Earth's Dynamic Structure

College of Arts and Sciences Education
2nd Floor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
KEYWORDS INDEX
Genetic Diversity Endangered species Adaptive radiation
Biological Evolution Threaten Founder effect
Keystone species DNA Migration
Vulnerable Indicator Geographic isolation
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -3. Explain how rocks and minerals are formed, weather and
climate patterns, and discuss air pollution sources, water pollution, use, and management.
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of geology and Earth's resources,
air pollution, water pollution, and the introduction of environmental are presented. Please
refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of
environmental science concepts.
1. Geology. An earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time.
2.1. Geology can also include studying the solid features of any terrestrial planet
or natural satellite, such as Mars or the Moon.
2. Tectonics. The process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's crust
and its evolution through time.
3. Ridges. A geographical feature consists of a chain of mountains or hills that form a

continuous elevated crest for some distance.
3.1. The sides of the ridge slope away from the narrow top on either side.
4. Minerals. A solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form.

4.1. Minerals are most commonly associated with rocks due to the presence of
minerals within.
5. Rocks. Any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid

matter.
5.1. The minerals categorize it included its chemical composition and how it is
formed.
5.2. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks.
6. Weathering. The breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and
artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and
biological organisms.
7. Hazards refer to any agent that can harm humans, property, or the environment.
7.1. Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a
negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no
exposure to that hazard.
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8. Earthquake. The shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's lithosphere creates seismic waves.
9. Volcanoes. A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, allows

hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the
surface.
9.1. Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid
tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.
10. Fossil fuels. A fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient
photosynthesis that release energy in combustion.
11. Atmosphere. A layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other

material body that is held in place by the gravity of that body.
11.1. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is
high, and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.
12. Temperature. A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses hot and
cold.
12.1. It is the manifestation of thermal energy present in all matter, which is the
source of heat, a flow of energy when a body is in contact with another that
is colder.
12.2. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
13. Pressure. The force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area
over which that force is distributed.
13.1. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
13.2. Various units are used to express pressure.
14. Greenhouse effect. The process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this
atmosphere.
14.1. Radiatively active gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all
directions.
15. Greenhouse gases. A gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal
infrared range.
15.1. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on planets.
15.2. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
16. Weather. The state of the atmosphere describes the degree to which it is hot or
cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
16.1. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the
troposphere, just below the stratosphere.
17. Climate. The long-term average of weather typically averaged over 30 years.
17.1 Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.
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18. Wastewater. Any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is
"used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or
agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer
infiltration.
19. Scarcity. The limited availability of a commodity may be in demand in the market
or by the commons. Poverty also includes an individual's lack of resources to buy
products.
20. Eutrophication. When a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and
nutrients, which induce excessive growth of algae.
21.1. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.
21. Urban runoff. The surface runoff of precipitation created by urbanization.

21.1. This runoff is a significant source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide.
21.2. Impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, rooftops, and sidewalks, are
constructed during land development.
22. Sewage. A type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people.

22.1. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and
toxic constituents, and bacteriologic status.
23. Environmental Law. A collective term encompassing aspects of the law that protect
the environment.
24.1. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by
environmental legal principles, focuses on the management of specific
natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries.
GEOLOGY AND EARTH RESOURCES
Earth is a dynamic planet. Although we think of the ground under our feet as solid and
stable, the Earth is a dynamic and constantly changing structure. Titanic forces inside the
earth cause continents to split, move apart, and crash into each other in slow but inexorable
collisions. The Earth is a layered sphere. The core, or interior, is composed of a dense,
intensely hot mass of metal—mostly iron— thousands of kilometers in diameter. Solid in the
center but more fluid in the outer core, this immense mass generates the magnetic field
that envelops the Earth. Surrounding the molten outer core is a hot, pliable layer of rock
called the mantle. The mantle is much less dense than the center because it contains a high
concentration of lighter elements, such as oxygen, silicon, and magnesium. The outermost
layer of the Earth is the cold, lightweight, brittle rock crust. The crust below oceans is
relatively thin (8–15 km), dense, and young (less than 200 million years old) because of
constant recycling. The crust under continents is relatively thick (25–75 km), light, and as
early as 3.8 billion years, with new material being added continually.
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Tectonics
The huge convection currents in the mantle are thought to break the overlying crust
into a mosaic of huge blocks called tectonic plates. Tectonic processes reshape continents
ad cause earthquakes. These plates slide slowly across the Earth's surface like wind-driven
ice sheets on water, breaking up into smaller pieces, in other places crashing ponderously
into each other to create new, more significant landmasses. Ocean basins form where
continents crack and pull apart. Magma (molten rock) forced up through the cracks forms
a new oceanic crust that piles up underwater in mid-ocean ridges.
Creating the largest mountain range in the world, these ridges wind around the
Earth for 74,000 km (46,000 mi). Slowly spreading from these fracture zones, ocean plates
push against continental plates. Earthquakes are caused by grinding and jerking as plates
slide past each other. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental landmass, the
continental plate usually rides over the seafloor, while the marine plate is subducted,
or pushed down into the mantle, where it melts and rises back to the surface as magma.
Rocks and Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, substantial element or compounds

with definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure. Naturally
occurring means not created by humans (or synthetic). Organic materials, such as coal,
produced by living organisms or biological processes, are generally not minerals. The two
fundamental characteristics of a mineral that distinguish it from all other minerals are its
chemical composition and its crystal structure.
A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals. Within the rock,
individual mineral crystals (or grains) are mixed and held firmly in a solid mass. The grains
may be large or small, depending on how the rock was formed, but each grain retains its
unique mineral qualities. Each rock type has a characteristic mixture of minerals (and
therefore of different chemical elements), grain sizes, and ways in which the grains are
mixed and held together. There are three major rock classifications: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. In this section, we will look at how they are made and
some of their properties. Geomorphology is the study of the processes that shape the
Earth's surface and the structures they create.
Igneous. The most common rock-type in the Earth's crust is solidified from magma,
welling up from the Earth's interior. These rocks are classed as igneous rocks (from
igni, the Latin word for fire). Magma extruded to the surface from volcanic vents
cools quickly to make basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and other fine-grained rocks.
Magma that cools slowly in subsurface chambers or is intruded between overlying
layers makes granite, gabbro, or other coarse-grained crystalline rocks, depending
on its specific chemical composition.
Sedimentary. Types of rock formed by the accumulation or deposition of small

particles and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of
oceans or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface. Sedimentation is the
collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. The
particles that form a sedimentary rock is called sediment and may be composed of
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geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic matter). Before

being deposited, the geological debris was formed by weathering and erosion from
the source area and then transported to deposition by water, wind, ice, mass
movements, or glaciers called agents of denudation.
Metamorphic. Preexisting rocks can be modified by heat, pressure, and chemical

agents to create new forms called metamorphic rock. Deeply buried strata of
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are subjected to great heat and
pressure by deposition of overlying sediments or while they are being squeezed
and folded by tectonic processes. Chemical reactions can alter both the
composition and structure of the rocks as they are metamorphosed. Some common
metamorphic rocks are marble (from limestone), quartzite (from sandstone), and
slate (from mudstone and shale). Metamorphic rocks are often the host rock for
economically essential minerals such as talc, graphite, and gemstones.
Weathering
Most of these crystalline rocks are extremely hard and durable, but exposure to air,
water, changing temperatures, and reactive chemical agents slowly breaks them down in a
process called weathering.
Mechanical weathering. It is the physical breakup of rocks into smaller particles

without a change in the chemical composition of the constituent minerals. You have
probably seen mountain valleys scraped by glaciers or river and shoreline pebbles
that are rounded from being rubbed against one another as waves and currents
tumble them.
Chemical weathering. Is the selective removal or alteration of specific components

that leads to weakening and disintegration of rock. Among the more important
chemical weathering processes are oxidation (a combination of oxygen with an
element to form an oxide or hydroxide mineral) and hydrolysis (hydrogen atoms
from water molecules combine with other chemicals to form acids).
Geological Hazards
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides are among the geological
forces that have shaped the world. Among direct natural disasters, floods take the largest
number of human lives, while windstorms (hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes) cause the
greatest property damage. Geologic events such as meteor or asteroid impacts (a),
massive volcanic eruptions (b), or climate change (c) are thought to trigger mass
extinctions that mark major eras in the Earth's history.
Earthquakes. are sudden movements in the Earth's crust that occur along the fault
(planes of weakness) where one rock mass slides past another one. When
movement along faults occurs gradually and relatively smoothly, it is called creep or
seismic slip and may be undetectable to the casual observer. When friction prevents
rocks from slipping quickly, stress builds up until it is finally released with a sudden
jerk, as was the case in the 2004 Sumatran earthquake. The point on a fault at which
the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the epicenter.
Earthquakes have always seemed mysterious, sudden, and violent, coming without
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warning and leaving in their wake ruined cities and dislocated landscapes.
Earthquakes are almost always followed by a series of aftershocks that can continue
long after the initial shock. The ring of seismic activity and active volcanoes (often
called the “ring of fire”) around the edge of the Pacific Ocean makes it the most
likely place in the world for tsunami formation.
Volcanoes. Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the Earth's
crust. Over hundreds of millions of years, gaseous emissions from these sources
formed the Earth's earliest oceans and atmosphere. One of the most famous historic
volcanic eruptions was that of Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy, which buried the
cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii in a.d. 79. The mountain had been giving signs
of activity before it erupted, but many citizens chose to stay and take a chance on
survival. On August 24, the mountain buried the two towns in ash. Thousands were
killed by the dense, hot, toxic gases that accompanied the ash flowing down from
the volcano.
Landslides. Gravity continually pulls downward on every material everywhere on

Earth, causing a variety of phenomena collectively termed mass wasting or mass
movement, in which geologic materials are moved downslope from one place to
another. The resulting motion is often slow and subtle, but some slope processes
such as rockslides, avalanches, and land slumping can be swift, dangerous, and
obvious. Landslide is a general term for the rapid downslope movement of soil or
rock.
FOSSILS FUELS
Fossil fuels are forms of stored solar energy. Plants are solar energy collectors
because they can convert solar energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis. The
primary fossil fuels used today were created from incomplete biological decomposition of
dead organic matter (mostly land and marine plants). Buried organic matter that was not
completely oxidized was converted by chemical reactions over hundreds of millions of
years to oil, natural gas, and coal. Biological and geologic processes in various parts of the
geologic cycle produce the sedimentary rocks where we find these fossil fuels. The primary
fossil fuels—crude oil, natural gas, and coal—are our primary energy sources; they provide
approximately 90% of the energy consumed worldwide.
AIR, WEATHER, AND CLIMATE
Atmosphere
We live at the bottom of a layered ocean of air that extends upward about 500 km.
All the weather we see is in the lowest 10–12 km, a continually moving layer known as the
troposphere. Ceaseless flowing and swirling in the troposphere redistribute heat and
moisture from one part of the globe to another. Short-lived and local patterns of
temperature and moisture we call weather. In contrast, the climate is long-term patterns
of temperature and precipitation. The Earth's earliest atmosphere probably consisted
mainly of lightweight hydrogen and helium. Over billions of years, most of that hydrogen
and helium diffused into space. Volcanic emissions added carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
and other elements to the atmosphere.
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Clean, dry air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor concentrations vary from
near zero to 4 percent, depending on air temperature and available moisture. Minute
particles and liquid droplets—collectively called aerosols—also are suspended in the air.
Atmospheric aerosols play important roles in the Earth's energy budget and in producing
rain. The atmosphere has four distinct zones of contrasting temperatures due to differences
in the absorption of solar energy.
Troposphere. The layer of air immediately adjacent to the Earth's surface is called
the troposphere (tropein means to turn or change, in Greek). Within the
troposphere, air circulates in great vertical and horizontal convection currents,
constantly redistributing heat and moisture around the globe. The troposphere's
depth ranges from about 18 km (11 mi) over the equator to about 8 km (5 mi) over
the poles, where the air is cold and dense. Because gravity holds most air molecules
close to the Earth's surface, the troposphere is much denser than the other layers: It
contains about 75 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere. Air temperature
drops rapidly with increasing altitude in this layer, reaching about _60°C (_76°F) at
the top of the troposphere.
Stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km

(31 mi). It is vastly more dilute than the troposphere, but it has a similar composition—
except that it has almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 times more ozone (O3).
Near the Earth's surface, ozone is a pollutant, but it serves an essential function in
the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone absorbs specific wavelengths of ultraviolet
solar radiation, known as UV-B (290–330 nm, see fig. 3.10). This absorbed energy
makes the atmosphere warmer toward the top of the stratosphere.
Mesosphere. The third layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and
directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere temperature decreases as
altitude increases. These characteristics are used to define its limits; it begins at the
top of the stratosphere (sometimes called stratopause) and ends at the
mesopause, which is the coldest part of the Earth's atmosphere with temperatures
below -143 degrees Celsius.
Thermosphere. The thermosphere (heated layer) begins at about 80 km. It is a

region of highly ionized (electrically charged) gases, heated by a steady flow of high-
energy solar and cosmic radiation. In the lower part of the thermosphere, intense
pulses of high-energy radiation cause electrically charged particles (ions) to glow.
We know this phenomenon as the aurora borealis and aurora australis, or northern
and southern lights.
Atmospheric Processes
Two essential qualities of the atmosphere are pressure and temperature. The
pressure is force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of overlying
atmospheric gases on those below and therefore decreases with altitude. We are familiar
with this as barometric pressure, which the weatherman gives to us in units that are the
height to which that pressure raises a column of mercury. When air pressure is high, it
moves downward, which warms the air, changing the condensed water drops in clouds to
vapor; therefore, high-pressure systems are clear and sunny.
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Temperature, familiar to us as the relative warmth or coldness of materials, is a

measure of thermal energy, which is the kinetic energy—the motion of atoms and
molecules in a substance.
Water vapor content is another important characteristic of the lower atmosphere.

It varies from less than 1% to about 4% by volume, depending on air temperature,
air pressure, and availability of water vapor from the surface.
Generalized Circulation of the Atmosphere

Greenhouse Effect
The change in energy quality is significant because the atmosphere selectively

absorbs longer wavelengths. Most solar energy comes in the form of intense, high-energy
light or near-infrared wavelengths. This short-wavelength energy passes relatively quickly
through the atmosphere to reach the Earth's surface. Energy re-released from the Earth's
warmed surface ("terrestrial energy") is lower-intensity, longer-wavelength energy in the
far-infrared part of the spectrum. Atmospheric gases, especially carbon dioxide and water
vapor, absorb much of this long-wavelength energy, re-releasing it in the lower atmosphere
and leak out to space only slowly. This terrestrial energy provides most of the heat in the
lower atmosphere.
This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect because the atmosphere, loosely
comparable to the glass of a greenhouse, transmits sunlight while trapping heat inside. The
greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric process that is necessary for life as we know it.
However, too strong a greenhouse effect caused by the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation may create adverse environmental change. Greenhouse gases are a general
term for gases that are especially effective at capturing the long-wavelength energy from
the Earth's surface. Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse gas, and it is
always present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most abundant human-
caused greenhouse gas, followed by methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and dozens of
other gases.
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Weather and Climate Patterns
Weather is a description of the physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity,

temperature, air pressure, wind, and precipitation) over short time scales. Weather is
what's happening now or over some short time—this hour, today, this week—in the
atmosphere near the ground: its temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, and
winds. Climate is the average weather and usually refers to average weather conditions
over long periods, at least seasons, but more often years or decades. Since climates are
characteristic of certain latitudes (and other factors that we will discuss later), they are
classified mainly by latitude—tropical, subtropical, mid-latitudinal (continental), sub-
Arctic (continental), and Arctic—but also by wetness/dryness, such as humid continental,
Mediterranean, monsoon, desert, and tropical wet-dry.
Climate changes have continued in more recent —“recent” geologically speaking,

that is. The mean annual temperature of Earth has swung up and down by several degrees
Celsius over the past million years. Over the last 18,000 years, climate change has greatly
affected people during the previous major time of continental glaciations—changes in
Earth's temperature over varying periods during the past million years. Significant changes
correspond to glacial (cool) and interglacial (warm) periods over the past 800,000 years.
Data to document and understand climate change come from three main periods:
the Instrumental Record, the Historical Record, and the Paleo-Proxy Record. The use of
instruments to make climate measurements began around 1860. Since then, temperatures
have been measured at various places on land and in the oceans. The average of these
observations produces the graph. Several groups have tried to reconstruct the average
surface temperature of the Earth using available comments. Temperature measurement
has improved dramatically in recent years thanks to such devices as ocean platforms with
automatic weather-monitoring equipment, coordinated by the World Meteorological
Organization. Thus, we have more accurate records since about 1960.
Historical Records
Paleo-proxy. Proxy data refers to scientific data that are not strictly climatic but can
be correlated with climate data, such as the temperature of the land or sea. Proxy
data provides important insights into climate change. Information gathered as proxy
data includes natural records of climate variability, as indicated by tree rings,
sediments, ice cores, fossil pollen, corals, and carbon-14.
Proxy Climate Records. Ice Cores- Polar ice caps and mountain glaciers have an
accumulation record of snow that has been transformed into glacial ice over
hundreds to thousands of years. Ice cores often contain small bubbles of air
deposited at the time of the storm, and we can measure the atmospheric gases in
these. Two important gases being measured in ice cores are carbon-dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4). Of the two, it appears methane most closely follows climate
change determined from the geologic record over the past 1,000,000 years. As a
result, CO2 and CH4 are the most relevant proxy for climate change. The ice cores
also contain a variety of chemicals and materials, such as volcanic ash and dust,
which may provide additional insights into possible causes of climate change. Ice
cores are obtained by drilling into the ice.
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Tree Rings. The growth of trees is influenced by climate, both temperature, and
precipitation. Many trees put on one growth ring per year, and patterns in the tree
rings—their width, density, and isotopic composition—tell us something about the
climate variability. When conditions are good for growth, a ring is wide; when
conditions are poor, the ring is narrow. Tree-ring chronology, known as
dendrochronology, has produced a proxy record of climate that extends back over
10,000 years
Sediments. Biological material, including pollen from plants, is deposited on the

land and stored for very long periods in the lake, bog, and pond sediments and,
once transported downstream to the coast, in the oceans. Samples may be taken of
tiny fossils and chemicals in the deposits, and these may be interpreted to study past
climates and extend our knowledge back hundreds of thousand years. Pollen is
useful because:
1. the quantity of pollen is an indicator of the relative abundance of each plant

species
2. the pollen can be dated, and since the grains are preserved in sedimentary
layers that might be dated, we can develop a chronology
3. based on the types of plants found at different times, we can construct a climatic
history.
Corals. Corals have hard skeletons composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a

mineral extracted by seawater corals. The carbonate contains isotopes of oxygen,
as well as a variety of trace metals, which have been used to determine the
temperature of the water in which the coral grew. The growth of corals has been
dated directly with a variety of dating techniques over short periods of coral growth,
thereby revealing the chronology of climate change over variable periods.
Carbon-14. Radioactive carbon-14 (14C) is produced in the upper atmosphere by

the collision of cosmic rays and nitrogen-14 (14N). Cosmic rays come from outer
space; those the Earth receives are predominantly from the sun. The abundance of
cosmic rays varies with the number of sunspots, so-called because they appear as
dark areas on the sun. The frequency of sunspots has been accurately measured for
decades and observed by people for nearly 1,000 years. As sunspot activity
increases, more energy from the sun reaches Earth. There is an associated solar
wind, which produces ionized particles consisting mostly of protons and electrons,
emanating from the sun.
Adjustments
People can adjust to the threat of global warming in two ways:
Adapt: Learn to live with future global climate change over the next 20 years
because there is warming in the pipeline from greenhouse gases already emitted.
Mitigate: Work to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and take action to
reduce the undesirable effects of global warming.
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Key Elements to Combat Climate Change
1. emissions trading to promote cost-effective emissions reductions

2. technology sharing that would double research investment in clean energy
technology and accelerate the spread of that technology to developing countries
3. reduce deforestation, which is a quick and highly cost-effective way to reduce
emissions
4. help poorer countries by honoring pledges for development assistance to adapt to
climate change.
AIR POLLUTION
The atmosphere has always been a sink—a deposition and storage place—for
gaseous and particulate wastes. When the amount of waste entering an area of the
atmosphere exceeds the atmosphere's ability to disperse or break down the pollutants,
problems result. Air pollution is generally the most widespread and obvious kind of
environmental damage. While developed countries have been making progress, air quality
in the developing world has been getting much worse.
Sources
There are, however, many natural sources of air quality degradation. Volcanoes
spew out ash, acid mists, hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases. In many cases, the
chemical compositions of pollutants from natural and human-related sources are identical,
and their effects are inseparable can occur. While the natural sources of suspended
particulate material in the air outweigh human sources at least tenfold worldwide, in many
cities, more than 90 percent of the airborne particulate matter is anthropogenic (human-
caused). Two major categories of pollution sources are stationary and mobile sources.
Stationary sources have relatively fixed locations and include point sources, fugitive
sources, and area sources. Mobile sources include trucks and buses.
Point Sources. Emit pollutants from one or more controllable sites such as power
plant smokestacks.
Fugitive Sources. Generate air pollutants from an open area exposed to wind. It
includes burning for agricultural purposes and dirt roads, construction sites,
farmlands, storage piles, surface mines, and other exposed areas.
Area Source. A well-defined area within which several sources of air pollutants. It
includes small urban communities, areas of intense industrialization within urban
complexes, and agricultural areas sprayed with herbicides and pesticides.
Categories of Pollutants
Primary. Are those released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form?
These pollutants are emitted directly into the air. They include particulates, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.
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Secondary. They are modified to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are
formed by chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact. Solar
radiation often provides the energy for these reactions. Photochemical oxidants and
atmospheric acids created by these mechanisms are probably the most important
secondary pollutants in human health and ecosystem damage. Secondary
pollutants are produced reactions between primary pollutants and standard
atmospheric compounds.
Criteria Pollutants
The six most common pollutants are called criteria pollutants because the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set specific limits on the levels of these six, and
they are responsible for most of our air pollution problems. The six criteria pollutants are;
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, and lead.
Sulfur Dioxide. A colorless and odorless gas usually present at Earth's surface in
low concentrations. A significant feature of sulfur dioxide is that once it is emitted
into the atmosphere, it can be converted into fine particulate sulfate and removed
from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition. The primary anthropogenic source
of sulfur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Oxides. Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or

combustion air is heated to temperatures above 650°C (1,200°F) in the presence of
oxygen, or when bacteria in soil or water oxidize nitrogen-containing compounds.
The initial product, nitric oxide (NO), oxidizes further in the atmosphere to nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), a reddish-brown gas that gives photochemical smog its distinctive
color. Because of their interconvertibility, the general term NOx is used to describe
these gases. Nitrogen oxides combine with water to make nitric acid (HNO3).
Carbon Monoxide. Is a colorless, odorless gas that even at very low concentrations
is extremely toxic to humans and other animals. The high toxicity results from a
physiological effect. CO inhibits respiration in animals by binding irreversibly to
hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide and hemoglobin have a strong natural attraction for
one another; if there is carbon monoxide in any vicinity, the hemoglobin in our
blood will take up nearly 250 times faster than oxygen and carry mostly carbon
monoxide rather than oxygen, from the atmosphere to the internal organs. Effects
range from dizziness and headaches to death.
Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. A form of oxygen in which three

atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the usual two. Photochemical oxidants
are secondary pollution arising from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen dioxide
and sunlight. This atomic oxygen then reacts with other molecules of O2 to make
ozone (O3). Ozone formed in the stratosphere provides a valuable shield for the
biosphere by absorbing incoming ultraviolet radiation.
Particulate Matter. It is made of tiny particles. The term particulate matter is used
for varying mixtures of suspended in the air we breathe, but in regulations, these are
divided into three categories.
1. PM 10- particles up to 10 micrometers in diameter.
2. PM 2.5- particles between 2.5 and 0.18 microns
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3. Ultra-fine particles- smaller than 0.18 micrometers in diameter
Lead. Is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many industrial

products. Leaded gasoline helps protect engines and promotes more effective fuel
consumption. However, the lead emitted into the air with exhaust and has thereby
been spread widely around the world, reaching high levels in soils and waters along
the roadways. Once released, lead can be transported through the air as
particulates to be taken up by plants through the soil or deposited directly on their
leaves.
Air Toxics
Toxic air pollutants or air toxics are among those pollutants known or suspected to
cause cancer and other serious health problems, either long-term or short-term exposure.
Although most air contaminants are regulated because of their potential adverse effects on
human health or environmental quality, a particular category of toxins is monitored by the
U.S. EPA because they are particularly dangerous. Called hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),
these chemicals include carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens, endocrine
system disrupters, and other highly toxic compounds. Air toxics includes gases, metals,
and organic chemicals that are emitted in relatively small volumes.
WATER USE, POLLUTION, AND TREATMENT
Water Resource
Water is a marvelous substance—flowing, rippling, swirling around obstacles in its

path, seeping, dripping, trickling, continually moving from sea to land and back again—the
water we use cycles endlessly through the environment. The total amount of water on our
planet is immense—more than 1,404 million km3 (370 billion gals). The hydrologic cycle
constantly redistributes water. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle by evaporating
surface water, which becomes rain and snow. Because water and sunlight are unevenly
distributed around the globe, water resources are very uneven.
Water Supply
Rain falls unevenly over the planet. Some places get almost no precipitation, while
others receive heavy rain almost daily. Three principal factors control these global water
deficits and surpluses.
1. First, global atmospheric circulation creates regions of persistent high air pressure
and low rainfall about 20° to 40° north and south of the equator. These same
circulation patterns produce frequent rainfall near the equator and between about
40° and 60° north and south latitude.
2. Second, proximity to water sources influences precipitation. Where prevailing winds
come over oceans, they bring moisture to land. Areas far from oceans—in a
windward direction—are usually relatively dry.
3. The third factor in water distribution is topography. Mountains act as both cloud
formers and rain catchers. As air sweeps up the windward side of a mountain, air
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pressure decreases, and the air cools. As the air cools, it reaches the saturation point,
and moisture condenses as either rain or snow.
Water Compartments
The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in

which water resides, sometimes briefly and sometimes for eons. The length of time water
typically stays in a compartment is its residence time. A water molecule stays in the ocean
for about 3,000 years, for example, before it evaporates and starts through the hydrologic
cycle again.
Oceans. Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on Earth. Together, the oceans contain
more than 97 percent of all the liquid water in the world. (The water of crystallization
in rocks is far larger than the amount of liquid water.) Oceans are too salty for most
human uses, but they contain 90 percent of the world’s living biomass. While the
ocean basins really form a continuous reservoir, shallows and narrows between
them reduce water exchange, so they have different compositions, climatic effects,
and even different surface elevations. Oceans play a crucial role in moderating the
Earth's temperature. In tropical seas, surface waters are warmed by the sun, diluted
by rainwater and runoff from the land, and aerated by wave action. In higher
latitudes, surface waters are cold and much denser.
Glaciers, Ice, and Snow. Of the 2.4 percent of all freshwater, nearly 90 percent is
tied up in glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. Glaciers are rivers of ice flowing
downhill very slowly. Now occur only at high altitudes or high latitudes, but as
recently as 18,000 years ago, about one-third of the continental landmass was
covered by glacial ice sheets.
Groundwater. After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of freshwater is held in the
ground as groundwater. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the air or
runoff over the surface percolates through the soil and into fractures and spaces of
permeable rocks in a process called infiltration. Upper soil layers that hold both air
and water make up the zone of aeration. Moisture for plant growth comes from
these layers. Depending on the rainfall amount, soil type, and surface topography,
the zone of aeration may be very shallow or quite deep. Lower soil layers where all
spaces are filled with water make up the zone of saturation. The top of this zone is
the water table. Water tables also rise and fall seasonally, depending on
precipitation and infiltration rates. Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below
the water table are called aquifers. Aquifers are always underlain by relatively
impermeable layers of stone or clay that keep water from seeping out at the bottom.
Areas in which infiltration of water into an aquifer occurs are called recharge zones.
The rate at which most aquifers are refilled is very slow, however, and groundwater
presently is being removed faster than it can be replenished in many areas.
Urbanization, road building, and other development often block recharge zones
and prevent replenishment of essential aquifers. Groundwater stores large
resources.
Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands. Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate into
the ground runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back toward the
sea. Rivulets accumulate to form streams, and streams join to form rivers. Although
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the total amount of water contained at any one time in rivers and streams is small
compared to the other water reservoirs of the world, these surface waters are vitally
important to humans and most other organisms. Most rivers, if not constantly
replenished by precipitation, meltwater from snow and ice, or seepage from
groundwater, would begin to diminish in a few weeks. We measure the size of a river
in terms of its discharge, the amount of water that passes a fixed point in a given
amount of time.
Atmosphere. The atmosphere is among the smallest of the major water reservoirs
of the Earth in terms of water volume, containing less than 0.001 percent of the total
water supply. It also has the most rapid turnover rate. An individual water molecule
resides in the atmosphere for about ten days, on average. While water vapor makes
up only a small amount (4 percent maximum at normal temperatures) of the air's
total volume, movement of water through the atmosphere provides the mechanism
for distributing freshwater over the landmasses and replenishing terrestrial
reservoirs.
Availability and Use
Clean, freshwater is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Perhaps more than
any other environmental factor, water availability determines the location and activities of
humans on Earth. Renewable water supplies are made up, in general, of surface runoff
plus the infiltration into accessible freshwater aquifers. About two-thirds of the water carried
in rivers and streams every year occurs in seasonal floods that are too large or violent to be
stored or trapped effectively for human uses. Stable runoff is the dependable, renewable,
year-round supply of surface water.
Scarcity
Water scarcity occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount,
or poor quality restricts its use. Water stress occurs when renewable water supplies are
inadequate to satisfy essential human or ecosystem needs, bringing about increased
competition among potential demands. Water stress is most likely to occur in developing
countries where the per capita renewable water supply is low. Periodic droughts create
severe regional water shortages. Droughts are most common and often most severe in
semiarid zones, where moisture availability is the critical factor in determining plant and
animal distribution. Undisturbed ecosystems often survive extended droughts with little
damage, but the introduction of domestic animals and agriculture disrupt native vegetation
and undermines natural adaptations to low moisture levels.
Withdrawal
Most water we use eventually returns to rivers and streams. Therefore, it is important
to distinguish between withdrawal and consumption. Withdrawal is the total amount of
water taken from a lake, river, or aquifer. Much of this water is in India for Agricultural. in
Kuwait, where water is especially precious, only 4 percent is used for crops. In the United
States, which has a large industrial sector and a highly urbanized population, about half of
all water withdrawal, and about 80 percent of consumption,
is agricultural.
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A tragic case of water overconsumption is the Aral Sea, which lies in Kazakhstan and
Uzbekistan. Once the fourth-largest inland water body in the world, this giant saline lake
lost 75 percent of its surface area and 80 percent of its volume between 1975 and 2004
when, under the former Soviet Union, 90 percent of the natural flow of the Amu Dar'ya and
Syr Dar'ya Rivers was diverted to irrigate rice and cotton. Towns that once were prosperous
fish processing and shipping ports now lie 100 km from the lakeshore. Vozrojdenie Island,
used for biological weapons productions in the Soviet era, has become connected to the
mainland, causing concern about the security of materials stored there. The salt
concentration in the remaining water doubled, and fishing, which once produced 20,000
tons per year, ceased altogether. Today, more than 200,000 tons of salt, sand, and toxic
chemicals are blown from the dried lake bottom every day. This polluted cloud destroys
pastures, poisoning farm fields, and damages the health of residents who remain in the
area. As water levels dropped, the lake split into two lobes. The "Small Aral" in Kazakhstan
is now being reclaimed.
Water Pollution
Water pollution refers to the degradation of water quality. From public health or
ecological view, a pollutant is any biological, physical, or chemical substance that, in an
identifiable excess, is harmful to desirable living organisms. Water pollutants include heavy
metals, sediment, certain radioactive isotopes, heat, fecal coliform bacteria, phosphorus,
nitrogen, sodium, and other useful (even necessary) elements, as well as certain pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. The increasing population often results in the introduction of more
pollutants into the environment as well as greater demands on finite water resources.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dead organic matter in streams decays. Bacteria are carrying out this decay use
oxygen. A stream with low oxygen content is a poor environment for fish and most other
organisms. A stream with an inadequate oxygen level is considered polluted for organisms
that require dissolved oxygen above the existing level. The amount of oxygen required for
biochemical decomposition processes is called the biological or biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). BOD is commonly used in water-quality management. It measures the
amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they break down organic matter within
small water samples, which are analyzed in a laboratory. BOD is routinely measured at
discharge points into surface water, such as at wastewater treatment plants.
At treatment plants, the BOD of the incoming sewage water from sewer lines is
measured, as is water from locations both upstream and downstream of the plant. It allows
comparison of upstream, background, BOD, and the BOD of the water being discharged
by the plant. When BOD is high, as suggested earlier, the water's dissolved oxygen content
may become too low to support life in the water. Three zones are identified:
1. A pollution zone, where a high BOD exists. As waste decomposes, microorganisms

use the oxygen, decreasing the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
2. An active decomposition zone, where the dissolved oxygen reaches a minimum
owing to rapid biochemical decomposition by microorganisms as the organic waste
is transported downstream.
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3. A recovery zone, where dissolved oxygen increases, and BOD is reduced because
most of the oxygen demanding organic waste from the input of sewage has
decomposed, and natural stream processes are replenishing the water’s dissolved
oxygen. For example, in quickly moving water, the water at the surface mixes with
air, and oxygen enters the water.
Waterborne Diseases
The primary water-pollution problem in the world today is the lack of clean drinking
water. Each year, particularly in less-developed countries, several billion people are
exposed to waterborne diseases whose effects vary in severity from an upset stomach to
death.
Fecal Coliform. Because it is challenging to monitor disease-carrying organisms

directly, we use the count of fecal coliform bacteria as a standard measure and
indicator of disease potential. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in water
indicates that fecal material from mammals or birds is present, so organisms that
cause waterborne diseases may be present. Fecal coliform bacteria are usually (but
not always) harmless bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines of all animals,
including humans, and are present in all their wastes. Water with any fecal coliform
bacteria is unsuitable for drinking. One type of fecal coliform bacteria, Escherichia
coli, or E. coli 0157, has caused human illness and death.
Nutrients
Two important nutrients that cause water-pollution problems are phosphorus and
nitrogen, and both are released from sources related to land use. Stream waters on
forested land have the lowest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen because forest
vegetation efficiently removes phosphorus and nitrogen. In urban streams, concentrations
of these nutrients are greater because of fertilizers, detergents, and products of sewage
treatment plants. The highest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen are often found
in agricultural areas, where the sources are fertilized farm fields and feedlots. Over 90% of
all nitrogen added to the environment by human activity comes from agriculture.
Eutrophication. is the process by which a body of water develops a high

concentration of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus (in the forms of nitrates
and phosphates). The nutrients increase the growth of aquatic plants in general, as
well as the production of photosynthetic blue-green bacteria and algae. Algae may
form surface mats that shade the water and block light to algae below the surface,
greatly reducing photosynthesis. The bacteria and algae die, and as they
decompose, BOD increases, reducing the water’s oxygen content, sometimes to the
point where other organisms, such as fish, will die.
Surface Water Pollution
Pollution of surface water occurs when too much of an undesirable or harmful

substance flows into a body of water, exceeding that body of water's natural ability to
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remove it, dilute it to a harmless concentration, or convert it to a harmless form. Water

pollutants, like other pollutants, are categorized as being emitted from the point or
nonpoint sources.
Point sources are distinct and confined, such as pipes from industrial and municipal
sites that empty into streams or rivers. In general, point source pollutants from
industries are controlled through on-site treatment or disposal and are regulated by
permit.
Nonpoint sources, such as runoff, are diffused and intermittent and are influenced
by factors such as land use, climate, hydrology, topography, native vegetation, and
geology. Common urban nonpoint sources include runoff from streets or fields;
such runoff contains all sorts of pollutants, from heavy metals to chemicals and
sediment. Rural sources of nonpoint pollution are generally associated with
agriculture, mining, or forestry. Nonpoint sources are difficult to monitor and
control.
Surface Water Pollution Reduction
From an environmental view, two approaches to dealing with surface-water pollution are:
1. to reduce the sources

2. to treat the water to remove pollutants or convert them to forms that can be
disposed of safely.
Two of the newer techniques are:
1. nanotechnology
2. urban-runoff naturalization.
Nanotechnology uses extremely small material particles (10−9m size,

about 100,000 times thinner than a human hair) designed for a
number of purposes. Some nanoparticles can capture heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, and arsenic from water. The nanoparticles have
a tremendous surface area to volume. One cubic centimeter of
particles has a surface area exceeding a football field and can take up
over 50% of its weight in heavy metals.
Urban-runoff naturalization is an emerging bioengineering technology to treat

urban runoff before it reaches streams, lakes, or the ocean. One method is to create
a "closed-loop" local landscape that does not allow runoff to leave a property. Plants
may be located as "rain gardens" below downspouts, and parking-lot drainage is
directed to plants instead of the street.
Wastewater Treatment
Water used for industrial and municipal purposes is often degraded during use by
the addition of suspended solids, salts, nutrients, bacteria, and oxygen-demanding
material. Wastewater treatment—sewage treatment—costs about $20 billion per year in
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the United States, and the cost keeps rising, but it will continue to be big business.
Conventional wastewater treatment includes septic-tank disposal systems in rural areas and
centralized wastewater treatment plants in cities.
Septic Tank Disposal Systems. In many rural areas, no central sewage systems or
wastewater treatment facilities are available. As a result, individual septic-tank
disposal systems, not connected to sewer systems, continue to be an important
method of sewage disposal in rural areas as well as outlying areas of cities. The tank
is designed to separate solids from liquid, digest (biochemically change), store
organic matter through a period of detention, and allow the clarified liquid to
discharge into the drain field (absorption field) from a piping system the treated
sewage seeps into the surrounding soil. As the wastewater moves through the soil,
it is further treated by the natural processes of oxidation and filtering. By the time
the water reaches any freshwater supply, it should be safe for other uses.
Wastewater Treatment Plants. In urban areas, wastewater is treated at specially

designed plants that accept municipal sewage from homes, businesses, and
industrial sites. The raw sewage is delivered to the plant through a network of sewer
pipes. Following treatment, the wastewater is discharged into the surface-water
environment (river, lake, or ocean) or, in some limited cases, used for another
purpose, such as crop irrigation. The main purpose of standard treatment plants is
to break down and reduce the BOD and kill bacteria with chlorine. Wastewater
treatment methods are usually divided into three categories: primary treatment,
secondary treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment. Primary and
secondary treatments are required.
Primary Treatment. Incoming raw sewage enters the plant from the
municipal sewer line and passes through a series of screens to remove large
floating organic material. The sewage next enters the "grit chamber," where
sand, small stones, and grit are removed and disposed of. It goes to the
primary sedimentation tank, where particulate matter settles out to form
sludge. Sometimes, chemicals are used to help the settling process. The
sludge is removed and transported to the "digester" for further processing.
Primary treatment removes approximately 30 to 40% of BOD by volume from
the wastewater, mainly in the form of suspended solids and organic matter.
Secondary Treatment. There are several methods of secondary treatment.

The most common treatment is known as activated sludge because it uses
living organisms—mostly bacteria. In this procedure, the wastewater from the
primary sedimentation tank enters the aeration tank where it is mixed with
air (pumped in) and with some of the sludge from the final sedimentation
tank. The sludge contains aerobic bacteria that consume organic material
(BOD) in the waste. The wastewater then enters the final sedimentation tank,
where sludge settles out. Some of this “activated sludge,” rich in bacteria, is
recycled and mixed again in the aeration tank with air and new, incoming
wastewater acting as a starter. The bacteria are used again and again. Most
of the sludge from the final sedimentation tank, however, is transported to
the sludge digester.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment is used when

it is particularly important to maintain good water quality. For example, if a treatment
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plant discharges treated wastewater into a river and there is concern that nutrients
remaining after secondary treatment may damage the river ecosystem
(eutrophication), advanced treatment may be used to reduce the nutrients.
Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine is very effective in killing the pathogens responsible

for outbreaks of serious waterborne diseases that have killed many thousands of
people. However, a recently discovered potential is that chlorine treatment also
produces minute quantities of chemical by-products, some of which are potentially
hazardous to people and other animals.
Land Application of Wastewater
Applying wastewater to the land arose from the fundamental belief that waste is simply a
resource out of place. Land application of untreated human waste was practiced for
hundreds if not thousands of years before the development of wastewater treatment plants,
which have sanitized the process by reducing BOD and using chlorination.
Wastewater and Wetland. Wastewater is being applied successfully to natural and

constructed wetlands at a variety of locations.33–35 Natural or human-made
wetlands can be effective in treating the following water-quality problems:
1. municipal wastewater from primary or secondary treatment plants (BOD,

pathogens, phosphorus, nitrate, suspended solids, metals)
2. stormwater runoff (metals, nitrate, BOD, pesticides, oils)
3. industrial wastewater (metals, acids, oils, solvents)
4. agricultural wastewater and runoff (BOD, nitrate, pesticides, suspended
solids)
5. mining waters (metals, acidic water, sulfates)
6. groundwater seeping from landfills (BOD, metals, oils, pesticides)
Water Reuse
Water reuse can be inadvertent, indirect, or direct. Inadvertent water reuse results when
water is withdrawn, treated, used, treated, and returned to the environment, followed by
further withdrawals and use. Inadvertent water reuse is common and a fact of life for millions
of people living along large rivers. Many sewage treatment plants are located along rivers
and discharge treated water into the rivers. Downstream, other communities
withdraw, treat, and consume the water. Several risks are associated with inadvertent reuse:
1. Inadequate treatment facilities may deliver contaminated or poor-quality water to

downstream users.
2. Because the fate of all disease-causing viruses during and after treatment is not
completely known, the health hazards of treated water remain uncertain.
3. Every year, new and potentially hazardous chemicals are introduced into the
environment. Harmful chemicals are often difficult to detect in the water, and if they
are ingested in low concentrations over many years, their effects on people may be
difficult to evaluate.
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Indirect water reuse is a planned endeavor. For example, in the United States,
several thousand cubic meters of treated wastewater per day have been applied to
numerous sites to recharge groundwater and reuse them for agricultural and
municipal purposes.
Direct water reuse refers to the use of treated wastewater piped directly from a
treatment plant to the next user. In most cases, the water is used in industry, in agri-
cultural activity, or for watering golf courses, institutional grounds (such as university
campuses), and parks. Direct water reuse is growing rapidly and is the norm for
industrial processes in factories.
Environmental Laws and Policy
Environmental law, the branch of law dealing with conservation and use of natural
resources and control of pollution, is very important as we debate environmental issues and
make decisions about how best to protect our environment. At its core, then, a policy is a
plan or statement of intentions— either written or stated—about a course of action or inaction
intended to accomplish some end.
Power in Politics. According to some observers, politics is really the struggle for
power among competing interest groups that strive to shape public policy to suit
their own agendas. The political system, in this view, manages group conflict by:
1. establishing rules to ensure civil competition

2. encouraging compromises and balancing interests to the extent possible,
3. codifying compromises as public policy
4. enforcing laws and rules based on that policy.
Creation of Policies
Laws are rules set by authority, society, or custom. Church laws, social morés,
administrative regulations, and various other codes of behavior can be considered laws if
some enforcement power backs them. Government laws are established by federal, state,
or local legislative bodies or administrative agencies. Environmental law constitutes a
unique body of official rules, decisions, and actions concerning environmental quality,
natural resources, and ecological sustainability. Each branch of government plays a role in
establishing the rules of law. Statute law consists of formal documents or decrees enacted
by the government's legislative branch declaring, commanding, or prohibiting something.
It represents the formal will of the legislature. Case law is derived from court decisions in
both civil and criminal cases. Administrative law rises from executive orders,
administrative rules and regulations, and enforcement decisions in which statutes passed
by the legislature are interpreted in specific applications and individual cases because
every country has different legislative and legal processes.
International Treaties
§ CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (1993)

§ CITES: Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora 1973 (1987)
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§ CMS: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979

(1983)
§ Basel: Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal 1989 (1992)
§ Ozone: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1985 (1988)
§ UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 (1994)
§ CCD: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and Desertification, Particularly
§ in Africa 1994 (1996)
§ Ramsar: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat 1971 (1975)
§ Heritage: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage 1972 (1975)
§ UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (1994)
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson.
Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern.

11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA
Activity No. 6. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of
geology and earth resource, water pollution and treatment, and environmental policy. Let
us try to check your understanding of these terms and concepts. In space provided, write
your answers to each of the following questions.
______________________1. The collective term encompassing aspects of the law that

provide protection to the environment.
______________________2. Refers to the process that controls the structure and properties
of the Earth’s crust and its evolution through time.
______________________3. An agent that cause harm or damage to humans, property, or
the environment.
______________________4. It refers to the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to
a negative consequence.
______________________5. The process of breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well
wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth’s atmosphere, water, and
biological organisms.
______________________6. A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound
with a definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure.
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______________________7. Refers to a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals.

______________________8. The long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation.
______________________9. Refers to a minute particles and liquid droplets.
______________________10. The general term for gases that are especially effective at
capturing the long-wavelength energy from the earths surface.
Activity No. 6. Getting acquainted with the essential terms essential terms and concepts
of geology and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy. Now, I will
require you to explain thoroughly your answers.
1. Identify and differentiate the different layers of the atmosphere and its unique
features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How climate and weather differs?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is an air pollution? Discuss comprehensively the sources of pollution and its
corresponding categories.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What is water compartment? Identify and discuss different types of water

compartments and its unique features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is water pollution? How does water resource become polluted? Cite examples
of water pollution sources and discuss how it affects our water resources
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. What is wastewater treatment? It is important to ensure clean and safe water

resource? If yes, how, if no, why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Activity No. 6. Based from the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of
geology and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy and the learning
exercises that you have done, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons learned
below.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q and A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/ Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Geology Point Sources Estuary
Environmental Law Non-Point Sources Weather
Wastewater Treatment Residence Time Climate
Sewage Criteria Pollutant Atmosphere
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9. Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do

assignments, unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students
shall not resort to dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g.
examinations, assignments).
10. Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account.
Students shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations
to others to further academic fraudulence online.
11. By handling OBD or DED courses, teachers/Course Facilitators agree and
abide by all the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the
requirements and protocols in handling online courses.
12. By enrolling in OBD or DED courses, students agree and abide by all the
provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements
and protocols in handling online courses.
MONITORING OF OBD AND DED

1. The Deans, Asst. Deans, Discipline Chairs and Program Heads shall be
responsible in monitoring the conduct of their respective OBD classes through the
Blackboard LMS. The LMS monitoring protocols shall be followed, i.e. monitoring of
the conduct of Teacher Activities (Views and Posts) with generated utilization graphs
and data. Individual faculty PDF utilization reports shall be generated and
consolidated by program and by college.
2. The Academic Affairs and Academic Planning & Services shall monitor the conduct
of LMS sessions. The Academic Vice Presidents and the Deans shall collaborate to
conduct virtual CETA by randomly joining LMS classes to check and review online
the status and interaction of the faculty and the students.
3. For DED, the Deans and Program Heads shall come up with monitoring
instruments, taking into consideration how the programs go about the conduct of
DED classes. Consolidated reports shall be submitted to Academic Affairs for
endorsement to the Chief Operating Officer.
Page | 121
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
Course prepared by:
JASON BEN R. PARAGAMAC, EnP

Program Coordinator, BS Envi.Sci.
Course reviewed by:
EDGAR B. RETORTA
Program Head, BS Biology
Approved by:
KHRISTINE MARIE D. CONCEPCION, PhD

Dean, CASE
Page | 122

Earth's Dynamic Structure

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Earth's Dynamic Structure

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College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building

3. Ridges. A geographical feature consists of a chain of mountains or hills that form a

4. Minerals. A solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form.

5. Rocks. Any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid

9. Volcanoes. A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, allows

11. Atmosphere. A layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other

21. Urban runoff. The surface runoff of precipitation created by urbanization.

22. Sewage. A type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people.

GEOLOGY AND EARTH RESOURCES

Rocks and Minerals

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, substantial element or compounds

Sedimentary. Types of rock formed by the accumulation or deposition of small

geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic matter). Before

Metamorphic. Preexisting rocks can be modified by heat, pressure, and chemical

Mechanical weathering. It is the physical breakup of rocks into smaller particles

Chemical weathering. Is the selective removal or alteration of specific components

Landslides. Gravity continually pulls downward on every material everywhere on

AIR, WEATHER, AND CLIMATE

Stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km

Thermosphere. The thermosphere (heated layer) begins at about 80 km. It is a

Temperature, familiar to us as the relative warmth or coldness of materials, is a

Water vapor content is another important characteristic of the lower atmosphere.

Generalized Circulation of the Atmosphere

The change in energy quality is significant because the atmosphere selectively

Weather and Climate Patterns

Weather is a description of the physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity,

Climate changes have continued in more recent —“recent” geologically speaking,

Sediments. Biological material, including pollen from plants, is deposited on the

1. the quantity of pollen is an indicator of the relative abundance of each plant

Corals. Corals have hard skeletons composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a

Carbon-14. Radioactive carbon-14 (14C) is produced in the upper atmosphere by

People can adjust to the threat of global warming in two ways:

Key Elements to Combat Climate Change

1. emissions trading to promote cost-effective emissions reductions

Nitrogen Oxides. Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or

Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. A form of oxygen in which three

3. Ultra-fine particles- smaller than 0.18 micrometers in diameter

Lead. Is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many industrial

WATER USE, POLLUTION, AND TREATMENT

Water is a marvelous substance—flowing, rippling, swirling around obstacles in its

The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in

Availability and Use

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

1. A pollution zone, where a high BOD exists. As waste decomposes, microorganisms

Fecal Coliform. Because it is challenging to monitor disease-carrying organisms

Eutrophication. is the process by which a body of water develops a high

Surface Water Pollution

Pollution of surface water occurs when too much of an undesirable or harmful

remove it, dilute it to a harmless concentration, or convert it to a harmless form. Water

Surface Water Pollution Reduction

1. to reduce the sources

Two of the newer techniques are:

Nanotechnology uses extremely small material particles (10−9m size,

Urban-runoff naturalization is an emerging bioengineering technology to treat

Wastewater Treatment Plants. In urban areas, wastewater is treated at specially

Secondary Treatment. There are several methods of secondary treatment.

Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment is used when

Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine is very effective in killing the pathogens responsible

Land Application of Wastewater

Wastewater and Wetland. Wastewater is being applied successfully to natural and

1. municipal wastewater from primary or secondary treatment plants (BOD,