 27).
Furthermore, Baronga Islands, the north west of Ramree and Cheduba
Islands were the continuation of Bengal fan, in which the southwards
pro-graded shelf-delta environment was started transgression in the
whole area during the Late Miocene to possible Pliocene (Kyi Khin et al.,
2020).
In the CMB, Minbu area and, in the west, Ramree and Cheduba
Islands west of the Rakhine Coastal Area (outer ridge) (Moore et al.,
2019), and foothill of the IMR (inner ridge) are well-known for active
mud volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are well developed at the Pyay and
Kalaywa regions in the Inner-Myanmar Tertiary Basin (Fig. 28). Most of

Fig. 26. (A). Exposure on the western bank of Chindwin River near Masein, north of Kalaywa, looking East, showing the east dip Miocene age of Natma Formation,
fluvio-deltaic sediment (Channel facies), west flank of Chindwin Sub-basin (Location: Latitude 32◦ 37′′ and Longitude 94◦ 34′′ ). (B). Photograph showing mud volcano
located on the eastern bank of Mawtongyi Chaung, Indaw area, Chindwin Sub-basin (Location: Latitude 23◦ 64′′ ; Longitude 94◦ 76′′ ).

22
K. Khin et al.
the mud volcanoes of Pyay and Kalaywa regions are inactive, but Indaw
anticline in the middle part of southern Chindwin Sub-basin and Yenan
area at the western flank of the Chindwin Sub-basin in Kalaywa region
has still active mud volcanoes (Figs. 26 and 28), which are associated
with petroleum prospect.
Source of mud is main factor for the mud volcanoes which should be
the Bengal Fan as pro-graded shelf-delta environment, on this account,
Kalaywa region is situated at the opposite side (inner ridge of accre­
tionary prism) of Ramree and Cheduba Islands. On the other hand, the
Central Myanmar Block was moved northward in many evidence for the
driving forces by the collision of the India Plate to the West Myanmar
Block with the regional dextral en-echelon fault system comprising the
Sagaing Fault, Kabaw Fault, Lelon-Tapu Fault or Churachandpur-Mao
Fault (Singh et al., 2008, Sloan et al., 2017), Lelon (Najman et al.,
2020) and Kaladan Fault (Disang Fault) (see in Fig. 21). In addition, the
Kabaw Fault was a more active feature in the past, and strike-slip ac­
tivity was migrated westwards with time. A volume balance of sediment
passing at the deformation front (outer ridge) and mud extruding at the
inner ridge show the mud volcanism observed at a shallow depth within
the prism compensate partly for the sediment subduction.
Kalaywa region was situated at the Ramree and Cheduba Islands
(opposite side of inner ridge) and, previously situated near Pyay region
before the West Myanmar Block moved northward. In this case, three
clustered regions have inactive mud volcanoes however Ramree and
Cheduba islands have both active and inactive mud volcanoes. Mud
volcanoes are found along the Ayeyarwady river and the edges of the
Pyay Embayment Sub-basin (Ko Ko, 2016). Hence, mud volcanoes were
formed after the compressive folding and occurred in the late Miocene
Peguan rock and Kalaywa region have also the same position. As there is
no evidence of interbedding with the youngest strata on the islands of
Ramree and Cheduba, the mud volcanism must be a recent process
(Moore et al., 2019).
Nowadays, active mud volcanoes can be occurred in Ramree and
Cheduba Islands (outer ridge) and Minbu area (inner ridge), which are
oriented diagonally in NE direction, but recently, Ramree and Cheduba
Fig. 27. Cross section showing the mud volcanism in the subduction zone and its anatomy of the accretionary complex. A. Presumed level of Cretaceous to Eocene
sediments, B. Subduction slab profile (modified after Kopf, 1999).
23
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Islands and Pyay region are oriented in EW position. Possibly, Kalaywa
region was located the present Pyay region before northward movement
of the West Myanmar Block. During the late Miocene, India Plate moved
eastward and collided with the West Myanmar Block (Kyi Khin et al.,
2020), and present-day convergent angle of the India Plate collision to
the West Myanmar Block is 45–50◦ . Therefore our assumption for the
active mud volcanoes orientation in EW direction can be supportive.
The Salin and the Pyay Embayment Sub-basins were separated by the
Mio-Pliocene (?) 20◦ N uplift (Ko Ko, 2016) and Chindwin Sub-basin and
Salin Sub-basin too. Because those sub-basins are separated by double
plunging synclinal sub-basins (Fig. 26A). We interpreted that two phase
of deformations in the CMB such as eastward compression (pure shear)
for normal folding and northward movement with dragging (simple
shear) for plunging folding. The measurement for the distance of these
two regions is about 450km (Fig. 28), which can be correlated with
460km Andaman Sea opening by the rifting system of Curray et al.
(1982).
5. Discussion and conclusion
5.1. Fold types along the Rakhine Coastal region
In this study, we followed the implication of the age and style of
tectonic movement in the India Plate collision to the West Myanmar
block (Sibumasu Block) by Kyi Khin et al. (2020) who were studied in
Rakhine Coastal Ranges, western most part of Myanmar, and mentioned
that the India Plate was moved northward in late Miocene and eastward
compression and dragging in Pliocene-Pleistocene to present. During
this period three types of fold are observed as F1-, F2- and F3 fold on
proto-Bengal Fan area.
The F1 fold type is open, gentle and was formed by slow movement
of 4cm/year (Rangin, 2017; Than Htut et al., 2012) with gentle termi­
nation of the India Plate (eastward collision) northwards movement.
The F1 fold axes trend generally E-W, and they generally indicate the
northwards movement of the India Plate. The F1 folds are nearly upright
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

Fig. 28. Map showing the distribution of Mud volcanoes in Myanmar (Bender, 1983, Htut and Laypaw, 2017, Ko Ko, 2016) and two regions of Pyay and Kalaywa
distance about 450km, correlated to displacement of Sagaing Fault or Andaman Sea opening. Active mud volcanoes regions of Minbu and Ramree-Cheduba Islands.

with no vergence symmetry, which is showing the straight northwards
movement. The movement was suddenly stopped by buttress with the
Shillong Massif during the Late Miocene Himalayan uplift (Uddin and
Lundberg, 2004).
Referring to F1 fold type, before eastward collision of the India Plate
to the West Myanmar Block tangential convergence could be possible
along subparallel zones of subduction and dextral strike-slip
movements.
In the F2 folds, the Miocene sediments are folded together with the
Mio-Pliocene sediments. Hence, the F2 folding system was considered to
have formed during the Pliocene-Pleistocene, when the Himalayan
collision propagated eastwards. Within the context of horizontal
movement of the India Plate to the east around N85◦ E, compressive
trajectories were deduced as perpendicular to fold axes of F2 folds. The
Miocene sediments are capped as klippe structures and thrusted over the
flysch sediments which are exposed as window in the nappe structures.
The F3 folds are distinctly found along the south and southeast
border of the Shillong Massif which moved eastwards along the Dauki
Fault by the force of the India Plate movement and dragged the folded
Bengal Fan area.
Compressive stress of the India Plate movement continued and
dragged the IMR referred to the dragging of the F1 and F2 folds and
reactivation of the Disang Fault by the strike-slip movement.

24
K. Khin et al.
5.2. Sedimentology of CMB
The Myanmar Central Basins contain a thick succession of Lower
Cretaceous–Cenozoic sedimentary rocks (Li et al., 2013). In the Pegu
Yoma area (back arc), the rock units ranging from Lower Miocene to
Pliocene such as Taungtalone Sandstone, Moza Formation, Khabo
Sandstone and Irrawaddian Formation are exposed.
The Taungtalone Sandstone and the Moza Formation represent two
episodes of major marine transgression following a progradational
sequence, when the shoreline was forced further to the south as a result
of a fall in sea level (Kyi Khin and Myitta, 1999), which is possible the
southward shoreline migration due to the India Plate northward
movement colliding with Eurasia Plate to the north during the Early to
Late Miocene time.
The major southward regression associated with the deposition of
sandstone wedges of the Khabo Sandstone was related to the northward
movement of the West Myanmar Block along the Sagaing dextral strike-
slip Fault (Kyi Khin and Myitta, 1999) during the India Plate tangential
convergence to the West Myanmar Block (Sibumasu Block) in the late
Miocene.
5.3. Post-Miocence activity
At least two major tectonic episodes which are considered on the
basis of the presence of uncomformity between the Upper Peguan Group
(Miocene) and the Irrawaddian formation (Miocene to Pliocene), type of
folding and faulting. The consideration on the construction of the tec­
tonic model is mainly based on the previous works of Aung Khin and
Kyaw Win (1969), Kyi Khin et al. (2020).
In the post Miocene, the Pegu Yoma Ranges had already folded up
(Aung Khin and Kyaw Win, 1969) and the intensity for the formation of
the folds and faults in this episode is relatively smaller than those of the
later orogenic movements which took place in the Pliocene (Fig. 29).
And, the oblique to tangential convergent of the India Plate was related
with the West Myanmar Block, which was compressed to form the active
margin.
Fig. 29. The thrust fault contact between Moza Formation (inter tidal Channel Levee complex) and Khabo Sandstone (Point bars) at Yangon-Mandalay Highway near
east of Ma Hlaing Township (UTM Map Sheet No. 2095–16; 84 O/16). Red arrow indicates thrust direction. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
25
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
5.4. Late Miocence tectonics in the Yemethin West area
In the Yemethin west area, there were two major tectonic phases
took place in the eastern part of the CMB.
1. Formation of most anticlines and synclines in the Peguan strata, due
to the deformation caused by the convergence of the India Plate and
the West Myanmar Block is well exampled by shortening in EW di­
rection, and then stretching in NS direction, respectively.
The continuous effects of deformation further created en-echelon
folding in Peguan beds, during the Pliocene-Pleistocene. .
In the late Miocene, most of the present anticlineal areas became to
be landmass with the intervening area of swamps in the most parts, but
the folds were probably relatively gentle (Aung Khin and Kyaw Win,
1969).
2. At least in the Late Miocene time, tensional transform mechanism
related to the subduction of India Plate in SSW direction was against
the resisted Shan Massif (Sibumasu Block), and the West Myanmar
Block was caused the dextral strike-slip movement along the Sagaing
Fault.
The small to regional scale en-echelon faults system was formed at
this time in the Peguan and Irrawaddian sediments.
Based on the previous described data, it can be conclued that the en-
echelon folding and the dextral strike-slip faulting are effected by the
EW compression and NS shear stresses caused by the oblique subduction
of the India Plate adjacent to the Asian Plate, in the Pliocene-Pleistocene
time.
5.5. Timing of subduction and related active movement along the Sagaing
Fault
Timing of deformational development in the West Myanmar Block is
governed by the Sagaing Fault displacement, formation of structures in
K. Khin et al.
the CMB, unroofing of the IMR and the occurrence of Ophiolite zones,
which are relatively correlated with the Anderman Sea opening.
In the Late Miocene, the kinematic development of the Sagaing Fault
was switched from transtension in pull-apart basin of the Andaman Sea
opening at the south to transpression in the CMB. State of crustal
deformation model is compared with the transpression-transtension
development along the transform fault system of Ramsay and Huber
(1983), Garfunkel et al. (1981), Cadman and Tarney (1990) and Zoback
(1991) in (Fig. 30).
Based on the opening of the Central Andaman Basin, some 460km
slip might be absorbed the full opening of the Andaman Sea since Late
Miocene time (11Ma.) (Curray et al., 1979). The predominant Late
Miocene–Recent sediments infilling in the Andaman Basin are present
both north and south where the ENE–WSW-trending Central Andaman
Basin intersects the East Andaman Basin. Considerable extension from
the north and south of the Central Andaman Basin during the Late
Miocene–Recent is implied (Sloan et al., 2017).
The geometry of sediments and their thickness (up to 1km within the
central trough) around the eastern half of the Central Andaman Basin
indicate that continuous spreading was not possible (Srisuriyon and
Morley, 2014, Morley and Alvey, 2015). Instead, they argued that
episodic spreading with a probable Late Miocene–Early Pliocene phase
followed by a hiatus, then very recent renewed spreading or extension in
the trough, possibly began in the last several tens of thousands of years.
The Late Miocene inversion is coeval with incipient opening of the
Andaman Sea and dextral motion along the Sagaing Fault that can be
considered as a relatively recent fault system (Rangin et al., 1999).
Fig. 30. Crustal deformation along the transform plate boundary convergence
margin as transpression developed uplift region and divergence as transtension
developed Pull-apart basin (Modified after Ramsay and Huber 1983 and
compared with Garfunkel et al., 1981, Cadman and Tarney, 1990;
Zoback, 1991).
26
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
The widely accepted model for the Andaman Sea is that a highly
segmented spreading centre has operated since the Early Pliocene and
exhibits a series of left-stepping jumps, separated by transform faults
and passing eastwards towards the Sagaing Fault (Raju et al., 2004,
Curray, 2005, Sloan et al., 2017). Myint Thein et al. (1991) studied the
offset segment of Mayathein metamorphics and measured on the lateral
displacement of the Sagaing Fault with the dextral movement about
203km in Late Miocene (11Ma). Deformation on the Sagaing Fault
began in the late Miocene (as interpreted by marine data on the southern
extension of the fault), and the structure took up a larger proportion of
the overall right-lateral shear in the past (Sloan et al., 2017).
Structural development of the Sagaing Fault was changed in late
Miocene or early Pliocene that resulted in local uplift, folding and
inversion along the parts of the splaying fault zone. Regional subsidence
continued during this time, and local folds are covered by Pliocene-
Pleistocene deposition (Sloan et al., 2017). In the CMB, the main
deformation phase was apparently related with the Pliocene-Pleistocene
folding and faulting in Mann and Yenangyaung areas and still active (Ko
Ko, 2016). The late Miocene–Pleistocene regional uplift in the eastern
side of the Salin Sub-basin, during the tectonic inversion period, may
have controlled the extrusion of volcanics along the reactivated
basement-involved normal faults perpendicular to the NW–SE trending
basin-center thrust faults (Pivnik et al., 1998).
Recently, various large constructions west of the Yangon–Mandalay
Highway around the Naypyitaw have created new exposures of late
Miocene–Pleistocene sediments that reveal details of the structural style
and timing of deformation adjacent to the Sagaing Fault (Sloan et al.
2017). Pivnik et al. (1998) described two angular unconformities that
showed similar stages of deformation for the Salin Sub-basin, which
comprise an angular unconformity between the Late Miocene Obogon
Formation and the Pliocene Irrawaddy Formation. The whole forearc
basin area was uplifted in the Late Miocene, either gradually or rapidly,
to form an island chain (Kyi Khin et al., 2017a).
Most of the folding and thrusting of the CMB between about 17◦ N are
found in the Irrawaddy Formation, which is of Pliocene-Pleistocene age
according to Pivnik et al. (1998). This interpretation supports that ac­
tivity of the Sagaing Fault occurred mainly during the Pliocene-
Pleistocene by extrapolation of modern displacement rates no greater
than 100km (Bertrand and Rangin 2003).
In the west, the Surma Basin might have been formed in the late
orogenic stage due to subsidence along the Dauki Fault system and
Pliocene-Pleistocene uplift of the Shillong Massif (Johnson and Alam,
1991). The study of Rakhine Coastal Ranges together with Bangel Fan
area by Kyi Khin et al. (2020) stated that three types of fold are observed
as F1-, F2- and F3 folds during the India Plate collision to the West
Myanmar block in late Miocene and eastward compression and dragging
in Pliocene-Pleistocene to present.
The western part of the IMR is composed of Neogene fluvio-deltaic
sediments and turbidites, sourced primarily from the Gang­
es–Brahmaputra river system, and folded during Late Miocene–Recent
time (Sikder and Alam, 2003; Kyi Khin et al., 2014, 2017b). Therefore,
prior to the late Miocene the IMR may have been at least partly a land
area (Ridd and Racey, 2015). During the Pliocene, the collision between
the India Plate and the Burma Plate resulted in the formation of the outer
island arc of the IMR, the hilly Pegu Ranges and the uplift of the
Andaman Islands to their present level (Kyi Khin et al., 2017a). Liang
et al. (2008) considered that the Yarlung-Tsangpo River in Tibet was
connected to the Ayeyatwaddy River in the late Miocene, whereas
Robinson et al. (2014) interpreted that the river system was discon­
nected in the early Miocene. Rocks of the CMB were deposited by a
through-flowing Irrawaddy River, with detritus derived from its upland
source region of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt and Cretaceous-Paleogene
granites to the north. Such a provenance is not recorded in coeval rocks
of the IMR, indicating that the IMR had uplifted by this time, providing a
barrier to transport of material to the west (Kyi Khin et al., 2014, Naj­
man et al., 2020).
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

5.6. Influence of the Shillong Massif on northern IMR deformation
Based on the deformational structures observed by satellite images
and field evidence, influence of the Shillong Massif on deformation of
the IMR together with the CMB can be interpreted their geometry,
spatial relationship and oblique convergence of the India Plate relative
to the West Myanmar Block.
The satellite image along the IMR especially development of Man­
ipur Plain and the process of deformation (Fig. 31) were related with the
Shillong Massif, which acted as compressive trajectories to IMR by
capping the Miocene sediments as klippe structures and thrust over
(nappes) the flysch sediments. On account of the compression of the
India Plate, Shillong Massif was moved eastwards along the Dauki Fault
and dragged the folded proto-Bengal Fan flysch sediments along the
southeast border of Shillong Massif by reactivation of the Disang Fault’s
strike-slip northward movement along the India Plate to the east around
N85◦ E (Kyi Khin et al., 2020).
With the movement of the India Plate, the Shillong Massif was acted
as a block for the northward movement of the IMR together with the
CMB and formed the F3 type folds on the folded Bengal Fan deposits in
the Bengal-Rakhine Basins (Kyi Khin et al., 2020). Squeezed flow
structure with ductile deformation along the Naga-Patkoi Ranges in the

Fig. 31. Influence of the Shillong Massif on the deformation of IMR during the collision of the India Plate to the West Myanmar Block. A. Structural interpretation on
Satellite Image along IMR. B. Cartoon showing the process of deformation of IMR, especially Manipur Plain development.

27
K. Khin et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055

northern IMR can be found as Chandel shear Fault (Chandel thrust of

Lokho et al., 2020) and Lelon-Tapu shear Fault (Fig. 31). The 80–100km
long Manipur Plain was formed by the material flow out mechanism
around Manipur and was developed as an intermontane basin, filled
with the Quaternary sediments (Goswami and Kshetrimayum, 2018)
between two shear faults called Chandel Fault and Lelon-Tapu Fault
(Fig. 31).
With the movement of the India Plate, the Shillong Massif was acted
as a frontier for the eastward movement and formed the schuppen-zone
as reactivation of pre-existing thrust and strike-slip fault to thrust in
northern IMR, although Lelon-Tapu shear Fault is strike-slip fault in
southern, which is known as Tapu thrust in northern IMR. During the
Pliocene-Pleistocene time, the Kabaw Fault could have been reactivated
(Win Swe and Win Naing, 2008) as strike-slip to thrust fault in the
northern IMR and the eastern flank of Chindwin Sub-basin is thrust over
the Wuntho Massif to the east.

5.7. India Plate movement on the West Myanmar Block during Miocene

The Bengal Fan including the Surma Basin is the north eastern
continuation of the Bengal Foredeep (Islam et al., 2013) and the folded
sediments of the Surma Group continue to the south up to Baronga
Islands of Rakhine Coastal area (Nandy et al., 1983, Kyi khin et al., 2014,
Kyi Khin et al., 2020). During the Middle-Late Miocene time, the posi­
tion of India Plate together with proto-Bengal Fan is located by
comparing with Curiale et al. (2002) however, India Plate was not yet
collided with the West Myanmar Block regarding to the study of folding
by Kyi Khin et al. (2020). Furthermore, although on the side of India
Plate, Oligocene Barail Formation in Surma Basin on the proto-Bengal
Fan is Molassic type sediments (Bannert et al., 2011), Oligocene age of
Barail Formation in Mizoram Basin and Yechangyi Formation in Ramree
Island on the IMR are flysch on the West Myanmar Block (Bannert et al.,
2011) and Andaman Flysch is Oligocene in age, too (Bandopadhyay and
Carter, 2017). The Surma Basin might have been formed at the late
orogenic stage due to subsidence along the Dauki Fault system and
Pliocene-Pleistocene uplift of the Shillong Massif (Johnson and Alam,
1991), (Fig. 32C).
In the Sumatra Island including the Sibumasu Block, the diamictite
(glacial marine sequences) distribution in the Bohorok Formation of
Sumatra, Singa Formation in Langkawi island of Malaysia, Kaeng Kra­
chan Formation of Thailand, Mergui, Taungnyo and Lebyin of Myanmar
(Chhibber, 1934, Stauffer and Peng, 1986) was together with Peninsular
Malaysia. Carboniferous Limestones of Sumatra are also correlated to
Langkawi Islands (Malaysia) and Moulmein (Myanmar) Limestones
(Chhibber, 1934).
The movement was suddenly stopped by buttress with the Shillong
Massif during the Late Miocene Himalayan uplift (Uddin and Lundberg,
2004). Referring to F1 fold type, before eastward collision of the India
Plate to the West Myanmar Block tangential convergence could be
possible along subparallel zones of subduction and dextral strike-slip
movements (Kyi Khin et al., 2020), (Fig. 32B).
The clockwise rotational movement of the Sibumasu together with
the West Myanmar Block was started and Sumatra also started to diverge Fig.32. Paleo-depositional setting of the West Myanmar Block reconstruction
from Malaysia Peninsular. Thus, it is shown as different directions in based on the mechanism of vector theory, sedimentology, ophiolite zones, and
NNW-SSE Sumatra and nearly NS West Myanmar Block. Application of field data on the geological structures.
the partitioning analysis to a pure shear dominated plate boundary
shows a consistence with a low degree of displacement partitioning onto The major southward regression associated with the deposition of
the Great Sumatra Fault. Pure-shear dominated transpression settings sandstone wedges of the Khabo Sandstone was related to the movement
(20◦ < α < 90◦ ), such as Sumatra are inefficient at accommodating of the West Myanmar Block along the Sagaing dextral strike-slip Fault
strike-slip movement (Tikoff and Teyssier, 1994). (Kyi Khin and Myitta, 1999) during the India Plate tangential conver­
Present Tagaung-Bhamo (Banmaw)-Myintkyina-Putao ophiolite gence to West Myanmar Block (Sibumasu Block) in the Late Miocene. In
zone was moved over the Shan Massif Block and thrust over the west the present position of India-Southeast Asia included so-called Indo-
margin of Sibumasu (Fig. 23). Liang et al. (2008) considered that the China Block, Sibumasu Block, West Myanmar Block, India Plate sub­
Yarlung-Tsangpo River in Tibet was connected to the Ayeyarwaddy ducted under the West Myanmar Block as Sunda Arc until Andaman,
River in the Late Miocene, whereas Robinson et al. (2014) interpreted Sumatra and Java (Fig. 32A).
that the river system was disconnected in the early Miocene. The India and West Myanmar Block were moving broadly northward

28
K. Khin et al.
and converged obliquely and ultimately collided (Kyi Khin et al., 2020).
Thus, we proposed that Andaman Islands were continental fragments of
the West Myanmar Block before northward movement, for the source
regions of Andaman Flysch. On the other hand, the Andaman Flysch
does not appear to be the case for the older sedimentary rocks within the
Mithakhari Melange in the Andaman Islands (Bandopadhyay and Carter,
2017). The IMR have been exhumed by the Oligocene (Mitchell, 1993)
and have more Epsilon Nd negative values, which compares the whole
rock data from the Andaman Flysch with possible source areas, shows
that the most probable source area lies within Myanmar (Allen et al.,
2008). Furthermore, the West Myanmar Block was the area of Andaman
Sea opening (Khin Zaw, 1990) and the emplacement of Naga-Andaman
ophiolite was napped over the Oligocene marine fan sedimentary rocks
of the Andaman Flysch sediments (Acharyya et al., 1990).
Several small ocean basins like Andaman Sea, Java Sea, Banda Sea
were opened up only since Late Miocene (Curray et al., 1982). Thus, a
new subduction regime, beneath the western margin of the continental
fragments (Andaman Islands), was established since Late Miocene in the
southern sector (Andaman, Sumatra, Java).
The Ayeyarwady River discharges southward and has gradually
infilled a back-arc and strike-slip basin since the Cenozoic (Curray,
2005). During the Holocene, sediments from the Ayeyarwady River have
accumulated, forming a large triangle-shaped alluvial delta plain
(35,000km2) between the IMR to the west and the Pegu Yoma Ranges to
the east. The Ayeyarwady delta has prograded around 270km from its
apex at Henzada, to its present coastal zone in the northern Andaman
Sea (Giosan et al., 2018).
The Ayeyarwady delta is classified as a mud-silt, tide-dominated
system with a mean tidal range of 4.2m and tidal influences that extend
almost 300km upstream to the apex of the delta at Henzada (Hedley
et al., 2010). Sagaing Fault related to Wanding Fault, Nanting Fault in
the Mogok area, Wang Chao Fault, Three Pagoda Fault in Tanesserim,
Ranong Fault and Khlong Marui Fault in Thailand and Red River Fault in
China were formed in the Miocene age (Tapponnier et al., 1986).
5.8. Tectonic activity between the India Plate and the West Myanmar
Block in Oligocene
According to fold study of Kyi Khin et al. (2020) F1-fold was formed
in Late Miocene by the slowly approached of India Plate’s northward
movement, therefore during the Early Miocene time the Greater India
was already thrusted under the Eurasia Plate (northern side: Tibetan)
and the oceanic subduction between the NE India and the northern IMR
was ended by the molasse Barail Formation distributes up Manipur state
to north until Patkoi Ranges (Kesari et al., 2011). Oligocene Barail
Formation in the Manipur is molasse sediments and it was no folded
effect (Kesari et al., 2011). Therefore, during the Oligocene time the
India Plate was approached on the northern side and on the eastern side
as well. In Patkoi Ranges and the Nagaland, the IMR might be the
Brahmaputra plain during Oligocene-Miocene. Barnnert et al. (2011)
has found the evidence of the strong increase in sedimentation towards
the Brahmaputra River in the north Chindwin Sub-basin.
The Miocene Rakhine Coastal region is the narrow southern
continuation of the Assam Basin, Manipur Basin, Surma Basin and
Chittagong Basin, with a lithology similar to those in the Central Ter­
tiary Myanmar Basin. The two basins may have actually formed a twin
trough or a twin gulf as first proposed by Stamp (1922) that was divided
by the IMR which was a mobile belt (a trench complex) which has un­
dergone rather intense orogenic movements as large-scale westwards
overthrusts and tight folds in the flysch units (Fig. 33).
5.8.1. Oligocene in CMB
Oligocene sediments in the Hukawng and Chindwin Sub-basins:
Lower Oligocene Tonhe Formation Sandstone unconformably rests on
the schist of the Naga Metamorphic Complex (Triassic) (Bannert et al.,
2011) (Fig. 33). The diagenesis stage (immature zone) extends from the
29
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
Fig. 33. Schematic Oligocene paleogeographic reconstruction of Bengal Basin,
IMR and CMB in terms of Plate position and related sedimentation of
Barail Formation.
Irrawaddian Formation to the basal part of the Lower Oligocene Tonhe
Formation (Htut and Laypaw, 2017). Langhembum Formation
(Hukawng Sub-basin) and Yeyaing Formation (east flank of Chindwin
Sub-basin) are Oligocene in age and consist of Sandstone, - thick bedded,
fine to medium grained, pebbly interbedded with calcareous shale and
mottled clay (deltaic-shallow marine in Hukawng Sub-basin) and
alternation of sandstone and mottled clay (fluviatile and laustrine units
in the east flank of Chindwin Sub-basin) (Htut and Laypaw, 2017).
Oligocene sediments in the Minbu-Salin Sub-basin consist of Okh­
mintaung Formation as tidal zone and fore-reefal to neritic zones,
Padaung Formation as neritic to estuarine and Shwezettaw Formation as
fluvial to littoral (Htut and Laypaw, 2017). Oligocene sediments in Pyay
Embayment Sub-basin consist of Tumyaung Formation, which is not
well exposed, but found in the test well about 1600m thick. Thus, we can
conclude that the CMB was developed as a continental shelf from deltaic
shallow marine to littoral environment during the Oligocene time
(Table. 1).
5.8.2. Oligocene outer Indo-Myanmar basin
Oligocene sediments in Andaman–Nicobar Islands: the Andaman
Flysch exposed in the west coast of Andaman Island, especially the best
exposure along the east coast of the South Andaman Island and the
flysch turbidites cover almost the entire area of Great Nicobar Island
(Bandopadhyay and Carter, 2017). The Oligocene sediments of the
Yechangyi Formation are exposed as flysch along the eastern margin of
the Ramree Island.
In the Mizoram State as the outer zone and Chin State as inner zone
are included in the IMR. In the Chin State, the Falam Formation as
Palaeocene-Eocene Flysch, Lower Cretaceous Kanpetlet Schist and
Triassic Pane Chaung Formation are exposed. However, in the Mizoram
area, flysch of fluysch the Barail Formation was exposed as klippe and
window structure (Kyi Khin et al., 2020), because part of area is covered
by Miocene nappe.
In Manipur State, Barail Formation is occurred as shallow marine
sediments (Molasse) (Kesari et al., 2011). In the Nagaland and Assam
State, the Barail Formation as shallow marine sediments are exposed
(Kesari et al., 2011). We can conclude that the Barail Formation is
composed of shallow marine sediments up Manipur State, Nagaland
until Patkoi Ranges to the north. Barail Formation (Molasse) was shown
K. Khin et al.
Table 1
Oligocene sedimentation and its environment of the IMR and related regions. (Flysch and Molasse represent group and compare orogenic setting with different
regions).
no folded effect in Manipur State regarding to no more subducted
movement.
Oligocene time in Bengal Fan: In the Sylhet State, the Barail For­
mation as shallow marine sediments (Molasse) was found in Surma
Basin. Tripura-Chittagong Region and Baronga Islands (Rakhine Coastal
Region) has no exposure of the Barail Formation (Kesari et al., 2011).
5.8.3. Oligocene inner IMR
In inner IMR before the India-West Myanmar Block Continent-
Continent Collision, Triassic to Eocene flysch was exposed along the
IMR. In the Chin State, Triassic Pane Chaung Formation, Lower Creta­
ceous Kanpetlet Schist and Palaeocene-Eocene Falam Flysch are exposed
(Bannert et al., 2011). Along the Manipur State, Nagaland and Patkoi
Ranges, Eocene Disang Flysch and Triassic to Cretaceous Naga Meta­
morphic Complex are exposed (Kesari et al., 2011).
In conclusion, we proposed two types of transpressional deformation
distinguished as homogeneous and strike-slip partitioning which are
developed within the frame of the strike-slip fault with progressive
deformation. Under the condition of the strike-slip partitioned trans­
pression, strain partitioning is distinctly occurred together with pro­
gressive deformation and reactivation of pre-existing structures such as
cylindrical fold to double plunging fold, normal fault to oblique slip fault
and positive flower structure. During the Late Miocene to Pliocene-
Pleistocene, pre-existing ophiolite zone in the IMR was split up as
different zones by the Sagaing Fault displacement, accompanied to the
West Myanmar Block movement with the India Plate subduction. In
accordance with the Sagaing Fault displacement, group of mud vol­
canoes were shifted together with the CMB moved northward about
450km with displacement rate 5–7cm per annum by the
45–50◦ convergent angle of the India Plate collision to the Eurasia Plate.
Transpressional deformation of northward compression was developed
in the CMB, simultaneously on the other side transtension as pull-apart
basin was formed by Andaman Sea opening at the south of the Sagaing
Fault.
During the Oligocene time, deposition of the shallow marine Barail
Formation in the Bengal Basin and shallow marine to continental shelf
sequences in the CMB started as twin trough. During the Miocene time,
collision of the India Plate to the Eurasia Plate was principal and caused
the deformation at northern border of India, in which the India Plate
moved both in northwards and rotated anti-clockwise, whereas the West
Myanmar Block together with the Sibumasu Block rotated clockwise
becoming final closure of the northeasternmost Assam and Myanmar
regions. This study provides the transpressional deformation in the CMB
30
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100055
and related regions during syn- and post-collision of the India Plate to
the West Myanmar Block with position and kinematic structural
interpretation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank anonymous reviewers for detailed,
constructive comments that helped improve the manuscript. We are also
grateful to Professor Khin Zaw (University of Tasmania, Australia) for
his continuing support, advice and encouragement. The authors are
indebted to Alistair Green (Mott MacDonald, Singapore) for many
helpful, insightful, and spirited discussions to improve manuscript.
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