Professional Documents
Culture Documents
- Ethical theories can back up your final decision on ethical dilemmas; your
answers should be informed by what others have written and experienced
- Ethical codes have limits; some even have conflicting items (e.g. advocacy vs.
conflict of interest); ad hoc evaluations of actions; more universally applicable
help can be found in the writings of philosophers
- Frameworks will enhance the ethical toolkit you have developed by articulating
some of the most central frameworks for ethical reflection
(Patterson et al, 2019; Ess, 2020; Dickson, 1988)
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
(Foreman, 2016)
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
Deontology (Rule-Based / Duty-Based Thinking)
- Based on the notion that it is in the act itself, rather than the person
who acts, where moral force resides
- Action morally justified only if it was performed from duty; motive matters
- People should treat others with dignity and grant others the same
autonomy they enjoy
Strict – generally negative; more morally mandatory (e.g. do not lie, do not steal)
STRENGTHS
Kantian deontology supports the belief that there are ethical absolutes such
as human rights
WEAKNESSES
STRENGTHS
Since the theory suggests that no one’s happiness is any more valuable than
anyone else’s, it has a way of puncturing entrenched self-interest
WEAKNESSES
Can lead to ethical gridlock when dealing with equally strong claims
(Foreman, 2016; Ess, 2020; Christians, 2017)
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
Golden Mean
“We learn an art or craft by doing the things that we shall have to do when we
have learnt it: for instance, men become builders by building houses, harpers
by playing on the harp. Similarly we become just by doing just acts, temperate
by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts.”
- Aristotle (from Nicomachean Ethics)
(Dickson, 1988)
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
Golden Mean
STRENGTHS
The fairest and most reasonable option for honorably resolving disputes
WEAKNESSES
(Foreman, 2016)
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
Golden Rule
CHRISTIANITY
TAOISM
HINDUISM
All things whatsoever ye would Regard your neighbor’s gain as your This is the sum of duty; do naught
that men should do to you, do ye gain, and your neighbor’s loss as your onto others what you would not
so to them; for this is the law and own loss. -Tai Shang Kan Yin P’ien have them do unto you.
the prophets. - Matthew 7:1 - Mahabharata 5,1517
BUDDHISM
ISLAM
JUDAISM
Hurt not others in ways that you No one of you is a believer until he What is hateful to you, do not do to
yourself would find hurtful. desires for his brother that which he your fellowman. This is the entire
- Udana-Varga 5,1 desires for himself. - Sunnah Law… -Talmud, Shabbat 3id
FOUR CLASSIC THEORIES OF ETHICS
Golden Rule
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
(Foreman, 2016)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Bok’s Model
Seek experts advice for alternatives to the act creating the ethical
problem (Is there another professionally acceptable way to achieve
the same goal that will not raise ethical issues?)
If possible, conduct a public discussion with the parties involved in SISSELA BOK
the dispute (How will others respond to the proposed act?). You
can conduct the conversation hypothetically in your head
(Patterson et al, 2019)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Bok’s Model
- Seeks to provide ethical guidance when confronting the sort of society-wide issues that mark
current political and business activity
- Persons have certain inescapable claims on one another that cannot be renounced except
at the cost of their humanity
- When issues are political and social, community interests trump individual interests but does
not trample them.
- Focus on the outcome of individual ethical decisions analyzed in light of their potential to
impact society
- Recognizes the value of process but are just as concerned with outcomes
- The ability of individual acts to create a more just society is an appropriate measure of their
rightness and outcomes are part of the calculus
- Allows ethical discussion to include altruism and benevolence on an equal footing with more
traditional questions like truth-telling and loyalty
- Journalism cannot separate itself from the politics and economic system of which it is part;
allows journalists to understand their institutional role and to evaluate their performance
against shared societal values
- Mutes competition among journalistic outlets and provides a new agenda for news; tied
to civic journalism,
(Patterson et al, 2019)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Communitarianism
Definition Loyalties
Values Principles
RALPH POTTER
(Christians, 2017)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Potter Box
ELEMENTS
NOTE:
Not all views may be considered; not everyone has the same values
(Christians, 2017)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Potter Box
CHRISTINE DACERA’S DEATH
Definition Loyalties
Christine Dacera Murder? Public Employer
23 years old Natural cause? Sources Self
PAL flight attendant 11 companions
Died January 1, 2021 Makati Med
City Garden Grand Hotel bath tub
Values Principles
Right to know Due process / enforce law Golden rule
Accuracy Justice Deontology / Human dignity
Fairness Decency Utilitarianism / Consequences
Minimize harm Privacy
Personal values
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Systematic Moral Analysis
- Journalism serves the public, people of the society specifically regarded as engaging in actions
that actually or at least potentially affect other persons in the society
- Journalism’s commitment: Serve all the people, the society as a whole, and to relate to that society
precisely insofar as people’s actions actually or potentially affect the lives of others in the society
- One of the central values of journalism that good journalists provide to the public is information
Sufficiently attending to society’s pulse to clearly and effectively convey common social desires
Enhancing clients’ autonomy by reporting on vital info and acting as a watchdog of powerful institutions
Drawing upon and powerfully conveying those human interest stories that serve to build community
- The ideal relationship, the one that journalists are committed to building between themselves
and the people they serve is a collaborative relationship
(Elliot and Ozar, 2010)
OTHER ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Systematic Moral Analysis
I. Identify the courses of action available to the journalist or news organization in the situation.
1. Does the action fulfill one or more of the professional journalist’s role-related responsibilities?
a. Is the action serving the public, that is, the poor of the society in which the journalist practices? Or are the
actions serving only the preferences of an individual or a sub-group within the society
b. Does the action address the central values of journalism? Are there other available actions that would more
effectively maximize these values for the public? If several central values are involved, does this action rank
information the society needs above the other values?
c. Does the action employ and facilitate a collaborative relationship between the journalist and the audience? Or
does it negate or inhibit such a relationship? Are there other available actions that would do this better?
2. Will the action cause potential emotional, physical , financial, or reputational harm?
I. Identify the courses of action available to the journalist or news organization in the situation.
a. Does the intended action respect all persons affected? Does it treat all persons in the situation consistently
and impartially?
b. Is each person getting what he or she is entitled to? Does the intended action promote the good overall? Do the
agent’s action promote the aggregate good of the community? Are people getting what they have a legal and
moral right to have? Are they getting what they deserve, including the outcomes of any promises made to them?
Are they being treated impartially? What overall good is promoted by this action? What overall harm will come if
the action is not taken?
d. Is each person in the situation getting what he or she needs? How can we devise a solution that addresses each
person’s needs, and most particularly, the needs of the most vulnerable? Does the intended actions promote
relationship, and does it promote community? Does it promote trust among people? Is the process of decision
making itself respectful of everyone involved?
1. Ethically prohibited
- Action would be just wrong to do in this case
2. Ethically required
- Only by taking one of these actions will the practitioner be able to fulfill the role-related responsibilities
3. Ethically permitted
- Actions that fulfill role-related responsibilities without causing unjustified harm; may overlap with “ethically
required” scope of possibilities
4. Ethically ideal
- Actions that go beyond doing what is required or permitted in that ideal actions prevent harms rather
than merely not causing them or they address other harms caused as well
(Elliot and Ozar, 2010)
MAKING SOUND ETHICAL DECISIONS
(Foreman, 2016)
FORMATIVE PAPER