Types of Structures and Loads: Introduction; Classification of Structures; Loads; Structural Design.

1. Introduction of Structural Analysis

A structure is an arrangement of interrelated elements or parts used to sustain a load. A civil engineer or a
structural engineer plans and designs any horizontal or vertical structures with the consideration of safety and
economic constraints. Engineers do structural analysis to predict the performance of the proposed structure.

Structural analysis is the evaluation of a given structure's performance under specified loads and/or other
external effects, such as support movements and changes in temperature. The performance characteristics which are
generally of concern in structural design are (1) stresses or stress resultants, such as axial and shear forces, and
bending moments; (2) deflections; and (3) support reactions.

A typical structural engineer follows various stages in designing a structure: (1) planning phase; (2) preliminary
structural design; (3) estimation of loads; (4) structural analysis; (5) checking of constraints; and (6) revised and
finalization of structural design.

A planning stage involves establishment of functional requirements of the proposed structure, overall layout and
dimensions of the structure, deliberation of the possible types of structures (e.g., truss or rigid frame) and the type of
materials to be used (e.g., structural steel, reinforced concrete or combined). In the preliminary structural design, the
dimensions of the members of the structures are estimated approximately based on the code requirements and past
experience of the designer. Next is the estimation of loads which comprises of determinations or identification of all
loads that will be present on the structure. Then, from the approximated dimensions of members and identified loads
of the structure, a structural analysis will be done by the designer. The structural analysis is composed of defining
the stresses or stress resultants in the members and deflections at numerous points of the structure. The designer will
then consider or check the constraints of the project. Analytical results are used to determine whether the structure
meets safety, serviceability and other constraints or not. If the code specifications are not met, the member ratios
will be changed, and stages 3 through 5 will be repeated until all the criteria for protection and serviceability are
met.

2. Classification of Structures

It is important for structural engineers to consider the type of structure to be used for supporting or transmitting
loads. There are five basic types of structures in which structural engineers consider depending on the type of main
stresses that may develop in their members in major loads. Furthermore, these basic types of structures may be
combined in a single structure to meet the structure’s functional requirements.

2.1 Tension Structures

The tension member structures are exposed to pure tension under the action of external loads.
Since the tensile stress is distributed uniformly through the members' cross-sectional areas, the material of
the structure is used in the most efficient way. Tension structures made of flexible steel cables are also used
for supporting bridges and long-span roofs. Cables have negligible bending stiffness due to their flexibility,
and can only produce stress. So a cable adopts a shape under external loads that allows it to bear the load
by tensile forces alone. That is to say, the form of a cable changes as the loads working on it change. For
example, the shapes a single cable may take for granted under two separate loading conditions are shown in
Figure 2.1.
 Figure 2.1

For a suspension bridge, the roadway is suspended by means of vertical hangers from two central
cables. Figure 2.2 illustrates a common cable structure, the suspension bridge. At their ends, the main
cables pass through a pair of towers and are fixed to solid rock or concrete foundation. Because suspension
bridges and other cable structures lack lateral steadiness, they are susceptible to wind-induced swings as
shown in Figure 2.3 and 2.4. Therefore, bracing or stiffening systems are provided for reducing such
oscillations. Other examples of tension structures aside from cable structures include vertical rods used as
hangers and membrane structures such as tents.

Figure 2.2 Suspension Bridge

 Figure 2.3 Tacoma Narrows Bridge oscillating before its collapse in 1940

Figure 2.4 Tacoma Narrows Bridge oscillating before its collapse in 1940

2.2 Compression Structures

Compression structures primarily produce compressive stresses under the external load action.
Columns and arcs are two common examples of such structures. In figure 2.5 illustrates that columns are
straight members subjected and endure compressive axial loads. If, in addition to axial loads, a straight
component undergoes lateral loads and/or moments, it is called a beam-column. Figure 2.6 shows the arch
is a curved structure, similar in form to an inverted cable. These structures also serve to support bridges and
long-span roofs. Arches produce mainly compressive stresses when they are subjected to loads and are
normally designed to produce compression only under a large loading design. However, since arches are
rigid and cannot alter their shape unlike to cables, certain loading conditions in such structures typically
create secondary bending and shear stresses, which should be included in their designs if relevant. Since
compression structures are prone to buckling or instability, designers should consider the likelihood of such
a failure in their designs; if possible, sufficient bracing must be provided to prevent such failures.
 Figure 2.5 Column

Figure 2.6 Arch

2.3 Shear Structures

In multistory buildings, shear structures such as reinforced concrete shear walls are used to reduce
lateral movements due to wind loads and excitations from the earthquake. Figure 2.7 illustrates the internal
reactions in a shear wall. Shear structures mainly evolve in plane shear, with relatively small bending
stresses under external load action.

Figure 2.7 Shear Wall

 2.4 Bending Structures

Bending structures mainly produce bending stresses through the action of external loads. The
shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments can also be significant in some structures,
and should be considered in their designs.

Most of the classified bending structures are commonly used structures, such as beams, slabs, rigid
frames, and plates. A beam shown in figure 2.8 illustrates a load P is carried by the beam structure. A beam
is a member structure that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

Figure 2.8 Beam

Rigid frames are composed of straight members that are connected either through rigid
connections or through hinged connections to form stable configurations. From figure 2.9, external frame
loads can be applied on the joints as well as on the members. In general, the members of a rigid frame are
subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial compression or tension under the application of external
loads. Though, the design of horizontal components or beams of rectangular frames is frequently governed
only by bending and shear stresses, since the axial forces in those members are usually minor. These frames
are commonly used structure in construction industry. The most common types of frames are structural
steel and reinforced concrete frames, an example shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.9 Rigid Frame

2.5 Trusses

Trusses consist of straight members connected by hinged connections at their ends to form a stable
structure.

National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015

Design codes have specific technical specifications and are used to set practical structural design
criteria. Nevertheless, it should be noted that codes include only a general design guide. The
primary design responsibility rests with the Structural Engineer.

NSCP 2015 Chapter 2 Minimum Design Loads of NSCP 2015 for the parameters and
Specifications used Structural Engineers in the Philippines
Gravity Loads
Dead Load
NSCP Section 204, Tables 204-1 and 204-2
Live Load
NSCP Section 204, Table 205-1
Snow and Rain Load
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
Impact Loads
Environmental Loads
Wind Load
Earthquake Load
Snow and Rain Load
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
Lateral Loads
Wind Load
Earthquake Load

undulation

I. Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures: Idealized Structure; Principle of Superposition; Equations of

Equilibrium; Determinacy and Stability; Applications of the Equations of Equilibrium.

II. Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses: Method of Joints; Method of Sections; compound Trusses;
Complex Trusses; Space Trusses.
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