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 An Investigation of Buckling Phenomenon in Steel Elements
Dr. Pouria Hafiza,b,*, Abdullahi Maikanti Barua,c
a
School of energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure, and Society, Heriot Watt University Dubai Campus, United Arab
Emirates
b c
Assistant Professor Graduate Student

ABSTRACT
The stability of columns and structural stability of steel structures has turn out to be of principal interest with the debut
of steel material as a construction material and the advancement of higher strength steels. The most prominent failure
mode of steel column structures is Buckling. Buckling phenomenon can be defined as the structural instability that is
usually associated with high compressional loading which results in a failure mode of structural element that is long
and slender. Two types of buckling; bifurcation type and deformation-amplification type were studied considering
their failure modes. The numerical investigations of steel columns with different boundary conditions, and slenderness
ratio both with the effect of imperfections were carried out in finite element code ABAQUS. A linear perturbation
analysis was conducted for both the models and their eigenvalues were compared with the Euler buckling load. The
eigenvalues obtained were used as the buckling loads for the non-linear Riks analysis that includes the eigenmodes
and the imperfection scale factors with the Ngleom toggled on to account for the geometric and material imperfections.
It was learnt that the fixed-fixed boundary condition provides a stiffer response and high resistance to the imperfections
when compared with the other boundaries. The effect of the imperfection was more evident in the slenderness ratio
model, higher percentage difference with the critical buckling load was noticed and it was because the length of
columns is a function of the imperfection.
Keywords: Imperfections, Boundary conditions, Slenderness ratio, Deformation-amplification type buckling, Elastic buckling

1. Introduction predictable. This phenomenon often happens

Column is the pillar for any structure that
supports loads from all other structural elements.
Hence, these upright compression elements form
the most critical part of most structural design.
These upright compression elements are typically
under pure axial compressive forces, and usually
include other loadings, Megahed [1].
Buckling phenomenon can be defined as the
structural instability that is usually associated
with high compressional loading which results in
a failure mode of structural element that is long
and slender. It is a lateral deflection of structural
element (column or beam) which makes it
somewhat asymmetric at the point of the
deformation with respect to its central axis. The
points of the deformation vary and hence not
* Corresponding author at: School of energy,
Geoscience, Infrastructure, and Society, Heriot Watt
University Dubai Campus, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail address: p.hafiz@hw.ac.uk, amb43@hw.ac.uk
incipiently with no warning at the axis that has
the smallest second moment of area and radius of
gyration in columns and beams that leads to a
collapse mechanism, hence their design needs to
be carefully analysed in order for the member
(column) to carry its intended loading without
buckling.
Buckling can result in huge deflection and a
considerable loss in load capacity of a member,
which could cause the structure to lose its
capacity to support the applied loading, Connor
and Faraji [2].
Over the last century, the buckling of columns has
been examined with much significance to slender
columns that are usually susceptible to buckling
and due to their increased use in engineering
structures, Yang and Bradford [3].
There are two types of buckling which are
bifurcation-type (conceptual) and deflection-
amplification-type buckling (real-life
deformation), Chai and Sung [4].
Euler (1707-1783) presented the first accurate
column analysis in 1744 that depends on the
element dimensions and its modulus of elasticity.
This founded the basis of the buckling theory
however neglecting effect of eccentricity rather
shows directly proportional relationship between
deflection and bending moment. That means the
higher the bending moment the higher the
deflection. It assumes the column will have a
bifurcation-type buckling after load application.
Deflection-amplification-type buckling can be
shown in a laboratory that is close to bifurcation-
type buckling although reproducing bifurcation-
type conditions flawlessly even in the laboratory
environment is not feasible, Chai and Sung [4].
Both bifurcation-type and deformation-
amplification-type buckling doesn’t happen
because of the resisting stress arriving at a
limiting strength of the material but happens due
to several factors (boundary conditions, material
properties etc) that affect the stress at which
buckling occurs, Chai and Sung [4].
The aim of this paper is to study bifurcation-type
and deformation-amplication-type buckling in
steel elements. Computational model was
developed to compare the Euler equation with
effective length factors. The objective of this
work is to: (1) demonstrate global buckling
phenomena by computational modelling, (2) to
investigate effect of imperfections.
2. Background
2.1. Buckling Failure mode
Global buckling involves the rotation and
translation of individual cross-sections without
distorting the shape in consistency with the
classical beam theory. Its characteristics include
the whole member’s rigid body movements (Li,
2004). Global buckling happens at comparatively
longer wavelengths. It is a regular consideration
when designing I-section steel members with no
intermediate restraint. The compression flange
tends to buckle laterally in members bent about
their major axis. The flange is a compression
member effectively with a slight initial
imperfection and can only buckle in a single
direction. However, the single connection to the
web implies that the flange can only shift upon
the cross-section twisting and through exertion of
an even smaller lateral tension flange shift, Iles
[5]. If the compression flange is unrestrained
through connection to paneling or sheathing, the
susceptibility of the members to distortional
failures increases.
2.2. Effect of Imperfections in CFS Members:
Definition and types of imperfections
According to Ungureanu and Dubina [6],
“imperfections refer to cross–section and
member geometry, to residual stresses and to
yield strength distribution across the section, to
supporting conditions of the members and to load
introduction” (p.207). Amouzegar et al. [7]
described two types of imperfections in CFS
members. These include geometric and material
imperfections. Zeinoddini-Meimand [8] defined
material imperfections as the residual strains and
stresses that develop during the process of
manufacturing and the digression of the yield
strength and elastic modulus from the nominal
values. Concerning geometric imperfection, it is
noteworthy than none of the CFS members
possess perfect geometry. According to
Amouzegar et al. [7], geometric imperfections
originate from construction, storage, shipping
and manufacturing processes and may be either
global or local. Local geometric imperfections
manifest as cross-sectional distortions whereas
global geometric imperfections include distortion
in terms of lengthwise straightness. Examples of
global geometric imperfections include strong
axis crookedness (camber), weak axis
crookedness (bow) and twist, Amouzegar et al.
[7]. Figure 2.2 below illustrates local (types 1 and
2) and global imperfections.

Fig.2.2. Local (Types 1 and 2) and global imperfections
(Source: Amouzegar et al. [7])
2.4. Effect of Imperfections in CFS Members:
Measuring imperfections
Statistical studies about measured global
imperfections for CFS members demonstrated
that the mean measured values for bow fall below
L/960. For example, Zeinoddini and Schafer [9]
conducted comparisons on the measured camber,
twist and bow distribution to the half sine wave.
In particular, the distribution for the measured
bow corresponded well with the half sine wave,
Zeinoddini and Schafer [9].
In a different study, Zeinoddini-Meimand [8]
employed the least squares method in an attempt
to fit the imperfections to the different buckling
mode shapes deduced from an analysis on elastic
buckling.
The scaling mode shapes follows in accordance
with the measured imperfections upon their
distribution over the length within the half-sine
wave form. This is achieved with a wavelength
equivalent to the critical length acquired from
analyzing elastic buckling, Zeinoddini-Meimand
[8].
3. Elastic Buckling and Post-Buckling
Analysis
The material used was assumed to be elastic with
E=255 GPa and Poisson’s ratio (𝜗) = 0.3. This is
due to the material which is brake-pressed from
high strength zinc-coated steel sheet (G500)
taken from Zhang and Young [10]. The plastic
portion of the stress-strain curve was assumed to
have yield stress = 500 MPa and strain = 0. The
cross-section of the member under examination
was categorized into steel I-shaped open section
with edge and web stiffeners. The dimensions of
the cross-sections were taken from Zhang and
Young [10] and are stated as follows: the left and
right side was represented with letters a and b. For
a: bw = 98.7mm, w1 = 24.6mm, w2 = 25.5mm,
w3 = 18.7mm, e = 13.2mm, bf = 32.5mm, bl =
10.2mm, t = 1.065mm (including imperfection
which means it is not the nominal length), ri =
3.1mm, and for b: bw = 100.4mm, w1 = 24.8mm,
w2 = 25.4mm, w3 = 18.4mm, e = 13.2mm, bf =
32.4mm, bl = 10.6mm, t = 1.064mm (including
imperfection which means it is not the nominal
length), ri = 3.1mm. Different imperfections
were considered depending on the length because
the length is a function of the imperfection. The
foremost equation used was the Euler buckling
equation, which the established finite element
models are compared to and validated.
3.1. Linear Perturbation Analysis (Lineaar
Buckling Analysis)
To extract the predicted buckling load, this step
was created so that the response becomes linear.
This step utilizes the eigenvalue buckling
analysis to analyze preloaded or unloaded stiff
structures. This is appropriate for the emphasis of
the current research concerned with elastic
(Euler) buckling of stiff and unloaded
compression members. The eigenvalue equation
of the system computes the buckling strength of
compressed columns and plates for theoretical
elastic buckling analysis. The smallest eigenvalue
is expected to occur only when the applied load is
greater than the critical buckling load with a
lateral deflection that follows.
Further explanation for the linear perturbation
analysis can be found in the paper “ Buckling of
Pretwisted Steel Columns” by Megahed [1].
To do an extraction of eigenvalue, ABAQUS
provides the Lanczos and the Subspace iteration
method. The subspace iteration method was used
because the maximum eigenmodes requested was
six (6). The lowest eigenvalue or the first
eigenvalue is considered the critical buckling
load.
3.2 Finite Element (FE) Modelling using Linear
Perturbation
Fig. 3.2a. Typical effective length factors K= Lcr/L used in
the model from Davison and Owens [11]
Commercial FE code ABAQUS 6.16 was used to
obtain the modelling of columns. In the
ABAQUS library, ABAQUS [12], the
(*BUCKLE) technique was used to perform the
FE tests. This undertakes the eigenvalue analysis
technique expressed in the earlier section. The
aim of the FE analysis was to predict the first
critical buckling mode from the eigenvalue
analysis because it will be same as the Euler load.
The same cross-section as stated before was used
for the boundary conditions and the slenderness
ratio which had different column lengths, both
situations had imperfections that is respect to
their lengths. All the models examined were in
modelled in two-dimensional (2D).
The columns were modelled using a two-
dimensional wire part and was meshed with a 2-
node cubic beam element in a plane, that is
element type B23. The element type B23 is
defined by the theory of the Euler-Bernoulli beam
and that means it doesn’t allow transverse shear
deformation and warping. This element type is
suitable to model slender members and it uses
cubic interpolation functions, ABAQUS [12].
The boundary conditions were attached at the
bottom and top of the column with respect to the
effective lengths (figure 3.2a). The top boundary
condition was allowed to move in Y- direction
(force direction) in all cases and the necessary
assumptions to let this condition work was
applied.
Eigenvalue analysis was implemented to achieve
the buckling capacity and failure loads of each
column under different conditions. It was done by
employing a unit load at the support where the
vertical translation was allowed. The buckling
modes and critical loads were obtained and the
expected correlation between the Euler
theoretical equation was recorded. Ren et al [13]
showed that the mesh of 10mm gives accurate
result in buckling analysis and showed that the
results vary usually in the range of 0.03-0.07
difference, hence in this work, the value 10mm
was used for all buckling analysis.
3.3 FE Model Verification
The Euler equation for elastic buckling was used
analytically to achieve theoretical buckling loads
offered and it is stated as:
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝐿2
(Equation 3.3)
Where 𝑁𝑐𝑟 is the first critical buckling load
conforming to the first eigenvalue and buckling
mode. E, the modulus of elasticity (225 GPa), I,
the moment of inertia of the cross-section about
the weak axis, K is the theoretical effective length
factor, and L is the column length. FE buckling
analysis results was associated with analytical
solution acquired through the Euler equation for
each member. This assessment was made to see
the accuracy of the finite element model. When a
shear-flexible element is used, the finite element
model tends to be less accurate.
Table 2 shows the result of the comparison
between the Euler and eigenvalues for the case of
the boundary conditions model but for the
slenderness ratio model since only one constant
boundary condition (Pinned-Pinned) was used it
was found that there would be similar
correlations with respect to the boundary. Strong
correlations are said to be achieved. Figure 3.3
shows the samples of the expected buckling
(a) (b)
modes for a slenderness ratio model (L6000)
where this represents the length of the column as
6000mm. The columns were rendered for the
sake of visualization although all of them are line
(2D).
3.4 Non-linear Finite Element Analysis
(Nonlinear Buckling Analysis)

The analysis of postbuckling or ultimate strength

comprises producing nonlinear static equilibrium
explanation of an unstable problem. The figure
3.4 below shows the comprehensive load-
displacement outcome for the problem. The load
at increments and/or displacement may be non-
monotonic as the resolution changes during a (c) (d)
certain percentage of the outcome. Different
methods are usually employed for such unstable
problems. The most effective and precise is the
modified Riks method for such unstable problems
[14, 15, and 16]. Where the load is proportional
(load magnitude is governed by a single scalar
parameter) is used for this type of cases in Riks
method. This applies to the study and hence the
modified Riks method was taken into
consideration in the finite element code
modelling.
Nonlinear analysis was operated in the
commercial software code ABAQUS to test the
buckling capacity of all the members (boundary
conditions and slenderless ratio models). (e) (f)

Fig 3.3. Typical Expected Buckling modes for L6000

(a) first buckling mode (b) second buckling mode (c)
third buckling mode (d) fourth buckling mode (e) fifth
buckling mode (f) sixth buckling mode
 Fig.3.6a. Illustration of force and displacement limit
Fig 3.4. Typical Load vs Displacement curve in points (Source: Andersen [17])
Nonlinear Analysis

3.5 FE Model Description

As in the former section (linear perturbation
modelling), the same was used for the
postbuckling analysis. The boundary conditions
and loading pattern etc were all the same as in the
previous simulation discussed earlier. The
mechanical property applied for the stress-strain
curve was an elastic-perfectly plastic for the steel
material in ABAQUS. Linear elastic behavior
was defined with a modulus of elasticity E = 225
GPa and poisson ratio = 0.3. The plastic
deformation was assumed to be same as stated at Fig.3.6b. Principle of modified riks method
the beginning of this section. (illustration for 2D problem; Andersen [17])

3.6 Riks Analysis

Newton-Raphson method which is the basis of
Riks method doesn’t track the path which the
force limit points or displacement limits points
occur (buckling position) as in figure 3.6a. To
counter this effect, the riks method or modified
riks method was used. The difference can be
noticed from it plot below (figure 3.6b). The Riks
method was used to acquire the postbuckling
behavior of the members. The core of the method
is to obtain the answer of an individual
equilibrium path in a space defined by nodal
variables and loading parameter.
Similarly, as stated in section 3.1, further
explanation on riks analysis, consult the paper
“Buckling of Pretwisted Steel Columns” by
Megahed [1].
3.7 Imperfection
Least deformation energy is vital to go from the
unload state to the final collapse condition and
due to this, the most critical imperfect geometry
is the closest to the final collapse shape. Hence
the lowest eigenmode is scaled to produce an
initial imperfection to account for second-order
geometrical nonlinearity, Alvarenga and Silveira
[18]. To make the realistic models, geometric
imperfections must be considered, Sestier [19].
For inelastic buckling, it is usually a continuous
response unlike bifurcation which includes
introducing initial imperfection into the models.
This is accomplished by using the
*IMPERFECTION option, and the imperfection
form was acquired from the buckling mode
(shape) of the eigenvalue buckling analysis. The
first buckling mode of each model was selected
as the base imperfection. Before initiating this
analysis, the keywords were edited to put
imperfection magnitude and scale factors. A
simple corresponding geometric imperfection
pattern was chosen. This was the lowest
eigenmode shape which is presumed to be
corresponding to geometric imperfection that is
expected to simulate imperfections in all typical
model (element) properties and hereby determine
the buckling behavior. The geometric
imperfections were put in based on the buckling
modes obtained in the linear elastic buckling
analysis to the perfect shape of the members.
L/1000 was used as the imperfection for all
members because EN 1993-1-5 allows for the
lowest eigenshape to be used as the geometric
imperfection which corresponds to the buckling
shape of the analyzed specimen. Therefore, the
amplitudes of the eigenshapes were scaled to the
imperfection magnitudes. According to Somodi
and Kovesdi [20] using L/1000 in numerical
simulation provides accurate results. Also, in
Eurocode 3, Part 1.1 EN 1993-1-1 [21], it was
proposed that 1/1000 times magnitude of the
member length (L) can be used for sinusoidal
imperfection. The AISC also proposed that the
bow imperfection to be L/1000.
3.8 Boundary Conditions
The boundaries of the columns were set to be
approximately to that of figure 3.2a. In order to
allow the translation in Y-direction, to permit the
buckling, some necessary assumptions were
made for each of the columns to satisfy the
criteria. Table 1 depicts the assumed boundary
conditions for 2D first column models.
The basis of this assumption was the Euler
eigenvalues from the equation (3.3). They were
compared with the modelled eigenvalues until
they were close enough and hence said that the
assumed boundary condition is close to the
normal.
The boundary condition for the 2D second
column model was taken as Pinned-Pinned
because the length won’t be affected by the factor
(K) in the equation and satisfies the purpose of
the model which to study the effect of the
slenderness ratio.

The geometrically and materially non-linear

analysis with imperfections uses both large
deflection theory for the displacement to take into
account of the geometry under loading and a non-
linear elasto-plastic law of material to take into
account of the yielding that was included.
Table 1: Boundary conditions of the 2D first
column models (effect of boundary conditions)

Effective Equivalence
Normal Boundary (Top Assumed Boundary
Length factor between assumed
and Bottom) (Top and Bottom)
(K=Lcr/L) and normal

Pinned-
1 Pinned-Roller U1=U2=0, U1=U2=0 U1=U2=0, U1=0
Pinned
Fixed- U1=U2=0,
0.85 Fixed-Roller, U2 U1=U2=UR3=0, U1=0, U2= − 3.5 × 10−5 mm
Pinned U1=U2=UR3=0
Fixed-Free 2 - U1=U2=UR3=0 -
Encastre-XSYMM, U1=U2=UR3=0, U1=U2=U3=UR1=UR2=UR3=0,
Fixed-Fixed 0.7
U2 U1=U2=UR3=0 U1=UR2=UR3=0, U2=−5.12× 10−5 mm
Fixed-
1 Pinned-Roller U1=U2=UR3=0, U1=0 U1=U2=0, U1=0
Roller
4. Results and Discussion
Restraining connection of beam-column stiffness
plays a main function on the stability behavior of
columns. The columns were loaded
concentrically therefore the deflections happen at
low loads in the applied load direction and means
that transverse deflection doesn’t happen until
bifurcation or buckling load is attained.
The column remains straight till the critical load
and at the critical load, the bifurcation of
equilibrium happens that leads the column to
reach instability and buckle.
It can be said that in all the plots, the structure has
undergone a loading from its base state of
equilibrium to a new form of equilibrium state.
Hereafter, it can continue with the path which
consume the minimum of energy, Farshad [22].
4.1 Eigenvalues
Table 2 shows the critical buckling load of the
columns (2600 mm) extracted from the
eigenvalue analysis. The critical buckling load
from Euler equation is with respect to the weak
axis (x-x) (horizontal).
It shows the lowest eigenvalues corresponds
closely with the Euler equation and hence are the
buckling load of the column.
There are huge variations for the fixed-fixed and
fixed-pinned when their actual boundary
conditions were used. A decrease of about
32.34% and 48.9% exist when their eigenvalues
are compared.
The problem that caused this difference was
because a vertical translation needs to be allowed,
hence the vertical restraint was neglected. To get
more accurate result, a vertical counter
displacement (U2) was applied and it makes the
eigenvalue to become negative. Hence, the
absolute value was considered. The counter
displacement values assumed for the fixed-fixed
and fixed-pinned to be −5.12× 10-5 mm and − 3.5
× 10-5 mm respectively.
Table 3 shows the critical buckling load of
columns at different heights which was extracted
from the eigenvalue analysis. As observed, the
modes of different lengths were equal with other
lengths. For example, in L1000, mode 2 kept
changing and becomes a higher mode in the next
length. The mode 3 in L1000 becomes the mode
6 in L2000, it can be argued that the mode 9 of
L3000 will be equal to the mode 6 of L2000. The
mode 1 in L1000 becomes mode 2, mode 3, mode
4, mode 5, and mode 6 in the respective lengths
L2000, L3000, L4000, L5000, and L6000.
It is believed that if L7000 existed then its mode
7 will be equal to the mode 6 of L6000. The mode
1 of L1500 becomes mode 2, mode 3, and mode
4 in the respective lengths of L3000, L4500, and
L6000. This goes back to the sinusoidal
imperfection pattern. It is normal in eigenvalue
analysis to have some modes equal, some factors
may have played a role. In this case, the only
variable was the length, therefore it is the reason
for this discrepancy. This is witnessed in the
paper of Hald and Nielsen [23] which studied the
buckling of thin-walled cylinder.
4.2 Riks Analysis
Figure 4.2a shows the load against out of plane
deformation for fixed-fixed, fixed-pinned, and
fixed-roller classified as stiffer boundary
conditions, and Figure 4.2b shows the load
against out of plane deformation for fixed-free
and pinned-pinned classified as weaker boundary
conditions. From the elastic range, the average
critical buckling load was 63.28 KN for the stiffer
boundary and was 21.179 KN for the weaker
boundary. Fixed-fixed was greater than the Euler
buckling load and its lowest eigenvalue, but for
the rest of the boundary conditions, they were
lower than their Euler buckling load and their
lowest eigenvalues as expected. There was an
average decrease of about 12.024% and 21.675%
when their Euler buckling load and their lowest
eigenvalues are compared for the stiffer boundary
and weaker boundary respectively. The reason
for the discrepancy of fixed-fixed may be argued
to be due to the boundary condition which is most
stiff and made the effect of the imperfection to be
irrelevant. Overall, the discrepancy follows a
pattern that shows the less stiff the boundary
condition, the more the effect of imperfection
becomes visible (i.e. decreased buckling load).
The average bifurcation point for the stiffer
boundary was reached at 90.148 KN and the
average final maximum load at 102.895 KN
while for the weaker boundary the average
bifurcation point was reached at 23.0127 KN and
the average final maximum load at 27.876 KN.
The greater the connection restraint, the more the
load and in turn less deformation, and vice versa.
Low effective length factor increases column
buckling load claimed by Hailemichael and Liivo
[24] and can be achieved by bracing of the
column.
The carrying capacity of an imperfect column is
smaller than the Euler load, regardless of how
small the initial imperfection is, Fernandez [25].
The boundary effect affects the imperfection,
material nonlinearity, intermediate, and long
columns.
In this work, L1000, L1500, and L2000 are
classified as short columns, L2500, L3000, and
L3500 are classified as intermediate columns,
and L4000, L4500, L5000, L5500, and L6000 are
classified as long columns. The classification was
based on their lowest eigenvalues.
The short and intermediate length are sensitive to
imperfect shape that comprise overall buckling
while long lengths are the most sensitive modes.
Usually, the failure shape of the short and
intermediate beams is affected by the initially
assumed geometric imperfection mode
(magnitude and scale factors). With increase of
slenderness ratio, load capacity decreases.
Figure 4.2c showed the load against out of plane
deformation for the short and intermediate
columns, and figure 4.2d showed the load against
out of plane deformation for the long columns.
From the elastic range, the average critical
buckling load was 72.987 KN for the short and
intermediate column, and was 8.214 KN. There
was an average decrease of about 29.667% and
36.48% when both their Euler buckling loads and
their lowest eigenvalues were compared for the
short and intermediate columns, and long
columns respectively. The reason for these
discrepancies could be due to the different
lengths which is with respect to the imperfections
but for the long columns the variation seems to be
constant which can be argued that it is due to the
cross-section and column slenderness. The
average bifurcation point was reached at 88.785
KN and the average final maximum load at
102.283 KN for the short and intermediate
columns, while for the long columns the average
bifurcation point was reached at 10.7802 KN and
the average final maximum load at 12.778 KN.
The response of the short columns seems to be a
stiffer one and resulted in low deflections as
expected since the material law controls them.
The response of the intermediate columns seems
to be less stiff and hence has more deflections
than the former since it is in the transitioning
stage. The response of the long columns is the
most less stiff and hence has higher deflections.
This shows that the Euler equation governs
buckling of the long columns as low loads caused
the buckling and with high deformations.
Table 2: Critical Buckling loads of the columns
with respect to their boundary conditions
From
Eigenvalues Mode
Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6 Euler
(KN) 1
Equation
Pinned-
Pinned end
44.963 179.854 404.671 719.415 1124.09 1618.68 44.9636
~ Pinned-
Roller
Fixed -
Pinned end
~ Fixed- 68.718 203.116 404.669 673.398 1009.31 1412.39 62.2333
roller and
U2
Fixed- Free
11.241 101.168 281.022 550.802 910.51 1360.14 11.2409
end
Fixed -
Fixed ~
Encastre, 91.849 187.901 367.398 555.395 826.645 1106.52 91.7624
U2 and
XSYMM
Fixed -
Roller ~
44.963 179.854 404.671 719.415 1124.09 1618.68 44.9636
Pinned-
Roller
Table 3: Critical Buckling loads of the columns
with respect to their lengths
Eigenvalues
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
(KN)
L1000 303.923 1215.81 2735.58 4863.25 7598.83 10942.3
L1500 135.09 540.361 1215.81 2161.44 3377.26 4863.25
L2000 75.988 303.923 683.894 1215.81 1899.71 2735.58
L2500 48.632 194.53 437.692 778.12 1215.81 1750.77
L3000 33.773 135.09 303.923 540.361 844.314 1215.81
L3500 24.812 99.25 223.312 397 620.312 893.25
L4000 18.997 75.988 170.974 303.923 474.927 683.894
L4500 15.01 60.04 135.09 240.16 375.251 540.361
L5000 12.158 48.632 109.423 194.53 303.923 437.692
L5500 10.048 40.192 90.432 160.769 251.201 361.729
L6000 8.4431 33.773 75.988 135.09 211.078 303.923

Figure 4.2a: Load vs Deflection for stiffer boundary conditions

Figure 4.2b: Load vs Deflection

for weaker boundary conditions
Figure 4.2c: Load vs Deflection for Short and Intermediate Columns
Figure 4.2d: Load vs Deflection for Long Columns
5. Conclusion
In this research, the investigation of buckling
phenomenon in steel elements has been carried
out briefly. To achieve this investigation, the
stability phenomenon was narrowed to
bifurcation-type (conceptual) and deformation-
amplification type buckling (technical).
The conclusion of the study can be summarized
below:
1. The eigenvalues correlated well with the Euler
buckling loads. The study of the boundary effect
was based on effective length factors from
Davison and Owens [11] and it was observed that
this effective length factors are not standardized
(differs in literature) although their recommended
design factors was considered.
2. The fixed-fixed, and fixed-pinned which have
the smallest effective length factors showed
stiffer response when compared with the
boundaries (fixed-roller and pinned-pinned) and
the least response was fixed-free with a high
deformation. The effects of geometric
imperfection magnitude seem to be irrelevant in
the fixed-fixed boundary but reduced the critical
buckling load by 12.024% and 21.675% for
stiffer and weaker boundaries respectively.
3. The effect of the imperfection magnitude was
more visible in the slenderness ratio because it is
a factor of the length. The imperfection reduced
the critical buckling load for all the members with
different lengths by 29.667% and 36.48% for the
short and intermediate, and long columns
respectively. Imperfections affected the
structures by causing them to reach the
bifurcation point at lower load.
4. As observed, the applied imperfection has an
important effect on the member resistances which
was obtained from nonlinear analysis and it
emphasizes the limitation of codified buckling
rules to members manufactured and erected to
modern tolerances. It is recommended that fixed-
fixed and an intermediate length be used for
practical applications from the above findings.
5.1 Recommendation for Future work
To expand this research further and to study the
necessary factors which affects buckling capacity
of structural steel columns, the following
suggestion is stated:
• Shear correction factors of Timoshenko and
Engesser column theory should be used to repeat
the whole study as known the Euler column
theory doesn’t account for shear and also
overestimates the critical buckling load for stocky
or short columns. It should be noted that for
plastic behavior, the theorem of imperfect
geometry configuration should be used to find the
proper buckling collapse configuration as it is
known that elastic behavior seldom gives that
configuration.
7 Declaration of Interest
None
8 Acknowledgments
I will like to thank my family especially my
parents for their moral support, and patience over
the journey to complete this work. I am especially
obligated to Dr. Mustapha Batikha and Dr. Rehan
Ahmad for their support, and endless advices on
how to bypass many errors in the finite element
code encountered during the numerical studies.
Lastly, I will like to thank Dr. Pouria Hafiz for
providing an interesting topic and advices on the
research structure.
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