Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

5202CIV Surveying, Highways

and Transportation
Dr Steve Wylie
s.r.wylie@ljmu.ac.uk
IC laboratory, Byrom Street

1
Introduction

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In this session…

• Introduction
• DMRB
• Design Speed, Relaxation and Departures

Learning outcomes

• At the end of this session you know more about topics are taught on this
module.
• Where to find the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
• The meaning of Design Speed, Relaxations and Departures.

2
 Week Subject
Introduction, Design Speed
5-6 Relaxation/Departure
Horizontal Alignment
7 Directed Study
Transitions
8
Stopping Sight Distance
Vertical Alignment
10
Crest Stopping Sight Distance
Sag Stopping Sight Distance
11
Rail
Revision
12
Revision
13-15 Christmas Break
16-17 Exam

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

In addition to the Surveying Field Course (40%) there is a 2 hour Exam (60%).

The Exam covers the material in these lectures.

There are 5 questions.

Each question is worth 20 marks.

There will be a formula sheet provided in the exam.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Highway Authorities

Highways England is the government company charged with operating, maintaining

and improving England’s motorways and major A roads. road network totals around
4,300 miles. While this represents only 2 per cent of all roads in England by length,
these roads carry a third of all traffic by mileage and two thirds of all heavy goods
traffic.

Scottish roads are managed by Transport Scotland

Welsh roads are managed by the Welsh Assembly
Northern Ireland’s roads are managed by Department of Infrastructure
Local roads are managed by the relevant local authority

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

The Strategic Road Network

Highways England manages the strategic road network in England, comprising
motorways and some A roads.

Guyton?
The Strategic Road Network around Liverpool

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

North and Mid Wales Trunk Road Agent (NMWTRA) and South Wales Trunk
Road Agent (SWTRA) maintain and deliver improvements on the strategic road
network on behalf of the Welsh Government.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)

http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/

The DMRB was introduced in 1992, and contains requirements and advice for
the assessment, design, construction, operation, maintenance and demolition
of motorways and all-purpose roads.

GG 101 (DMRB 0.1)

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Volume 0 Introduction and General Requirements

Volume 1 Highway Structures: Approval Procedures and General Design
Highway Structures: Design (Substructures & Special
Volume 2
Substructures), Materials
Volume 3 Highway Structures: Inspection & Maintenance
Volume 4 Geotechnics & Drainage
Volume 5 Assessment & Preparation of Road Schemes
Volume 6 Road Geometry
Volume 7 Pavement Design & Maintenance
Volume 8 Traffic Signs & Lighting
Volume 9 Traffic Control & Communications
Volume 10 Environmental Design
Volume 11 Environmental Assessment
Volume 12 Traffic Appraisal of Road Schemes
Volume 13 Economic Assessment of Road Schemes
Volume 14 Economic Assessment of Road Maintenance
Volume 15 Economic Assessment of Road Schemes in Scotland

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Design Speed

From TD 9/93 (DMRB 6.1)

http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section1/td993.pdf

The calculations for horizontal and vertical alignment require a speed to be

defined. The Design Speed should be consistent with the anticipated vehicle
speed on the road. A relatively straight alignment in flat country will generate
higher speeds and have a higher Design Speed than a more sinuous
alignment in hilly terrain.

There is always an inherent economic trade-off between the construction and

environmental costs of different alignments for different Design Speeds.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

The Design Speeds used for the DMRB are 50, 60, 70, 85, 100 and 120 km/hr.

The ratios of adjacent speeds is approximately 20.25 = 1.189 (to 3 d.p.)

120 121.93 20.25 × 100 = 121.93

100 100.91
85 84.09
70 71.48
60 58.86
50 50.45

This is based on measurements that suggest that if 50% of drivers regard speeds of
up to 60km/hr (for example) to be sensible, then 85% will drive below 70km/hr (one
speed step higher) and 99% will drive below 85 km/hr (two speed steps higher).

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Design Speed

Speed varies according to the driver’s impression of the road alignment and layout.
The constraints are measured using 3 factors:
• Alignment Constraint 𝐴𝐶
This uses the variable 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, which has units °/𝑘𝑚
• Layout Constraint 𝐿𝐶
This includes the variables 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒, 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
and 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠/𝑘𝑚
• Mandatory Speed Limit
Rural Motorways and Dual Carriageways: 70𝑚𝑝ℎ = 112 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Rural single carriageways: 60𝑚𝑝ℎ = 96 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Layout Constraint 𝐿𝐶

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Design Speed

For rural roads.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Design Speed

On urban roads, Design Speeds shall be selected with reference to speed

limits envisioned for the road, so as to permit a small margin for speeds in
excess of the speed limit.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Desirable Minimum values

Desirable Minimum values represent comfortable values for the given Design
Speed, and will produce a high standard of road safety.

These values include:

Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance,
Desirable Minimum 𝑅 with Superelevation of 5%,
and Desirable Minimum Crest 𝐾 value.

Studies have shown that layout values below the Desirable Minimum values
were associated with slightly higher accident rates but that they did not become
significant until the difference from the Desirable Minimum was considerable.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Relaxations

If strict application of the Desirable Minimum values would lead to

disproportionately high construction costs or severe environmental impact upon
people, properties or landscapes, the designer is allowed, according to the
standard, to use Desirable Minimum values for a given number of Design Speed
steps below the intended Design Speed.

The number of steps allowed depends upon the type of road, motorway or all-
purpose, and whether the Design Speed is in band A or band B.

If a relaxation is used, the designer may consider introducing accident prevention

measures such as safety fencing, increased skidding resistance, or warning
sign/road markings.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Relaxations

If it is not possible to achieve a Desirable value, perhaps due to

disproportionately high construction costs or severe environmental impact, the
designer can, where it is allowed, use a Desirable value for a lower Design
Speed. The number of steps down that can be used is explained in the
standards. This is known as a Relaxation.

Relaxations of a requirement shall only be applied where they are explicitly

permitted in a DMRB.

Adoption of a Relaxation and its justification shall be recorded.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Relaxations
As an example, for Stopping Sight Distance, the number of Design Speed steps
permitted below the Desirable Minimum are normally:

Motorways band A 1 step

Motorways band B 2 steps
All-purpose band A 2 steps
All-purpose band B 3 steps

Design Speed (km/hr) 120 100 85 70 60 50

Stopping Sight Distance
295 215 160 120 90 70
Desirable Minimum (m)
One step below Desirable
215 160 120 90 70 50
Minimum SSD (m)

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Relaxations

The Overseeing Organisation shall be notified when a relaxation is to be

incorporated into the design in the following circumstances:

1) where a submission for a departure has the potential to be affected by the

relaxation;

2) where there is the potential for a cumulative effect of multiple relaxations

and/or the interaction between relaxations and nearby departures;

3) where specifically required by the Overseeing Organisation.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Overseeing Organisation

Highways England Company Limited

Transport Scotland
The Welsh Government;
Department for Infrastructure (Northern Ireland)

Where a local highway/road authority decides to use the DMRB in whole or part
for development of its own highway/road network, the Overseeing Organisation
is defined in accordance with their own procedures.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Departures

A Departure application shall be submitted for any proposed variation beyond

the limits permitted by a Relaxation.

Departures are not applicable to statutory and legislative requirements.

A departure application shall be submitted to the relevant Overseeing

Organisation and approved:

1) before the design is finalised; and

2) prior to their incorporation into the works.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Departures

Departures may be applied for in a variety of situations, including:

1) where it can be justified that a requirement is inappropriate in a particular

situation;

2) where the application of a requirement would have unintended adverse

consequences;

3) where innovative methods or materials are to be proposed;

4) where an aspect not covered by requirements is identified.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Equations and Units

Although the SI unit for speed is metres/second, the speeds used for
highway design are given in km/hr.

Care has to be taken to make sure the appropriate equation is used.

It is useful to recognise factors in the equation that are there to convert

between km/hr and m/s.

What is 85km/hr in m/s?

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

What is 85km/hr in m/s?

85 𝑘𝑚 85000 𝑚 85000 𝑚 85000 𝑚

= = = = 23.61m/s
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 3600𝑠

85
This can be found directly by dividing = 23.61
3.6

1
or by multiplying by = 0.278 to 3 decimal places
3.6

so if 0.278 or 3.6 appear in an equation then the required value for speed will
be in km/hr.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

The speed sometimes appears as a squared or cubed value.

What would (120km/hr)2 be in (m/s)2 ?

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

2 2
120 𝑘𝑚 120 2
= m/s
ℎ𝑟 3.6

1202 2
= m/s
3.62

1202 2
= m/s = 1111.11𝑚2 𝑠 −2
12.96

1 1
Therefore also look for factors like ≈ where 9.81 = 𝑔 in m/s².
254 12.96 2 9.81

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Slopes in highway design are known as grades.

These are generally given as percentages.

Depending on the form of the equation, 5% could mean using either 5 or 0.05.

If 5 is appropriate, then there will be a factor of 100 somewhere in the

equation.

The equation might multiply by a 278 rather than 0.278 for example.

In this module, any equations involving grades will use 𝐺 if 0.05 (for example)
should be used and 𝐺% if 5 should be used.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

If 𝑣 is speed (m/s), 𝑠 is distance (m), 𝑡 is time (s) and 𝑎 is acceleration (m/s2) then

𝑑𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

If acceleration 𝑎 is constant
𝑣 𝑡 −𝑣 0
𝑎=
𝑡

𝑣 𝑡 −𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

where 𝑢 is the initial speed, i.e. the speed at time 𝑡 = 0s.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Note that for braking, the initial speed is the maximum speed.

𝑣 𝑡 −𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑢

therefore 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

𝑑𝑠 𝑡
Also, using 𝑣 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

and integrating gives න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑠

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑠

න 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑠

𝑎𝑡 2
𝑢𝑡 + +𝐶 =𝑠 𝑡
2

𝑎𝑡 2
𝑢𝑡 + + 𝑠(0) = 𝑠 𝑡
2

𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑡 + if 𝑠 0 = 0
2

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2

Stopping sight distance uses both of these equations.

The initial speed will be the speed 𝑣 0 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the point the brakes are applied.

Therefore 𝑢 =𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 (m/s) and the final speed will be 0 m/s.

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

if the vehicle stops at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 𝑣 𝑡𝑠 = 0 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑡𝑠

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡𝑠 = −
𝑎

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

𝑎𝑡𝑠 2 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑠 = −
2 𝑎

where 𝑡𝑟 is the reaction time 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

2
𝑡𝑠 =
𝑎2

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑟 + (Stopping Sight Distance)
2𝑎

If the speed is in 𝑉 is put into the equation with units of km/hr, then

𝑉2 0.039𝑉 2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278𝑉𝑡𝑟 + = 0.278𝑉𝑡𝑟 +
2 12.96 𝑎 𝑎

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Horizontal Alignment

Roads cannot always be straight. Curves are design using circular arcs.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

If bends are too tight and there are obstructions on the verge,

the stopping sight distance could be further than the driver can see.

Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Vertical Alignment

Roads cannot always be flat.

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Surveying, Highways and Transport 5201CIV (S.R.Wylie) Introduction

Vertical Alignment

𝐿 PVI
𝐾=
𝐴

y (m)
𝐴 = 𝐺2 % − 𝐺1 % = 5%
PVC
PVT
300
𝐾= = 60𝑚/%
5 x (m)

Vertical alignments are based on quadratic polynomials.

Summary

• The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) contains the standards
for highway geometry used for the strategic road network.

• Highway geometry calculations use an appropriate Design Speed.

• If the Desirable Minimum values cannot be achieved, Relaxations or

Departures may be required.

• Highway design uses km/hr rather than m/s so take care with units and look
out for factors that might appear in the equations.

• You do not need to derive equations in the exam.

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Next session

• Horizontal Alignment

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