QUESTION NO 01

PERSONALITY THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

ANSWER

Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Personality embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in
interactions with other people.

It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person

from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to
the social group.

Personality development is defined as a process of developing and enhancing one’s

personality. Personality development helps an individual to gain confidence and high self
esteem.

Personality development also is said to have a positive impact on one’s communication

skills and the way he sees the world.

Individuals tend to develop a positive attitude as a result of personality development.

MODEL OF PD

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVEPLEMENT

The following theories focus on various aspects of personality development, including

cognitive, social and moral development.

Piaget's Theory of cognitive development

Freud's Psychoanalytical theory of personality Development
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Piaget's Theory of cognitive development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development.

His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget's stages are

Sensorimotor stage Birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage Ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage Ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage Ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process

As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build
upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

The Stages
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and
learning.

As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about
how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth.

Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they
also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also
broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a child might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give
a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size
The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand
that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.

Freud's Psychoanalytical theory of personality Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the
pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous
zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the

 Oral
 Anal
 Phallic
 Latent and genital stages

Associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

Stages

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so
the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and
sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the
child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--
the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a
sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes.

If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that
an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother
and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by
the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such
as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women.
Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot
give birth to children.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins

around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant.
This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits
and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to
become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of
others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by
the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the
genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to
conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
Stages

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything that he or she needs to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing.
Everything. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel
that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this
point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately
age 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or
no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief their abilities to handle the tasks set
before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2 Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and
interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and
behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the
ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those
who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your

accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. 2
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

DEFENCE MECHANISM
First proposed by Sigmund Freud, this theory has evolved over time and contends that
behaviors, like defense mechanism

Defense mechanisms are behaviors people use to separate themselves from unpleasant
events, actions, or thoughts.

These psychological strategies may help people put distance between themselves and threats
or unwanted feelings, such as guilt or shame.

The idea of defense mechanisms comes from psychoanalytic theory, a psychological

perspective of personality that sees personality as the interaction between three components

1. Id
2. Ego
3. Super ego.

Defense mechanisms are a normal, natural part of psychological development.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFENCE MECHANISM

 They emerge in a development sequence from less mature to more mature.

 They can brought under conscious control to ward off anxiety.
 They maintain a sense of wellbeing and safety
 They may be episodic or become more habitual and pervasive
 They may be contribute toward formation of personality traits

LIST OF DEFENSE MECHANISM

Dozens of different defense mechanisms have been identified BUT Some are used more
commonly than others.

In most cases, these psychological responses are not under a person’s conscious control. That
means you don’t decide what you do when you do it. Here are a few common defense
mechanisms

1. Denial
2. Repression

3. Projection

4. Displacement

5. Regression

6. Rationalization

7. Sublimation

8. Reaction formation

9. Compartmentalization

10. Intellectualization

1. Denial

Denial is one of the most common defense mechanisms

It occurs when you refuse to accept reality or facts. You block external events or
circumstances from your mind so that you don’t have to deal with the emotional impact.
In other words, you avoid the painful feelings or events.

The phrase, “They’re in denial” is commonly understood to mean a person is avoiding reality
despite what may be obvious to people around them.

2. Repression

Unsavory thoughts, painful memories, or irrational beliefs can upset you.

Instead of facing them, you may unconsciously choose to hide them in hopes of
forgetting about them entirely.

That does not mean, however, that the memories disappear entirely. They may influence
behaviors, and they may impact future relationships. You just may not realize the impact this
defense mechanism is having.

3. Projection

Some thoughts or feelings you have about another person may make you
uncomfortable. If you project those feelings, you’re misattributing them to the other
person.

For example, you may dislike your new co-worker, but instead of accepting that, you choose
to tell yourself that they dislike you. You see in their actions the things you wish you could
do or say.

4. Displacement

You direct strong emotions and frustrations toward a person or object that doesn’t feel
threatening. This allows you to satisfy an impulse to react, but you don’t risk significant
consequences.

A good example of this defense mechanism is getting angry at your child or spouse because
you had a bad day at work. Neither of these people is the target of your strong emotions, but
reacting to them is likely less problematic than reacting to your boss.

5. Regression

Some people who feel threatened or anxious may unconsciously “escape” to an earlier
stage of development.

This type of defense mechanism may be most obvious in young children. If they
experience trauma or loss, they may suddenly act as if they’re younger again. They may
even begin wetting the bed or sucking their thumb.
Adults can regress, too. Adults who are struggling to cope with events or behaviors may
return to sleeping with a cherished stuffed animal, overeat foods they find comforting, or
begin chain smoking or chewing on pencils or pens. They may also avoid everyday activities
because they feel overwhelming.

overwhelming.

6. Rationalization

Some people may attempt to explain undesirable behaviors with their own set of
“facts.” This allows you to feel comfortable with the choice you made, even if you know
on another level it’s not right.

For example, people who might be angry at co-workers for not completing work on time
could be ignoring the fact that they’re typically late, too.

7. Sublimation

This type of defense mechanism is considered a positive strategy. That’s because people
who rely on it choose to redirect strong emotions or feelings into an object or activity
that is appropriate and safe.

For example, instead of lashing out at your employees, you choose to channel your
frustration into kickboxing or exercise. You could also funnel or redirect the feelings into
music, art, or sports.

8. Reaction formation

People who use this defense mechanism recognize how they feel, but they choose to
behave in the opposite manner of their instincts.

A person who reacts this way, for example, may feel they should not express negative
emotions, such as anger or frustration. They choose to instead react in an overly positive way.
9. Compartmentalization

Separating your life into independent sectors may feel like a way to protect many
elements of it.

For example, when you choose to not discuss personal life issues at work, you block off, or
compartmentalize, that element of your life. This allows you to carry on without facing the
anxieties or challenges while you’re in that setting or mindset.

10. Intellectualization

When you’re hit with a trying situation, you may choose to remove all emotion from
your responses and instead focus on quantitative facts. You may see this strategy in use
when a person who is let go from a job choose to spend their days creating spreadsheets of
job opportunities and leads.

OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Since Freud first described the original defense mechanisms, other researchers have
continued to describe other methods of reducing anxiety.

Some of these defense mechanisms include:

 Acting out:

Coping with stress by engaging in actions rather than acknowledging and bearing certain
feelings

 Aim inhibition
 Aim inhibition
 Aim inhibition

Accepting a modified form of their original goal (e.g., becoming a high school basketball
coach rather than a professional athlete)

 Altruism

Satisfying internal needs through helping others

 Avoidance
Refusing to deal with or encounter unpleasant objects or situations

 Compensation

Overachieving in one area to compensate for failures in another

 Dissociation

Becoming separated or removed from one's experience

 Fantasy

Avoiding reality by retreating to a safe place within one's mind

 Humor

Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a situations

 Passive-aggression:

Indirectly expressing anger

 Undoing:

Trying to make up for what one feels are inappropriate thoughts, feelings, or behaviors

For example if you hurt someone's feelings, you might offer to do something nice for them
in order to assuage your anxiety or guilt

The Eight Basic Aspects of Personality

 Perspective Key Strength Psychoanalytic Attention to unconscious influences; importance of

sexual drives even in nonsexual spheres
 Neoanalytic/ ego Emphasis on the self as it struggles to cope with emotions and drives on the
inside and the demands of others on the outside
 Biological Focus on tendencies and limits imposed by biological inheritance; easily combined
with most other approaches Behaviorist Emphasis on a more scientific analysis of the learning
experiences that shape personality
 Cognitive Emphasis on active nature of human thought; uses modern knowledge from
cognitive psychology
 Trait Focus on good individual assessment techniques
  Humanistic/ existential Appreciation of the spiritual nature of a person; emphasizes
struggles for self-fulfillment and dignity
 Interactionist Understanding that we are different selves in different situations

The Basics of Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov was studying the secretion of stomach acids & salivation in dogs in response
to the ingestion of varying amounts & kinds of food. Doing that, he observed curious
phenomenon:
 Sometimes stomach secretions & salivation would begin in dogs when they
had not yet eaten any food.
 The mere sight of the experimenter who normally brought food, or
even sound of experimenter’s footsteps, was enough to produce
salivation in dogs.
 He saw that dogs were responding not only on the basis of biological need
(hunger) but also as a result of learning or, as it came to be called, classical
conditioning
 Classical Conditioning:
 Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as the experimenter’s
footsteps) comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus (such
as food) that naturally brings about that response
 Neutral stimulus
 A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the
response of interest
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
 A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having
been learned (food)
  Unconditioned response (UCR)
 A response that is natural & needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of
food)
 Natural, innate, reflexive response that is not associated with previous learning
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
 A neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about
a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus (ringing bell)
 Conditioned response (CR)
 A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g.,
salivation at the ringing of a bell)

The Big Five Personality Model

 Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic
dimensions of personality, often referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits.
 The five broad personality traits described by the theory are extraversion,
agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.
 Extraversion. The extraversion dimension captures our comfort level with
relationships. Extraverts tend to be assertive, and sociable.
 Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
 ● Agreeableness. The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual’s propensity
to defer to others. Highly agreeable people are cooperative warm, and trusting.
People who score low on agreeableness are cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic.
 Conscientiousness. The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of reliability. A
highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent.
Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and
unreliable.
 ● Emotional stability. The emotional stability dimension taps a person’s ability to
withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-
confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious,
depressed, and insecure( called as neuroticism).
 Openness to experience. The openness to experience dimension addresses
 range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative,
curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the category are
conventional and find comfort in the familiar

Types of Reliability
1. Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer Reliability
Used to assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent
estimates of the same phenomenon.
When multiple people are giving assessments of some kind or are the subjects of
some test, then similar people should lead to the same resulting scores. It can be
used to calibrate people, for example those being used as observers in an
experiment.
Inter-rater reliability thus evaluates reliability across different people.

2. Test-Retest Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of a measure from one time to another.
An assessment or test of a person should give the same results whenever you
apply the test.
Test-retest reliability evaluates reliability across time.
Reliability can vary with the many factors that affect how a person responds to
the test, including their mood, interruptions, time of day, etc. A good test will
largely cope with such factors and give relatively little variation. An unreliable
test is highly sensitive to such factors and will give widely varying results, even if
the person re-takes the same test half an hour later.

3. Parallel-Forms Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of the results of two tests constructed in the same
way from the same content domain.
One problem with questions or assessments is knowing what questions are the
best ones to ask. A way of discovering this is do two tests in parallel, using
different questions.
 Parallel-forms reliability evaluates different questions and question sets that seek
to assess the same construct.
Parallel-Forms evaluation may be done in combination with other methods, such
as Split-half, which divides items that measure the same construct into two tests
and applies them to the same group of people.

4. 4. Internal Consistency Reliability

Used to assess the consistency of results across items within a test.
When asking questions in research, the purpose is to assess the response against
a given construct or idea. Different questions that test the same construct should
give consistent results.
Internal consistency reliability evaluates individual questions in comparison with
one another for their ability to give consistently appropriate results.
Average inter-item correlation compares correlations between all pairs of
questions that test the same construct by calculating the mean of all paired
correlations.

validity

Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method

measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-world
values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:

 Construct validity: Does the test measure the concept that it’s intended to
measure?
 Content validity: Is the test fully representative of what it aims to measure?
 Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?
 Criterion validity: Do the results correspond to a different test of the same thing?

Construct validity
Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing
we are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a
method.

Example
There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure
directly. But based on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure
depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low self-
confidence and low energy levels.
Content validity
Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the
construct.

Example
A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class. The
test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types of
algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’
understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are not related
to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.

Face validity
Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the
surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and
subjective assessment.

Example
You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You review
the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks eaten
in between for every day of the week. On its surface, the survey seems like a good
representation of what you want to test, so you consider it to have high face validity.
As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest form of
validity. However, it can be useful in the initial stages of developing a method.

Criterion validity
Criterion validity evaluates how closely the results of your test correspond to the
results of a different test.

Example
A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing
ability. To assess how well the test really does measure students’ writing ability, she
finds an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing
ability, and compares the results when the same group of students take both tests. If
the outcomes are very similar, the new test has a high criterion validity.

BENDURA SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

  Personality theory that views behavior as the product of the interaction of cognitions,
learning and past experiences, and the immediate environment. Cognitions: How people think
about a situation and their behavior in that situation. Learning includes: reinforcement,
punishment and modeling. Your interpretations of the environment determine personality,
behavior and your general outlook on life.
Albert Bandura (B. 1925) Suggested that people evaluate a situation based on certain internal
expectancies such as personal preferences. This evaluation has an effect on one’s behavior.
Example: Two people play a video game for the first time and score similarly low scores…

Components of Personality

(Expectations)

(Environment/Surroundings)

(Behavior/Response to situation)

5 Locus of Control 1950’s theory by Julian Rotter (B. 1916) and supported by Bandura. It
explains an expectancy of whether reinforcement is under internal or external control
Internal: convinced they can control their own fate. They believe that through hard work, skill
and training, it is possible to find reinforcements and avoid punishments. External: convinced
they cannot control their own fate. Instead, they are convinced that chance, luck and the
behavior of others determine their destiny and feel threatened that they are helpless to do
anything about it.

General expectancies or explanatory styles (such as optimism or pessimism) can have

significant effects on behavior. Example: WWII vets interviewed every five years since
returning from battle. Interviews concluded if subjects were overall more optimistic or
pessimistic. Those men who were optimists at age 25 tended to be healthier at age 65, while
the health of the pessimist had begun to deteriorate at about age 45. The study showed that
pessimists were less careful about their health than the optimists.

Another way to view explanatory style is in terms of self-efficacy

Self-Efficacy: used to describe the degree to which one expects their efforts will be
successful.

Performance Standards: Standards that people develop to rate the adequacy of their own
behavior in variety of situations.

Reciprocal Determinism: The concept that the person influences the environment and is in
turned influenced by the environment.

“What is crucial in all of this is that Bandura believes that people internally organize their
expectancies and values to control their own behavior. These personal standards form a
unique constellation for each person, one that grows out of the person’s life history ( Morris,
1996, p. 473). ” The social-cognitive theory revolves around the process of knowledge
acquisition (or learning) directly correlated to the observation of models. This, in turn, shapes
personality.

OPTIMISTIC AND PESSIMISTIC

Rogers’ Humanistic Theory of Personality

Carl Rogers’ humanistic personality theory emphasizes the importance of the self-
actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept.

Personality Development and the Self-Concept

Rogers based his theories of personality development on humanistic psychology and

theories of subjective experience. He believed that everyone exists in a constantly
changing world of experiences that they are at the center of. A person reacts to
changes in their phenomenal field, which includes external objects and people as
well as internal thoughts and emotions.

The phenomenal field: The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes
external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The person’s motivations and
environments both act on their phenomenal field.
Rogers believed that all behavior is motivated by self-actualizing tendencies, which
drive a person to achieve at their highest level. As a result of their interactions with
the environment and others, an individual forms a structure of the self or self-
concept—an organized, fluid, conceptual pattern of concepts and values related to
the self. If a person has a positive self-concept, they tend to feel good about who
they are and often see the world as a safe and positive place. If they have a negative
self-concept, they may feel unhappy with who they are.

Ideal Self vs. Real Self

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self.
The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you
actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency
between these two selves. We experience congruence when our thoughts about our
real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is
accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy,
productive life. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and
actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to
maladjustment.
Unconditional Positive Regard

In the development of the self-concept, Rogers elevated the importance

of unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. People raised in an
environment of unconditional positive regard, in which no preconceived conditions of
worth are present, have the opportunity to fully actualize. When people are raised in
an environment of conditional positive regard, in which worth and love are only given
under certain conditions, they must match or achieve those conditions in order to
receive the love or positive regard they yearn for. Their ideal self is thereby
determined by others based on these conditions, and they are forced to develop
outside of their own true actualizing tendency; this contributes to incongruence and a
greater gap between the real self and the ideal self.

“The Good Life”

Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development.

These principles exist in fluid processes rather than static states. He claimed that a
fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfill his or her potential in each of
these processes, achieving what he called “the good life.” These people would allow
personality and self-concept to emanate from experience. He found that fully
functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common:
1. A growing openness to experience–they move away from defensiveness.
2. An increasingly existential lifestyle–living each moment fully, rather than distorting the
moment to fit personality or self-concept.
3. Increasing organismic trust–they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose
behavior that is appropriate for each moment.
4. Freedom of choice–they are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a
wide range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining
their own behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior.
5. Higher levels of creativity–they will be more creative in the way they adapt to their
own circumstances without feeling a need to conform.
6. Reliability and constructiveness–they can be trusted to act constructively. Even
aggressive needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent
individuals.
7. A rich full life–they will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and
courage more intensely.

Criticisms of Rogers’ Theories

Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticized for their lack of empirical evidence
used in research. The holistic approach of humanism allows for a great deal of
variation but does not identify enough constant variables to be researched with true
accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective
experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of society
on personality development.