Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa

Theories of Crime Causation

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
There are several psychological theories that attempt to explain the causation of crime. These
theories focus on understanding how individual psychological factors contribute to criminal
behavior. Some of the prominent psychological theories of crime causation include:
1. Psychodynamic Theory: This theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, suggests that
criminal behavior is the result of unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
According to this theory, individuals who experience trauma or have unresolved conflicts
during childhood may develop criminal tendencies as a way to cope with their inner
conflicts.
2. Behavioral Theory: Behavioral theories of crime causation focus on how learned
behaviors and reinforcement shape criminal behavior. These theories suggest that
individuals learn criminal behavior through socialization processes, such as
reinforcement, modeling, and association with deviant peers.
3. Cognitive Theory: Cognitive theories of crime causation focus on how cognitive
processes, such as decision-making, reasoning, and problem-solving, influence criminal
behavior. These theories suggest that individuals engage in criminal behavior when they
perceive the benefits of the crime to outweigh the risks, or when they have distorted
thinking patterns that justify their actions.

Psychodynamic theory, rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud, provides a psychological

framework for understanding human behavior, including criminal behavior. According to
psychodynamic theory, unconscious conflicts, desires, and unresolved issues from early
childhood experiences shape an individual's personality and behavior.
Here are some key concepts and propositions of psychodynamic theory as they relate to crime
causation:
1. Unconscious Processes: Psychodynamic theory posits that much of human behavior is
influenced by unconscious processes, including repressed memories, desires, and
emotions. These unconscious elements can manifest in criminal behavior because of
unresolved conflicts or traumatic experiences.
2. Personality Structure: Freud proposed a tripartite model of personality consisting of the
id, ego, and superego. The id represents primal instincts and desires, seeking immediate
gratification. The superego represents internalized moral standards and societal norms.
The ego mediates between the id and superego, balancing primal desires with societal
expectations. Criminal behavior may arise when there is a disruption in this balance, such
as when the superego is weak or when the id's desires overpower the ego's control.

1
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa
Theories of Crime Causation
3. Defense Mechanisms: Psychodynamic theory identifies defense mechanisms as
unconscious strategies used to cope with anxiety and psychological conflicts. Examples
of defense mechanisms include repression (unconsciously blocking out painful memories
or impulses), rationalization (creating logical explanations for one's behavior to justify it),
and displacement (redirecting unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening target).
Maladaptive use of defense mechanisms can contribute to criminal behavior by distorting
perceptions and inhibiting healthy coping mechanisms.
4. Early Childhood Experiences: Psychodynamic theory emphasizes the significance of
early childhood experiences, particularly relationships with caregivers, in shaping
personality development. Traumatic or dysfunctional experiences during childhood, such
as abuse or neglect, can lead to the formation of maladaptive personality traits and coping
mechanisms that increase the risk of engaging in criminal behavior later in life.
5. Symbolic Expression of Unconscious Conflicts: Psychodynamic theory suggests that
criminal behavior can serve as a symbolic expression of unconscious conflicts or desires.
For example, acts of aggression or theft may represent unresolved anger or feelings of
deprivation stemming from early childhood experiences.

Behavioral theories of crime causation focus on understanding how learned behaviors,

reinforcement, and environmental factors contribute to criminal behavior. These theories
emphasize the role of socialization processes and environmental influences in shaping
individuals' actions.
1. Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning, proposed by B.F. Skinner, focuses on how
behavior is shaped by consequences. According to this theory, behaviors that are
reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are punished
are less likely to occur. In the context of crime, individuals may engage in criminal
behavior if they perceive rewards (e.g., monetary gain, social status) outweighing the
potential punishments.
B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist and behaviorist who made significant
contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of behaviorism, operant
conditioning, and applied behavior analysis. Here are some key aspects of B.F. Skinner's work:
1. Behaviorism: Skinner was a leading figure in the behaviorist movement, which
emphasizes the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. He
rejected the idea of studying unobservable mental events such as thoughts and feelings
and instead focused on understanding behavior in terms of observable stimuli and
responses.

2
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa
Theories of Crime Causation
2. Operant Conditioning: Skinner is best known for his work on operant conditioning, a
form of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences. He
introduced the concept of the operant, which is any behavior that operates on the
environment to produce a consequence. Skinner's research demonstrated how the
principles of reinforcement and punishment can be used to modify behavior.
3. Skinner Box: Skinner developed the Skinner box, also known as the operant
conditioning chamber, to study animal behavior in controlled laboratory settings. The
Skinner box allowed researchers to investigate how different schedules of reinforcement
and punishment affect learning and behavior.
4. Schedules of Reinforcement: Skinner identified various schedules of reinforcement,
including continuous reinforcement (reinforcement delivered every time the behavior
occurs) and intermittent reinforcement (reinforcement delivered intermittently). He
demonstrated that intermittent reinforcement schedules, such as fixed ratio and variable
ratio schedules, are particularly effective in maintaining behavior over time.
5. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Skinner's principles of operant conditioning have
been widely applied in the field of applied behavior analysis, which uses behavioral
techniques to address a variety of behavioral problems and disorders. ABA is commonly
used in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders, developmental disabilities, and
behavioral problems in children and adults.
6. Verbal Behavior: In his book "Verbal Behavior," Skinner applied the principles of
operant conditioning to the analysis of language and communication. He proposed that
language is learned through operant conditioning processes, such as reinforcement and
shaping, rather than through innate mechanisms or cognitive processes.
7. Controversies and Criticisms: Skinner's ideas and approach to psychology were not
without controversy. Critics argued that his strict behaviorist perspective neglected the
role of cognitive processes and internal mental states in shaping behavior. Additionally,
some raised ethical concerns about the use of behavior modification techniques,
particularly in the treatment of human subjects.
Hans Eysenck, a prominent psychologist known for his work in personality theory, intelligence,
and behavior genetics. Here's an overview of Hans Eysenck's contributions to psychology:
1. Personality Dimensions: Eysenck proposed a hierarchical model of personality that
included three major dimensions:
 Extraversion-Introversion: Eysenck suggested that individuals vary in their
level of extraversion (outgoing, sociable, and assertive) versus introversion
(reserved, quiet, and reflective).

3
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa
Theories of Crime Causation
 Neuroticism-Stability: Eysenck identified neuroticism as a dimension of
personality characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and susceptibility to
stress. Individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience negative emotions more
frequently and intensely.
 Psychoticism-Socialization: Eysenck later added the dimension of psychoticism,
which refers to traits such as aggressiveness, impulsivity, and lack of empathy.
Individuals high in psychoticism may display antisocial behavior and have
difficulty conforming to social norms.

THE COGNITIVE THEORY OF CRIME CAUSATION

The cognitive theory of crime causation focuses on how individuals' thoughts, beliefs,
perceptions, and decision-making processes contribute to their engagement in criminal behavior.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work in
developmental psychology. Piaget's theories and research have had a profound influence on our
understanding of how children learn, think, and perceive the world around them. Here are some
key aspects of Piaget's work:
1. Theory of Cognitive Development: Piaget proposed a comprehensive theory of
cognitive development, which describes how children actively construct their
understanding of the world through a series of distinct stages. According to Piaget,
cognitive development occurs through the interaction of biological maturation and
environmental experiences.
2. Stages of Cognitive Development: Piaget identified four major stages of cognitive
development:
 Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Infants explore the world through their
senses and actions. They develop object permanence and begin to understand
cause-and-effect relationships.
 Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children develop language and symbolic
thinking but lack the ability to think logically or understand conservation (the
concept that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement).
 Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children acquire the ability to think
logically about concrete objects and events. They can understand conservation
and engage in concrete problem-solving.
 Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older): Adolescents and adults develop
the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and engage in deductive
reasoning.

4
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa
Theories of Crime Causation
3. Assimilation and Accommodation: Piaget proposed that children actively construct
knowledge through processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves
incorporating new information into existing cognitive structures (schemas), while
accommodation involves modifying existing schemas to accommodate new information
that cannot be assimilated.
4. Schemas and Mental Representations: Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas,
which are mental frameworks or structures that organize and interpret information.
Children develop schemas through their interactions with the environment and use them
to make sense of new experiences.
5. Constructivism: Piaget's theory is often described as constructivist because it
emphasizes the active role of the child in constructing knowledge through exploration,
experimentation, and problem-solving. Piaget believed that children are not passive
recipients of information but active participants in their own learning process.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was an American psychologist best known for his research on
moral development. Kohlberg expanded upon the work of Jean Piaget and developed a theory of
moral development that has had a significant influence on psychology, education, and ethics.
Here are some key aspects of Kohlberg's work:
1. Stages of Moral Development: Kohlberg proposed a six-stage theory of moral
development, organized into three levels, each consisting of two stages. The levels are:
 Preconventional Level:
 Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation – Children obey rules to
avoid punishment.
 Stage 2: Individualism and exchange – Children follow rules to satisfy
their own needs and gain rewards.
 Conventional Level:
 Stage 3: Interpersonal relationships – Individuals conform to social norms
to gain approval and maintain social order.
 Stage 4: Social order and maintaining authority – Individuals uphold laws
and rules to maintain social order and authority.
 Postconventional Level:
 Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights – Individuals recognize the
importance of social contracts and uphold laws that are consistent with
fundamental human rights and democratic principles.

5
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa
Theories of Crime Causation
 Stage 6: Universal principles – Individuals adhere to universal ethical
principles, such as justice, equality, and human dignity, even if they
conflict with societal norms and laws.
2. Developmental Sequence: Kohlberg proposed that moral development progresses
through these stages in a fixed sequence, with each stage building upon the previous
ones. He suggested that individuals move through the stages as they encounter
increasingly complex moral dilemmas and engage in moral reasoning.
3. Cognitive Processes: Kohlberg emphasized the role of cognitive processes, particularly
moral reasoning, in driving moral development. He believed that individuals progress
through the stages of moral development by actively thinking about moral dilemmas,
considering different perspectives, and making judgments based on ethical principles.
4. Cultural Variability: While Kohlberg's theory initially focused on the development of
moral reasoning in Western cultures, he later acknowledged the importance of cultural
variability in moral development. He suggested that cultural factors, such as religion,
family values, and societal norms, influence individuals' moral reasoning and the
expression of moral principles.
5. Critiques and Limitations: Kohlberg's theory has been critiqued for its emphasis on
moral reasoning at the expense of other factors, such as emotions, empathy, and
contextual influences, which also play a role in moral decision-making. Additionally,
some critics argue that the theory may not adequately account for cultural differences in
moral values and ethical beliefs.