INTRODUCTION OF STRUCTURES

Definition

 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

 Can be defined as forms or shapes such as building, bridges, towers, dams and walls
and are design to resist any applied load without losing their own strength capacities
and any appreciable deformation.
 Transmit all applied loads to the support systems
 All structure is required to be strong, stable and functioning.

Classification of Structures

It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of elements composing
a structure and to be able to classify structures as to their form and function.

Structural Elements.

Tie rods

 Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or
bracing struts.
 Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or channels

fig 1: tie rods

Beams

 Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads.
 Quite often they are classified according to the way they are supported
 Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment.
 Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy to construct
this form directly in the field.
 When the material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the cross
section is most efficient when it is shaped as shown in Fig.2b

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 fig2a :beams
fig2b: metallic beam

Columns

 Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to
as columns,
 If the column also resists bending, it is called a beam column
 Tubes and wide-flange cross sections are often used for metal columns
 Circular and square cross sections with reinforcing rods are used for those made of
concrete.

fig 3: columns

Types of Structures

The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is
referred to as a structural
system.

Trusses

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  When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
 Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion.
 Convert outside loads to compression and tension forces in members.
 Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to
bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members.
 Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that
it uses less material to support a given load
 Most often it is economically feasible to use a truss to cover spans ranging from 30 ft
(9 m) to 400 ft (122 m)

steel and timber

trusses

Cables and Arches.

Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the arch.

Cables

 Usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.

 They are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs
 Because they are always in tension, cables will not become unstable and suddenly
collapse, as may happen with beams or trusses.

Arches

 The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that
of the cable.
 The arch must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape
 Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and for openings in
masonry walls.

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Frames

 Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are
either pin or fixed connected
 The loading on a frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis.
 The strength of such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the
beams and the columns at the rigid joints.

fig5: Frames

Surface Structures

 Made from materials (flexible or rigid) having very small thickness compared to its
other dimensions.
 They take several shapes like “thin plates” or “shells”.
 They support loads mainly in tension or compression with very little bending.
 often three-Dimensional

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fig6: surface structures

Design Codes and Loads types and categories

The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general, the structural
engineer works with two types of codes: general building codes and design codes.

It should be realized, however, that codes provide only a general guide for design. The
ultimate responsibility for the design lies with the structural engineer.

General building codes specify the requirements of governmental bodies for minimum
design loads on structures and minimum standards for construction such as:

 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-10, American
Society of Civil Engineers
 International Building Code

Design codes provide detailed technical standards used to establish actual structural design.
Some Examples:

 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete by American Concrete Institute

(ACI)
 Steel Construction Manual, by American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
 British Standards (BS)
 EURO Code (European Code)

Load Categories

Dead Loads.

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  Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights
of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure.
 For a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and
girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and
other miscellaneous attachments.
 The dead loads can be calculated knowing the densities and dimensions of the
structural components.
 The unit weights of typical building materials can be found in codes and standards.
 For loads associated with service equipment, they can be obtained from the
manufacturers

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Live Loads.

 They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure,

moving vehicles, or natural forces.
 Vertical loads due to human occupancy, snow, rain ponding, furniture, partition walls
and moveable equipment.
 Horizontal (lateral) loads due to wind, earthquake, water pressure, blast/explosion,
collision, etc
 The minimum live loads specified in codes are determined from studying the history
of their effects on existing structures.

Types of live loads

Various types of live loads will now be discussed

Building Loads.

 The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads, which
depend on the purpose for which the building is designed.
 These loads are usually tabulated in adapted code.
 In addition to uniform loads, some codes specify minimum concentrated live loads,
caused by hand cart, automobiles, etc., which must also be applied anywhere to the
floor system.

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Highway Bridge Loads.

 The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the heaviest
vehicle loading encountered is that caused by a series of trucks.

Railroad Bridge Loads.

 Since train loadings involve a complicated series of concentrated forces, to simplify

hand calculations, tables and graphs are sometimes used in conjunction with influence
lines to obtain the critical load.

Impact Loads.

 Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and therefore
they impart an impact to the deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to
impact is called the impact factor, I.

Wind Loads.

 When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind loading.

The effect of wind on a structure depends upon

 the density and velocity of the air,

 the angle of incidence of the wind,
 the shape and stiffness of the structure,
 and the roughness of its surface.

Although wind loads are primarily horizontal, they also exert an upward force on horizontal
elements such as flat and low-slope roofs.

Resistance against upward wind force is provided by anchoring the building to its
foundations.

Resistance against horizontal loads requires anchorage to foundations and the use of
stiffening elements.

These stiffening elements are commonly referred to as wind-bracing elements. The wind-
bracing requirement for a building is precisely the same as the requirement for either diagonal
bracing or sheet bracing of a bookshelf.

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fig7: diagonal bracing against wind loads

Snow Loads.

 In some parts of the world, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe, and
therefore protection against possible failure is of primary concern.
 Design loadings typically depend on the building’s general shape and roof geometry,
wind exposure, location, its importance, and whether or not it is heated.

Earthquake Loads.

 It is the common dynamic loading associated with the ground movement

 It affects the base of the structure
 The rest of the structure is affected due to inertia
 Creates horizontal shear forces and deflections
  Depends on
 Nature of the ground movement
 The inertia response of the structure

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure.

 When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure
developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their design.
 Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and
retaining walls.
 Here the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the intensity of
the loadings on the structure.

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Other Natural Loads.

Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the design of a structure,
depending on its location or use.

These include the effect of blast, temperature changes, and differential settlement of the
foundation.

Structural Design

 Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration to both material

and load uncertainties.
 These uncertainties include a possible
 Variability in material properties,
 Residual stress in materials,
 Intended measurements being different from fabricated sizes,
 Loadings due to vibration or impact,
 And material corrosion or decay

Allowable-stress design (ASD)

 Allowable-stress design methods include both the material and load uncertainties into
a single factor of safety.
 For allowable-stress design the computed elastic stress in the material must not
exceed the allowable stress for each of various load combinations.
 Typical load combinations as specified by the ASCE 7-10 Standard include

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD)

 Since uncertainty can be considered using probability theory, there has been an
increasing trend to separate material uncertainty from load uncertainty.
 This method is called strength design or LRFD (load and resistance factor design)
 To account for the uncertainty of loads, this method uses load factors applied to the
loads or combinations of loads.
 According to the ASCE 7-10 Standard, some of load factors and combinations are

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