Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

ARH1207 Construction Technology I

Structural Loads

Loads are commonly understood as forces that cause stresses, deformations, or accelerations. These
loads are applied to a structure or its components that cause stress or displacement. The balance and
stability of the building relies upon the structure’s resisting these forces.

The building regulations require that structures must be designed and built to be able to withstand all
load types that they are likely to face during their lifecycle.

There are a number of different types of load than can act upon a structure, the nature of which will
vary according to the design, use, location and materials being used. Design requirements are generally
specified in terms of the maximum loads that a structure must be able to withstand.

Loads are generally classified as either dead loads (DL) or live loads (LL):

 Dead loads refer to the structure's self weight and generally remain constant during the
structure's life.
 Live loads, such as traffic loads may vary.

Loads may also be categorized as:

 Concentrated loads (or point loads): Single loads that act over a relatively small area, such as
column loads.
 Line loads: Loads exert a load along a line, such as a partition's weight on the floor.
 Distributed (or surface) loads: These exert a load over a surface area, such as the weight of
floors and roofing materials.

Dead loads (DL)

Dead loads, also known as permanent or static loads, are those predominantly associated with the
weight of the structure itself, and as such remain stationary and relatively constant over time. Dead
loads may include the weight of any structural elements, permanent non-structural partitions,
immovable fixtures such as plasterboard, built-in cupboards, and so on.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Dead loads can be calculated by assessing the weights of materials specified and their volume as shown
on drawings. This means that in theory, it should be possible to calculate dead loads with a good degree
of accuracy. However, structural engineers are sometimes conservative with their estimates, minimizing
potential deflections, allowing a margin of error and allowing for alterations over time, and so design
dead loads often far exceed those experienced in practice.

o Settlement loads are imposed on a structure by subsidence of a portion of the supporting soil
and the resulting differential settlement of its foundation.
o Ground pressure is the horizontal force a soil mass exerts on a vertical retaining structure.
o Water pressure is the hydraulic force groundwater exerts on a foundation system.
o Thermal stresses are the compressive or tensile stresses developed in a material constrained
against thermal expansion or contraction.

Live loads (LL)

Live loads, also known as imposed loads, are usually temporary, changeable and dynamic. These include
loads such as vehicle traffic, occupants, furniture and other equipment. The intensity of these loads may
vary depending on the time of day, for example an office building may experience increased live loads
during week-day work hours but much smaller loads during the night or at weekends.

Live loads may be concentrated or distributed and may involve impact, vibration or acceleration.

o Occupancy loads result from the weight of people, furniture, stored material, and other
similar items in a building. Building codes specify minimum uniformly distributed unit
loads for various uses and occupancies.
o Rain loads result from the accumulation of water on a roof because of its form,
deflection, or the clogging of its drainage system.
o Impact loads are kinetic loads of short duration due to moving vehicles, equipment,
and machinery. Building codes treat this load as a static load, compensating for its
dynamic nature by amplifying the static load.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Compression Members
A compression member is a very commonly encountered structural member whose function is to
receive a compressive force. A compression member is known by various terms like columns, piers,
buttress, etc. For a compression member, such as a column, the principal stress comes mainly from axial
forces, that is forces that fall along one line, usually the centerline.

Column
A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. For example, a column
might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a beam, to a floor or foundations. Columns
are typically constructed from materials such as stone, brick, block, concrete, timber, steel, and so on,
which have good compressive strength.

Piers
the term ‘pier’ can be used interchangeably for several different building elements. In general, it is an
upright support for a structure or superstructure, but it can also refer to the sections of load-bearing
structural walls between openings and different types of column.

Posts
The word 'post' is interchangeable with the word column, although is is typically used in relation to smaller
structural members that may in some cases be independent, rather than part of a wider structure.

Buttress
A buttress is a structure built against another structure in order to strengthen or support it. Historically,
they have been used to strengthen large walls or buildings such as churches, but they continue to be used
in large modern structures such as retaining walls and dams.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Beams
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of
deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's
support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam.
Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium
conditions, length, and their material.

There are various types of support conditions- free end, roller support, hinged support and fixed support.
By making combinations of different type of support conditions we get different type of beams.

Simply Supported Beam:

As the name implies, simply supported beam is supported at both end. One end of the beam is supported
by hinge support and other one by roller support. This support allow to horizontal movement of beam. It
beam type undergoes both shear stress and bending moment.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Continuous Beams:
When we talk about types of beams we cannot forgot continuous beam. This beam is similar to simply
supported beam except more than two support are used on it. One end of it is supported by hinged
support and other one is roller support. One or more supports are use between these beams. It is used in
long concrete bridges where length of bridge is too large.

Overhanging Beams:

Overhanging beam is combination of simply supported beam and cantilever beam. One or both of end
overhang of this beam. This beam is supported by roller support between two ends. This type of beam
has heritage properties of cantilever and simply supported beam.

Cantilever Beams:

Cantilever beams a structure member of which one end is fixed and other is free. This is one of the famous
type of beam use in trusses, bridges and other structure member. This beam carry load over the span
which undergoes both shear stress and bending moment.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Fixed beams:

This beam is fixed from both ends. It does not allow vertical movement and rotation of the beam. It is only
under shear stress and no moment produces in this beams. It is used in trusses, and other structure.

Truss

A truss is a structure that consists of members organized into connected triangles so that the overall
assembly behaves as a single object. Trusses are most commonly used in bridges, roofs and towers.

A truss is made up of a web of triangles joined together to enable the even distribution of weight and the
handling of changing tension and compression without bending or shearing. The triangle is geometrically
stable when compared to a four (or more) -sided shape which requires that the corner joints are fixed to
prevent shearing.

Trusses consist of triangular units constructed with straight members. The ends of these members are
connected at joints, known as nodes. They are able to carry significant loads, transferring them to
supporting structures such as load-bearing beams, walls or the ground.

In general, trusses are used to:

 Achieve long spans.

 Minimize the weight of a structure.
 Reduced deflection.
 Support heavy loads.

Trusses are typically made up of three basic elements:

 A top chord which is usually in compression.

 A bottom chord which is usually in tension.
 Bracing between the top and bottom chords.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

The top and bottom chords of the truss provide resistance to compression and tension and so resistance
to overall bending, whilst the bracing resists shear forces.

The efficiency of trusses means that they require less material to support loads compared with solid
beams. Generally, the overall efficiency of a truss is optimized by using less material in the chords and
more in the bracing elements.

Foundation
The foundations of the building transfer the weight of the building to the ground. While 'foundation' is a
general word, normally, every building has a number of individual foundations. Most buildings have some
kind of foundation structure directly below every major column, to transfer the column loads directly to
the ground.

All foundations are basically divided into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations. The
words shallow and deep refer to the depth of soil in which the foundation is made. Shallow foundations
can be made in depths of as little as 3ft (1m), while deep foundations can be made at depths of 50 - 200ft
(15 - 65m). Shallow foundations are used for small, light buildings, while deep ones are for large, heavy
buildings.

Types of Foundation and their Uses

Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

Shallow foundation

 Strip foundation
 Individual footing or isolated footing
 Combined footing

 Raft or mat foundation

Deep Foundation

 Pile foundation
 Drilled Shafts or caissons
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Shallow foundation
Strip Footing
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns
which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case,
it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line.
A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

Individual footing or isolated footing

A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing and individual footing is provided to support
an individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

Combined Footing
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to each other
that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line
is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within
the property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A
combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Strap or Cantilever Footing

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a
lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a
rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes through the
resultant of the total load. A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the
allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

Mat or Raft Foundations

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the entire
structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or
where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each
other.

Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where
there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Deep foundation
Pile foundations

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which
is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot
be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind
forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is not suitable
for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the
ground surface.

 End Bearing Piles

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil or rock.
The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile
acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface which is the
intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak layer and is safely
transferred to the strong layer.
 Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the soil
across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile, which
is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile
foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure
through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled
shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth of hard strata
below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-
bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to stabilize,
soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.