LESSON 7: RESISTORS In series, all of the loads are connected in one branch.

In parallel,
Resistor – is an electrical component that limits or regulate the flow
of electrical current in an electronic circuit
there are several branches, each with their own load. Parallel
connection is used in the household because when you add more
loads, there will be no change in brightness and appliances will
work even if you add more. But you have to calculate the current
through wattage so that it will not be overloaded.

Manipulating Subscript
 R1-4

Common color-coded resistor

- Small resistors use color painted bands to indicate both
their resistance value and their tolerance
 R1,3-5
Resistors in Series Connection

 R3,5

Connected in one branch only – series connection Practice: Answer the following problems:

Total Resistance: R = R1+R2+…Rn

Total Current: I = I1=I2=…In

Total Voltage: V = V1+V2+…Vn

Advantage:
1. The more loads are loaded, the smaller is the current, and
the safer is the circuit from overloading
Disadvantages:
1. When one or more of the loads get busted, the whole
circuit is disconnected
2. The brightness of the light bulbs get dimmer as more
bulbs are added in the circuit

A resistor is an example of a load. A load can be a resistor, LED,

incandescent bulb, motor, others.
 In the demo, LED is used.
 If we will connect more loads to a series connection, the
safe is the circuit because the current (I) is getting smaller.
It is safe from overloading

Resistors in Parallel Connection

1 1 1 1
Total Resistance = + +⋯+
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

Total Current: I = I1+I2+…In

Total Voltage: V = V1=V2=…Vn

Advantages:
1. When one or more of the loads get busted, the other
loads are not affected.
2. The brightness of the bulbs doesn’t change as more bulbs
are added in the circuit
Disadvantage:
1. As the number of loads in the circuit increases, the total
current also increases and the more the circuit is prone to
overloading.

Compiled by: Danica Rose A. Rayla BS Psych III-D

Professor: Mr. Ryan Tubog
 LESSON 8: REFLECTION OF LIGHT
The Law of Reflection
When a light ray is incident upon a surface, the angle of incidence
is equal to the angle of reflection. Both of these angles are
measured from a normal (perpendicular) to the surface at the point
of incidence. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all
lie in the same plane.
Ambulances and other emergency vehicles are often lettered in
reverse, as in Figure 4b. To illustrate why an image appears to
originate from behind a plane mirror, Figure 5 shows two light rays
leaving a point object O. The object is placed at a distance p in front
of the mirror. The first light ray is incident at an angle i and is
reflected at an angle R according to the law of reflection. The second
light ray is incident perpendicular to the mirror and is reflected back
to object O. The two reflected rays are as if coming from point I
where the image is formed at a distance q from behind the mirror.

Diffuse Reflection
When a beam of light strikes most surfaces, the rays reflect in many
directions. Most surfaces do not reflect light in a regular manner
because they are not smooth. A painted wall or a page of a book
appear to be smooth. Actually,
their surfaces are rough and have
many small projections. Rays of where;
light strike different parts of these p is the object distance;
projections. Each ray reflects q is the image distance;
according to the law of reflection O is the object size; and,
and the rays are scattered in I is the image size.
many directions, see Figure 3a.
p = q In a plane mirror, the image distance (q) and the object
Regular Reflection distance (p) are equal.
If a beam of light falls on a very
smooth surface, the rays reflect in O = I In a plane mirror, the image size (I) and the object size
a regular way. Figure 3b shows a (O) are equal.
beam of parallel rays reflecting
from a smooth, flat surface. Since Sign Convention
each ray follows the law of The object distance (p) and the image distance (q) are treated as
reflection, the reflected rays are scalar quantities. Their signs are positive (+) even though the image
also parallel. The rays are formed is virtual and behind the mirror.
arranged in the same order after
they leave a smooth surface as The object size (O) and the image size (I) are treated also as scalar
they were before they quantities and therefore of positive signs.
approached the surface.

Plane Mirrors
When you look into a plane (flat) mirror, you see an image of
yourself that has three fundamental properties:
1. The image is upright.
2. The image is the same size as you are.
3. The image is located as far behind the mirror as you are
in front of it.
As Figure 4a illustrates, the image of yourself in the mirror is reversed
left to right. If you wave your right hand, it is the left hand of the
image that waves back. Similarly, letters and words held up to a
mirror are reversed.
Why does the word is painted on the ambulance car in reversed-
letter? (Research about lateral inversion to further support your
explanation.)
The idea behind this is lateral inversion. Lateral inversion is a
phenomenon in which if a body is located in front of the mirror, the
left of the body becomes the right side of the image and the right
side of the body becomes the left side of the image. The rear-view
mirror is a convex mirror which provides a large-scale view.
 LESSON 9: SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Types:
 Concave – the inside surface of the sphere is reflective
e.g. shaving mirror
 Convex – the outside surface of the sphere is reflective
e.g. side mirror of cards
Converging mirror is a concave mirror because when light rays that
travel parallel to the principal axis are sent to the mirror, when
reflected, they converge at a point called the focal point (f
The focal point of a spherical mirror is also called focus (f). The
distance between the focal point and the mirror is half of the radius
of curvature R of the sphere,
𝑅
𝑓=
2
This distance is the focal length f of the mirror. The radius of the
curvature is the distance between the central point of the sphere or
the center of curvature C and the vertex of the mirror. The vertex is
the intersection point of the mirror and the principal axis.
Diverging mirror is a convex mirror. When light rays that travel
parallel to the principal axis are sent to the mirror, when reflected,
they diverge as if they are from the focus. The principal axis is a
line coming from a sphere to the mirror.
Paraxial rays – light rays that lie close to the principal axis. Ray
that are far from the principal axis do not converge to a single
point after reflection from the mirror (or after refraction from the
lens). The result is a blurred image
Spherical aberration – a spherical mirror (or lens) does not bring all
rays parallel to the principal axis to a single image point
IMAGE FORMATION BY A SPHERICAL MIRROR
Two types of images:
 Real image it is formed on the screen
 Virtual image one which cannot be formed on the screen
These images are formed when light falls from the object
is reflected back by the mirror on the screen
a. The Ray Tracing
 Light rays emitted from an object in front of a mirror
strike the mirror, reflect from it, and form an image
 Paraxial rays leave a point on the object and intersect at
a corresponding point on the image after reflection
 There specific paraxial rays are especially convenient to
use. They are labelled 1,2 ,and 3
For Concave Mirror:
 Ray 1: This ray travel parallel to the principal axis and it
is reflected through the focus
 Ray 2: Passes through the focus and it is reflected
parallel to the principal axis
 Ray 3: Travels along a line that passes through the center
of curvature C and it is reflected back on itself.
For Convex Mirror:
 Ray 1: This ray travel parallel to the principal axis and it
is reflected as if coming from the focus
 Ray 2: Travels toward the focus and it is reflected
parallel to the principal axis
 Ray 3: Travels toward the center of curvature C and it is
reflected back on itself
*When we use ray tracing to follow the directions of these rays,
since these rays are paraxial rays, we can represent the mirror by
a straight line.
The principle of reversibility states that if the direction of a light
ray is reversed, the light retraces its original path.
b. The Mirror Equation and the Magnification Equation
1 1 1
+ =
𝑝 𝑞 𝑓
Where:
P (object distance) = distance from the mirror to object (O)
Q (image distance) = distance from the mirror to image (I)
F (focal length) = distance from the mirror to the focus
C = the center of curvature or the radius R
𝐼 𝑃
=
𝑂 𝑞
Where:
O = object height/size
I = image height/size
The magnification is defined as the ratio of the image height to the Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
object height Water 1.33
𝐼
𝑚= Gases and Air 1.00*
𝑂
Two conventions when expressing magnification in terms of q and p: vapors at 0°C Carbon dioxide 1.000292
and 760mmHg
Oxygen 1.000271
1. 𝑚 = 𝑞/𝑝  positive for real image
 negative for virtual image Water vapor 1.000250
2. 𝑚 = −𝑞/𝑝 positive for upright image Index of refraction of air is 1.0003*
 negative for inverted image
*According to Cartesian coordinate plane. First formula will be used
for the class.

Sign Convention
1. Focal length (f)
Concave mirror  f is positive
Convex mirror  f is negative
2. Object distance (p)
Object placed in front of mirror  p is positive
Object placed at the back of mirror  p is negative
3. Image Distance (q)
Image located in front of the mirror  q is positive
Imaged placed at the back of mirror  q is negative
4. Object Height/size (O)
Object placed in front of mirror  O is positive
Object placed at the back of mirror  O is negative
5. Image Height/Size (I)
Real image  I is positive
Virtual image  I is negative
i=angle of incidence
Practice: Answer the ff questions: r=angel of refraction
1. An object 2.0cm high is placed 60.0cm in front of a
concave mirror of focal length 20.0cm. find the image  Incident ray – falls on the boundary between two meda
distance, image height, and the magnification using ray  Refracted ray – ray enters a new medium
tracing and mirror equation methods. Describe the  Angle of incidence (i) – angle between the incident ray
characteristics of the image. and a normal to the surface at a point of incidence
2. An object 4.0cm high is placed 30.0cm in front of a
convex mirror of focal length 30.0cm. Find the image  Angle of refraction (r) – angle between refracted ray
distance, image height, and the magnification using ray and the normal line
tracing and mirror equation methods. Describe the Refraction occurs only when the incident ray strikes the boundary
characteristics of the image. between two media obliquely (not 0 degree ) angle of incidence.
3. A 2.0 cm object is placed 30.0 cm in front of a concave  When the angle of incidence is zero (the ray is
mirror of focal length 20.0 cm. perpendicular to the surface), there is no refraction Then
4. A 3.0 cm object is placed 20.0 cm in front of a concave the ray passes straight into the new medium
mirror of focal length 40.0 cm.  No refraction because there is no bending of light
5. A 4.00 cm object is placed 20.00 cm in front of a convex The ff figure shows the relationship between angle of incidence (i)
mirror of focal length 60.00 cm. and the angle of refraction (r) when,

LESSON 10: REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction of Light – the bending of light at the boundary between
two media. Light travels at different speeds in different media.
Light may bend as it moves from one medium to another.
 The speed of light in vacuum is 3.0x108m/s
 Refraction depends on the speed of light in a medium
and when light travels through a solid, liquid, or gas, its
speed is different from that in vacuum.
 The index of refraction (n) is the ratio of the speed of
light (C) in a vacuum to the speed of light (V) in the
medium
𝐶
𝑛=
𝑉
MEDIUM Refractive index,
n
Empty space Vacuum 1.00
Solids Crown Glass 1.52
Flint Glass 1.61
Diamond 2.42  n1 = kung asa ang incident ray that medium is n 1
Quartz fused 1.46  n2 = kung asa ang refracted ray
Quartz crystalline 1.54  n1>n2 = i<r
Ice 1.31  n1<n2 = i>r
Liquids Benzene 1.50
Carbon disulfide 1.63
Carbon tethrachloride 1.46
Snell’s Law
 Willebrand Snell (1591-1626) is a Dutch Scientist who
discovered the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction
 States that a ray of light bends in such a way that the
ratio of the since of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is constant.
 In general, for a ray traveling from any medium to
another medium, snell’s law can be written as
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
n1=index of refraction of the incident medium
n2= index of refraction of the second medium
Total Internal Reflection
- Occurs when light on the surface of a less optically dense
medium at an angle so great that it cannot produce a
refracted ray.
- When a ray of light passes from a dense medium into air,
it is bent away from the normal.
The critical angle (ic) is the angle of incidence where the angle of
refraction is 90°. From Snell’s law
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
Any ray that is incident greater that ic cannot be refracted. All of the
light rays are reflected.
The Shallowing Effect
- To an observer standing at the side of a swimming poolm
objects under water appear to be nearer to the surface
than they really are.
- Similar effect can be seen looking through any other
transparent substance
- The effect is due to the refraction of light at the boundary
between two media.
Example:
A person is looking at a coin in a swimming pool. Light rays leaving
a point in the coin are refracted at the water surface (boundary) so
as to appear to be coming from the image.
 The refraction creates the illusion that the coin is nearer to
the surface than it really is.
 The refraction produces a virtual image of the coin above
the actual position.
 *light rays always come from the object, not your eyes
 Kung asa ang object that is n1
 Kung asa ang observer mao na ang n2
The relationship between the apparent depth and the actual depth
to the refractive indices of the media is given by;
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑛1
=
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑛2
Always remember that n1 is the refractive index of the medium
where the object is located and n2 is the index of refraction where
the observer is located.
Concept insight – contrary to the shallowing effect, a fish (observer)
sees the bird (object) flying farther above the surface of the water
than its actual position, n1<n2
*You have to know how to determine the object and the observer
Practice: Answer the following questions:
1. Snell’s Law
A ray of light travelling through air is incident upon a
sheet of crown glass at an angle of 30 degrees. What is
the angle of refraction?
2. Total Internal Reflection
What is the critical angle for total internal reflection
between diamond and air? Answer in whole number value
3. A coin in a swimming pool is at a depth of 2.0m from the
surface of the water. For a person in air that is looking
directly above the coin, how far from the surface does the
coin appear to be?
4. A ray of light is propagating in water and strikes a plate
of fused quartz. The angle of refraction in the quartz is
measured to be 36.7 degrees. What is the angle of
incidence?
5. An osprey (bird) is flying 5.0 m above the surface of the
water when it spotted a fish apparently to be 0.5 m
below the surface of the water. How far below the
surface of the water is the fish swimming? For the fish
perspective, how far above the surface of the water does
the osprey appear to be?
6. What is the critical angle for total internal reflection of a
crown glass that is immersed in water?
7. In which direction must the light be going to have total
reflection, water to glass or glass to water?
LESSON 11: LENSES
Lenses are essential part of telescopes, eyeglasses, cameras,
microscopes, and other optical instruments
 They are made of glass or transparent plastic
 Many precision optical instruments use quartz lenses
Two main types:
1. Converging lenses – thickest at its middle and becomes
thinner at the edges. Also called convex lenses.
o Example: magnifying glass
o Convex lens – light rays that travel parallel to
the principal axis converge to a single point
called focus (f)
2. Diverging lenses – thinnest at its middle and thicker at
the edges. Also called concave lenses.
o Concave lens – parallel light rays are refracted
outward as if coming from the focus.
Difference between spherical mirrors:
 Spherical mirrors – light cannot pass through
 Lenses – light can pass through it from left to right or right
to left.
 o Lenses has two foci, one in each side Thin Concave Lens
Focal length – the distance between the optical center of the lense  Ray 1: This ray travels parallel to the principal axis and
and the focus refracts outward as if coming from the focus (left)
Optical center – point on the principal axis of the lens, such that a  Ray 2: This ray heads toward the focus (right) and
ray of light passing through it goes undeviated. refracts parallel to the principal axis
 Ray 3: This ray passes through the optical center and
refracts undeviatedly (no change in direction)
Cases:

Image Formation by a Lens

a) The Thin-Lens Equation and Magnification Equation
Thin-Lens Equation:
1 1 1
+ =
𝑝 𝑞 𝑓

Magnification equation
𝐼
𝑚=
𝑂
𝑞
𝑚=
𝑝
*use the positive sign (scalar quantity) for magnification

Virtual image – broken line in ray tracing

b) Image Formation by a Thin-lens (Ray Tracing)

Thin-lens also use paraxial rays. So we can represent the lens by
a straight line. In ray tracing we use three specific paraxial rays.

Thin Convex Lens:

 Ray 1: This ray travels parallel to the principal axis and
refracts through the focus (right)
 Ray 2: This ray passes through the focus (left) and
refracts parallel to the principal axis
 Ray 3: This ray passes through the optical center and
refracts undeviatedly (no change in direction)
Practice: Answer the following questions
1. An object 2.0cm high is placed 50.0cm in front of a
convex lens of focal length 30.0cm. Find the image
distance, image height, and the magnification using ray
tracing and thin-lens equation methods. Describe the
characteristics of the image.
2. An object 4.00cm high is placed 60.0com in front of a
concave lens of focal length 20.00cm. Find the image
distance, image height, and the magnification using ray
tracing and thin-lens equation methods. Describe the
characteristics of the image.
3. An object 1.0 cm high is placed 20.0 cm in front of a
convex lens of focal length 30.0 cm.
4. An object 4.00 cm high is placed 20.00 cm in front of a
concave lens of focal length 60.00 cm.
5. A 2.0 cm object is placed 40.0 cm in front of a convex
lens of focal length 20.0 cm.