Grade 6 - Science (သိပ္ပံ)

2019 ckESpf? Zefe0g&Dv?
tkyfa& - 1691932 tkyf

2019-2020 ynmoifESpf
tvkyftrdefYtrSwf - F ^18 jzifh

jrefrmEdkifiHykHESdyfESifh xkwfa0olvkyfief;&Sifrsm;toif; (MPPA)
ykHESdyfwdkuf? &efukefNrdKUwGif ykHESdyfonf/
ausmif;ok;H pmtkyrf w
d q
f uf
þtwef;wGif odyb HÜ mom&yftaMumif;ESihf ,if;bmom&yfukd vufawGUb0wGif
tok;H csyrHk sm;udk ydrk ekd m;vnfEikd af prnfh todynm? uRr;f usirf t I opfrsm; zGUH NzKd ;vm&ef q&m?
twef;azmfrsm;ESit hf wl tzGUJ vdu k v
f yk if ef;rsm; vkyaf qmifoif,rl nf/ xdt Yk jyif jyóem
tcuftcJrsm;udk ajz&Si;f wwf&efEiS hf pOf;pm;awG;ac:zefw;D wwf&ef avhvmoif,rl nf/ tcsKd U
pmoifcsed rf sm;wGif tzGUJ vdu k v
f yk af qmifMuNy;D tcsKd Upmoifcsed rf sm;wGif twef;vdu k f odrYk [kwf
wpfO;D csi;f avhvmoif,Ml urnfjzpfonf/
oif,&l rnft
h aMumif;t&mrsm;
þ q|rwef;? odyb
HÜ mom&yfausmif;ok;H pmtkyw
f iG f atmufyg t"dutaMumif;t&mrsm;
yg0ifonf/
oif½;kd rmwdumtusOf;csKyf (acgif;pOfrsm;)

tcef; (1) ody\ HÜ oabmobm0
tcef; (2) j'yf
tcef; (3) tm;
tcef; (4) ouf&t dS rsKd ;rsKd ;
tcef; (5) qJvEf iS hf qJvzf UGJ pnf;wnfaqmufyHk
tcef; (6) rsKd ;yGm;jcif;
tcef; (7) urÇmN*Kd [f
tcef; (8) a*[pepf
tcef; (9) j'yfpif? j'yfaygif;ESihf j'yfaESmrsm;
tcef; (10) pGr;f tiftrsKd ;rsKd ;
tcef; (11) aetzJUG tpnf;
oif,Ml u&rnfeh nf;vrf;rsm;

oifcef;pmtm;vk;H wGif wuf<upGmyg0ifoif,El ikd &f ef taxmuftuljyKrnfh C - 5 vk;H udk
ta&;ygaom 21 &mpkuRr;f usirf rI sm;tjzpf q&mu tok;H jyKoifMum;ay;rnf/
Â yl;aygif;aqmif&u
G jf cif; (Collaboration) - oifcef;pmrsm; oif,&l mwGif ausmif;om;?
ausmif;olrsm;onf twef;azmfrsm;ESit hf yk pf zk UGJ Ny;D tawG;tac:rsm; rQa0jcif;?
tajzrsm;twl&mS azGjcif;wdu Yk kd vkyaf qmifrnf/
Â qufo, G af jymqdjk cif; (Communication) - bmompum;oifcef;pmrsm;wGio f mru
bmom&yftm;vk;H wGif oifcef;pmrsm;udk a&;jcif;? zwfjcif;? ajymjcif;? em;axmifjcif;ESihf
EIwjf zifh qufo, G af jymqdjk cif;? ud,
k t
f rlt&mjzifh qufo,
G af jymqdjk cif;ponfh
uRr;f usirf rI sm; zHUG NzKd ;vmrnf/
Â av;eufpmG qef;ppfa0zefjcif;ESijhf yóemajz&Si;f jcif; (Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving) - ajz&Si;f &ef pdw0 f ifpm;zG,jf yóemrsm;\ tajzrsm;udk &SmazGjcif;ESihf
wifjyjcif;? trSm;rsm;udk &SmazGjcif;ESijhf yKjyifjcif;wdYk jyKvyk &f vdrrhf nf/
Â wDxiG zf efw;D jcif; (Creativity and Innovation) - abmifcwfxm;onfh tajctaexJrS
xGuíf awG;ac:jcif;onf ta&;ygaom 21 &mpkuRr;f usirf w I pfcjk zpfonf/ tawG;
tac:opfrsm;&&S&d ef? enf;vrf;opfrsm;jzifh jyóemrsm;ajz&Si;f &ef ausmif;om;?
ausmif;olrsm;udk tm;ay;rnf/
H m;aumif;jzpfjcif; (Citizenship) - Edik if o
Â Edik if o H m;aumif;jzpfap&ef ausmif;vlrI
tzGUJ tpnf;wGif wuf<upGm yg0ifvyk af qmifjcif;? w&m;rQwjcif;? oabmxm;
uGv J rJG aI jz&Si;f jcif;wdu
Yk kd avhusiahf y;rnf/
pmoifEpS t
f qk;H wGif od&o
dS mG ;NyD; vkyaf qmifEikd rf nf&h v'frsm;
q|rwef;? odybHÜ mom&yf ausmif;ok;H pmtkyu f kd oif,Nl y;D aomtcg ausmif;om;?
ausmif;olrsm;onf atmufygwdu
Yk kd vkyaf qmifEikd rf nf/
oif½;kd rmwdumtusOf;csKyf (oif,rl &I v'frsm;)

tcef; (1) odyb HÜ mom&yfrsm;\ t"dymÜ ,fEiS afh vhvmrIe,fy,frsm;udo k &d NdS y;D vufawGUb0
wGif odyeHÜ nf;ynm\ ta&;ygyku H dk cJjG cm;azmfjywwfrnf/ odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;\
pGr;f aqmif&nfrsm;udk od&edS m;vnfNy;D odypHÜ rf;oyfcsurf sm;udk vkyaf qmif&mwGif
vkud ef m&rnfh odyeHÜ nf;usvyk if ef;pOftqifq h ifuh kd vkyaf qmifwwfrnf/ odyHÜ
enf;ynmtok;H csr\ I aumif;usKd ;? qk;d usKd ;rsm;udk pdppfa0zefcjGJ cm;wwfrnf/
tcef; (2) j'yftajctae 3 rsKd ; (tcJ? t&nf? taiGU) &Sad Mumif;ESihf ,if;wk\ Yd oD;jcm;0daoo
vu©Pmrsm;? zJUG pnf;xm;aom trIerf sm;\ wnf&ydS u Hk jGJ ym;rI? j'yftajctae
wpfcrk S tjcm;j'yftajctaewpfco k Ydk ajymif;vJEikd rf EI iS fh cJrw S ?f aysmrf w
S ?f qlrw
S f
wku
Yd dk od&dS azmfxw
k w
f wfrnf/
tcef; (3) ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f BuKaH wGU&onft
h jzpftysurf sm;rS tm;trsKd ;rsKd ;&Sad Mumif;? ,if;
wk\
Yd ywf0ef;usit f ay: tusKd ;oufa&mufyrHk sm;udk cJjG cm;avhvmwwfrnf/
t&m0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk tm;oufa&mufaomtcg ,if;0w¬K rnfoaYkd jymif;vJomG ;
aMumif; pl;prf;avhvmwwfrnf/ j'yfxEk iS t
hf av;csed w
f \
Ykd uGjJ ym;jcm;em;csuu
f kd
em;vnfoabmaygufrnf/
tcef;(4) ouf&udS kd trsKd ;tpm;cJjG cm;wwfrnf/ yef;yGiahf omtyifEiS hf yef;ryGiafh omtyif?
ausm½d;k &SEd iS hf ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;udk cJjG cm;wwfrnf/ ouf&rdS sm;\ vku
d af vsm
nDaxG jyKjyifaexkid jf cif;udk owfrw S af zmfjywwfrnf/
tcef; (5) tPkMunhu f &d ,
d mwpfc\k tok;H jyKyu
Hk kd od&vdS mrnf/ ouf&q dS v
J zf UGJ pnf;ykEH iS hf
qJvw
f pfco
k nf ouf&\ dS tajccH,el pfwpfcjk zpfaMumif;udk od&v
dS mrnf/
tcef; (6) ouf&rdS sm;\ rsKd ;yGm;jcif;ESifh rsKd ;yGm;jcif;ykpH rH sm;udk od&edS m;vnfvmrnf/
tcef; (7) urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif vnfywfjcif;ESifh aeukv
d nS yfh wfjcif;udk cJjG cm;od&NdS y;D
vufawGUo½kyjf ywwfrnf/ ajrxk? avxk? a&xkEiS hf ZD0xkw\ Ykd zJUG pnf;ykEH iS fh
,if;wkYd tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufr\
I aumif;usKd ;? qk;d usKd ;rsm;udk a0zefaqG;aEG;
wwfrnf/ urÇmrsuEf mS jyif ajymif;vJjzpfpOfrsm;ESifh taMumif;t&if;rsm;udk
aqG;aEG; azmfxwk w
f wfrnf/
tcef; (8) a*[pepftrsKd ;rsKd ;udo
k &d í
dS ,if;pepftwGi;f tyifEiS o
hf wå0gtcsi;f csi;f quf
pyfru
I kd avhvmqef;ppfwwfrnf/
tcef; (9) j'yfpif tufwrftcsKd U\ trnfEiS hf oauFwrsm;udk a&;wwfrnf/ armfvu D sL;
trsKd ;tpm; 2 rsKd ;udk cJjG cm;od&NdS y;D j'yfaygif;armfvuD sL;yg j'yfpifrsm;udk azmfjy
wwfrnf/ j'yfaESmESifh j'yfaygif;udk cJjG cm;wwfNy;D aysm&f nfEiS fh j'yfaESmwk\ Yd
0daoovu©Pmrsm;ESifh jcm;em;csuu f dk azmfxw
k wf wfrnf/ j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm;
ay:rlwnfí oihaf vsmaf omcJjG cm;enf;rsm;udk tok;H jyKvyk af qmifwwfrnf/
tcef; (10) pGr;f tiftrsKd ;rsKd ; (toH? tvif;? tyl? vQypf pfEiS o
fh v
H u
dk )f \ t"dymÜ ,fEiS hf tajccH
oabmw&m;rsm;ukd em;vnfo&d &dS iS ;f jywwfrnf/ pGr;f tifrsm;\ xyfqiht f rsKd ;
tpm;rsm;udk od&NdS y;D vufawGUprf;oyfwwfrnf/
tcef; (11) aetzJUG tpnf;\ t"duzJUG pnf;wnfaqmufyrHk sm;udk cJjG cm;azmfjywwfrnf/ ae
tzJUG tpnf;wGif yg0ifaom N*Kd [Bf u;D 8 vk;H \ oGijf yifvu©Pmrsm;udk urÇmN*Kd [f
ESihf EdiI ;f ,SOaf zmfjyEdik rf nf/
ausmif;oH;k pmtky\ f avhusichf ef;rsm;wGif ausmif;om;? ausmif;olrsm;\ oif,El ikd rf ?I
pOf;pm;awG;ac:Edik rf u
I kd vrf;ñTeaf y;onfh oauFw (icons) toH;k jyKxm;onfukd awGU&
vdrrhf nf/
ausmif;oH;k pmtky\ f oifcef;pmrsm;wGif av;axmifu h u
G Ef iS hf azmfjyxm;aom t"du
tcsurf sm;onf ausmif;om;? ausmif;olrsm;\ avhvmoif,rl t I wGuf tESpcf sKyf (ta&;Bu;D
aomtcsurf sm;) udk vrf;ñTeaf zmfjyay;xm;onf/
rmwdum
tcef; oifcef;pm pmrsufEmS
tcef; 1/ ody\
ÜH oabmobm0
1-1/ odybHÜ mom&yfrsm; 1
1-2/ aeYpOfb0&So d yd EHÜ iS hf enf;ynm 2
1-3/ xif&mS ;ausmMf um;aomodyyHÜ nm&SiBf u;D rsm; 4
1-4/ twdik ;f twm? oauFwESihf odyv HÜ ufawGUcef;oH;k ypön;f rsm; 5
1-5/ odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;\twlwuGy;l aygif;vkyaf qmifyrkH sm; 8
1-6/ odyeHÜ nf;ynmtoH;k csrrI sm; 8
1-7/ odypHÜ rf;oyfcsuEf iS hf &v'f 10
1-8/ odyeHÜ nf;usvyk if ef;pOfrsm; 11
tcef; 2/ j'yf
2-1/ j'yfEiS hf j'yfw\ Ykd tajctaersm; 13
2-2/ j'yf\0daoovu©Pmrsm; 14
2-3/ j'yfw\ Ykd tajctaeajymif;vJjcif; 19
2-4/ aysmrf w S ?f cJrw
S f ESihf qlrw
S f 21
tcef; 3/ tm;
3-1/ tm;\t"dymÜ ,f 24
3-2/ tm;trsKd ;rsKd ; 25
3-3/ tav;csed f 29
tcef; 4/ ouf&t
dS rsdK;rsdK;
4-1/ ouf&rdS sm;udt k rsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif; 31
4-2/ tyifrsm;udt k rsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif; 32
4-3/ ouf&wdS \ Ykd vu©Pm&yfrsm;ESihf vdu k af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifaexdik jf cif; 35
4-4/ ausm½d;k &S?d ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;udck jJG cm;jcif; 38
tcef; 5/ qJvEf iS hf qJvzf UJG pnf;wnfaqmufykH
5-1/ tPkMunfu h &d ,d m 48
5-2/ qJvf 50
5-3/ qJvw
f pfc\
k zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufykH 51
rmwdum
tcef; oifcef;pm pmrsufEmS
tcef; 6/ rsdK;yGm;jcif;
6-1/ ouf&rdS sm;\rsKd ;yGm;jcif; 53
6-2/ tyifrsm;\rsKd ;yGm;jcif; 54
6-3/ owå0grsm;\rsKd ;yGm;jcif; 56
tcef; 7/ urÇmN*dK[f
7-1/ urÇmonfrrd 0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfjcif;ESihf aeudv
k n
S yhf wfjcif; 59
7-2/ urÇmth ay:,HvmT wnfaqmufykH 63
7-3/ urÇmrh suEf mS jyifajymif;vJ&aomtaMumif;&if;rsm; 70
tcef; 8/ a*[pepf
8-1/ a*[pepf 79
8-2/ a*[pepftrsKd ;rsKd ; 81
8-3/ tyifEiS o
hf wå0grsm;\qufpyfrI 84
tcef; 9/ j'yfpif? j'yfaygif; ESihf j'yfaESmrsm;
9-1/ j'yfpifEiS hf tufwrfrsm; 88
9-2/ armfvu D sL;ESihf j'yfaygif;rsm; 92
9-3/ j'yfaESmESihf aysm&f nfrsm; 95
9-4/ j'yfaESmrsm;udck x JG w
k jf cif; 102
tcef; 10/ pGr;f tiftrsdK;rsdK;
10-1/ toH 110
10-2/ tvif; 114
10-3/ tyl 119
10-4/ vQypf pf 126
10-5/ oHvu kd f 132
tcef; 11/ aetzGUJ tpnf;
11-1/ aetzGUJ tpnf;&St d "duyg0ifrrI sm; 141
11-2/ N*Kd [rf sm;\0daoovu©Pmrsm; 145
aemufqufwJG
tvSnrhf eS Zf ,m; 147
ausmif;oH;k pmtkyf odyHÜ q|rwef;
tcef; (1)
odyÜH\oabmobm0 (Nature of Science)
ed'gef;
,aeYacwfonf odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynm wd;k wufaomacwf jzpfonf/ vlom;wd\ Yk aeYpOf
b0wGif odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynm\ toH;k 0ifyu kH kd xifxif&mS ;&Sm; awGUjrifEikd o
f nf/ (Oyrm-a&'D,?kd
w,fvzD ek ;f ? tifwmeuf? pufu&d , d mrsm;ponfjzif)h þtcef;wGif odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynm\
t"dymÜ ,f? xif&mS ;aom odyyHÜ nm&SiBf u;D rsm;\ pGr;f aqmifcsurf sm;? vufawGUb0wGif odyHÜ
enf;ynmqdik &f m toH;k 0ifrrI sm;? prf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif vkyaf qmif&rnfh odyeHÜ nf;us
vkyif ef;pOfrsm;udk oif,&l rnfjzpfonf/
1-1 odyb ÜH mom&yfrsm;
Science (ody)HÜ [laompum;onf vufwif (Latin) pum;rSqif;oufvmNy;D todynm
[k t"dymÜ ,f&onf/ obm0avmuESihf ½kyu f rÇmudk avhvmaomynm&yf jzpfonf/ obm0
avmuwGif ouf&rdS sm;yg0ifNy;D ½kyu f rÇmwGif j'yfEiS phf rG ;f tif? j'yfrsm;\zGUJ pnf;yHEk iS hf ,if;wd\
Yk
tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufrrI sm; yg0ifonf/
odyu HÜ kd atmufygtwdik ;f cGjJ cm; avhvmEdik yf gonf/
( 1 ) ½lyaA' (Physics)
½lyaA'bmom&yfukd a&S;*&dvrl sKd ;rsm;u obm0Bu;D udk avhvmaomynm (Knowledge
of Nature) [k ac:cJMh uonf/ tvH;k pHa k omj'yfwEYkd iS hf ,if;wd\ Yk a&GUvsm;rIobm0?
[if;vif;jyif? tcsed Ef iS hf pMu0Vmwpfcv k ;kH udk vTr;f rd;k xm;aom pGr;f tiftrsKd ;rsKd ;ESihf
oufa&mufaomtm;trsKd ;rsK;d udk tao;qH;k tajccHtrIerf sm;rS tBu;D qH;k pMu0Vmtxd
avhvmaomynm&yf jzpfygonf/ odyyHÜ nmwpfcv k ;kH udk vTr;f jcKH xm;aom tajccH
tusq;kH bmom&yftjzpfrw S , f al om ynm&yf jzpfygonf/
( 2 ) "mwkaA' (Chemistry)
j'yf0w¬Krsm;\ zGUJ pnf;rI? ½ky*f P k o f wd?å "mwf*P k of wdrå sm;ESihf oufqikd af om ynm&yfjzpf
onf/ "mwfajymif;vJrrI sm;aMumifh j'yf0w¬KtopfEiS hf *kPo f wdt
å opfrsm; jzpfay:jcif;
udk avhvmaomynm&yf jzpfygonf/
( 3 ) blrad A' (Geology or Earth Science)
urÇmajrBu;D \ rsuEf mS jyif? tvTmrsm;? wGi;f xGuo f ,HZmwrsm;ESi*hf P k t f *Fgrsm;? obm0
ab;tEÅ&m,frsm;udk avhvmaomynm&yfjzpfonf/
( 4 ) eu©waå A' (Space Science or Astronomy)
eu©ww f m&mESihf urÇmajrBu;D tygt0if N*Kd [rf sm; vSnyhf wfomG ;vmrItaMumif; avhvm
aomynm&yfjzpfonf/
1
( 5 ) owåaA' (Zoology)
owå0grsm;\ wnfaqmufy?kH vkyaf qmifcsu?f toH;k jyKy?kH ,if;wd\ Yk ywf0ef;usiEf iS hf
wkjYH yefqufE, T rf uI kd avhvmaom odyyHÜ nm&yfjzpfonf/
( 6 ) ½kua© A' (Botany)
tyifrsKd ;EG,rf sm;\ wnfaqmufy?kH vkyaf qmifcsu?f toH;k jyKy?kH ,if;wd\
Yk ywf0ef;usif
ESihf wYjHk yefqufE, T rf uI kd avhvmaom odyyHÜ nm&yfjzpfonf/
tv,fwef;odyb HÜ momudk txufygbmom&yfrsm;twdik ;f oD;jcm;cGí J ravhvmbJ pkpnf;
avhvmjcif;jzpfonf/
1-2 aeYpOfb0&Sd odyEÜH iS ehf nf;ynm
vlom;wd\
Yk aeYpOfb0wGif odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynmrsm;udk e,fy,ftoD;oD;ü toH;k csvsuf
&So
d nf/ þoifcef;pmwGif odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynm\t"dymÜ ,fEiS hf enf;ynmtoH;k csrrI sm;udk avhvm&
rnfjzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à odyEHÜ iS yhf wfoufí oifoad om tcsut
f vufrsm;udak qG;aEG;Ny;D atmufygZ,m;wGif
jznfph u
G yf g/
odyb
HÜ mom&yf avhvmonfeh ,fy,f enf;ynmtoH;k csrrI sm;
½lyaA' j'yf? pGr;f tif? ½kyw
f \
Ykd *kPo
f wård sm;?
j'yf0w¬Krsm;zGUJ pnf;yH?k ½ky*f P

k o
f wdrå sm;?
"mwkaA' ½kyaf jymif;vJjcif;? "mwf*P k o
f wård sm;?
"mwfajymif;vJjcif;?
ZD0aA' (½kua© A'+owåaA') ouf&rdS sm; (tyif + owå0g)
urÇmajrBu;D ? wGi;f xGuo
f ,HZmw?
blrad A'
obm0ab;tEÅ&m,frsm;?
ae? N*Kd [?f Mu,frsm; qGiJ ifvn
S yhf wf
eu©waå A'
jcif;?
Z,m;udt
k ajccHí ar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzqdyk g/
à odyyHÜ nmudk rnfoYkd em;vnfoenf;/
à odyyHÜ nm&yfrsm;avhvmolukd rnfoYkd ac:oenf;/
à enf;ynmudk rnfoYkd em;vnfoenf;/
2
vkyif ef; (2)

à odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynmwd\
Yk EIid ;f ,SOf azmfjycsuu
f kd avhvmyg/
odyyHÜ nm enf;ynm
- avhvmprf;oyfcsurf sm; jyKvyk jf cif;jzifh - odyt HÜ odynmESihf ed,mrrsm;udk vufawGU
todynmtopfrsm;ESihf awGU&Scd sut f opf toH;k csí trsKd ;rsKd ;aom xkwu f ek t
f opf
rsm;udk &SmazGazmfxw
k jf cif;/ rsm;udk wDxiG zf efw;D jcif;/
- rSeu
f efaomed,mrrsm; azmfxw k jf cif;/ - wDxiG zf efw;D rIrsm;onf tpOfrjywf wd;k
wuf ajymif;vJaeaomaMumifh vufawGU
b0wGif toH;k 0ifouJo Y Ykd tEÅ&m,fvnf;
&SEd ikd jf cif;/
atmufygazmfjycsut f oD;oD;onf odyHÜ odUk r[kwf enf;ynmjzpfaMumif;tkypf w
k iG ;f aqG;aEG;Ny;D
trSejf cpf (Â) jcpfyg/
taMumif;t&m odyHÜ enf;ynm

"mwfaiGUonf ylvQiyf o
G nfh oabm&So
d nf/
rdrI sKd ;pdwrf sm;rS aq;0g;xkwv

f yk o
f nf/
rsKd ;wl vQypf pftcsi;f csi;f wGe;f uefMuonf/
ajrrJh pdu
k yf sKd ;onf/
tifwmeufjzifh owif;tcsut
f vufrsm; ay;ydo
Yk nf/
t"dutcsufrsm;
Science (ody)HÜ [laompum;onf vufwif (Latin) pum;rSqif;oufvmNy;D todynm
[k t"dymÜ ,f&onf/ obm0avmuESihf ½kyu f rÇmudak vhvmaom ynm&yfjzpfonf/
obm0avmuwGif ouf&rdS sm;yg0ifNy;D ½kyu f rÇmwGif j'yfEiS phf rG ;f tif? j'yfrsm;\
zGUJ pnf;yHEk iS hf ,if;wd\
Yk tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufrrI sm;yg0ifonf/
Technology (enf;ynm) qdo k nfrmS *&d (Greek) pum;rSqif;oufvmNy;D uRr;f usirf I
[k t"dymÜ ,f&onf/ odyv HÜ ufawGUenf;rsm;rS&&Sad om todynmrsm;udk vlom;wdYk
tusKd ;twGuf vufawGUtoH;k csjcif;jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynmonf urÇmBu;D aumif;usKd ;twGuf rnfoYkd tusKd ;jyKaeoenf;/
3
1-3 xif&mS ;ausmfMum;aom odyyÜH nm&SiBf uD;rsm;

odyEHÜ iS ehf nf;ynmtaMumif;udk od&cdS NhJ y;D jzpfí odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;ESifh ,if;wdYk &SmazGawGU&Scd hJ
aom odyo
HÜ ak woe e,fy,frsm;taMumif;udk qufvufavhvm&rnfjzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ,aeY &moDOwktajctae rnfoYkd &So d enf;/ (at;jcif;? yljcif;) tcef;tylcsed u f kd
cefrY eS ;f yg/
à tcef;tylcsed Ef iS hf zsm;emaomtcg ud, k t f ylcsed o
f &d &dS ef rnfonfu
h &d ,
d mjzihf wkid ;f
oenf;/
à omrdrk w D mudw
k x
D iG cf ahJ om odyyHÜ nm&Sirf mS rnfojl zpfoenf;/
yHk (1-1) tcef;tylcsed w

f idk ;f omrkrd w
D m yHk (1-2) ud,
k t
f ylcsed w
f idk ;f omrkrd w
D m
vkyif ef; (2)
à xif&mS ;aom odyyHÜ nm&Sit f rsm;tjym;&So
d nft h euf tcsKd Uaom odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;\
wDxiG zf efw;D rIEiS hf okawoee,fy,ftcsKd Uudk avhvmMurnf/
odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm; trnf wDxiG rf eI ,fy,f

*a&[rfbJ w,fvzD ek ;f ? zdw k zkd ek ;f (qufo, G af &;
(Graham Bell) ud&,d mwpfrsKd ;)? atmf', D rkd wD m (toH
(1842-1922) jywfom;rIukd wdik ;f aomud&, d m)? owåK
&SmazGpuf ... ponfwu Ykd kd wDxiG of l
https://goo.gl/images/fBRQPk
aomrwftuf'q
D if vQypf pfprG ;f tifo;kH tvif;rD;oD;? bufx&D?
(Thomas Edison) "mwfjym;? aMu;eef; ...ponfwu Ykd kd
(1847-1931) wDxiG o
f l
https://goo.gl/images/u3pZg5
rm&DusL&D a&'D,o kd wå<d ujcif;qdik &f m okawoeudk

(Marie Curie) vkyaf qmifco hJ l
(1867-1934)
https://goo.gl/images/hQcNhL
tvufZef;'g;zvif;rif; yifeq
D vD ifaq;xkwo
f nfh rIrd sKd ;pdwu
f kd pwif
(Alexander Fleming) &SmazGawGU&So
d l
(1881-1995)
https://goo.gl/images/AnG2Gh
4
½dpk vif;z&efuvif 'Dtefat (DNA) ? tmtefat (RNA) wd\ Yk

(Rosalind Franklin) armfvu D sL;wnfaqmufy?kH ul;pufa&m*gyd;k
(1920-1958) wpfrsKd ; (Virus) \ wnfaqmufykH ponf
wdu
Yk kd &SmazGawGU&So
d l
https://goo.gl/images/Q27cmc
t"dutcsuf
ed,mr (Law) – prf;oyfcsuw f pfcu
k kd tBurd Bf urd jf yKvyk í
f awGU&Sad om okawoe
rSeu
f efcsurf sm;udk azmfjyjcif;/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oifyh wf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&onfh aomrwftuf'q D if\ wDxiG rf u
I kd toH;k csjyKvyk x
f m;
aomypön;f rsm;udk pm&if;jyKpak zmfjyyg/
2/ atmufygwdu Yk kd ,SOw f yGJ g/
(u) w,fvzD ek ;f pwifwx D iG cf o
hJ l (1) tvufZef;'g;zvif;rif;
(c) yifeq D v D ifaq;xkw&f ef rdrI sKd ;pdwu f kd (2) rm&DusL&D
pwifawGU&Scd o hJ l
(*) a&'D,o kd wå<d ujcif; okawoe (3) *a&[rfbJ
jyKvyk cf o hJ l
(C) 'Dtefat (DNA)? tmtefat(RNA) (4) aomrwftuf'q D if
wd\Yk armfvu D sL;wnfaqmufyu kH kd
&SmazGawGU&So d l
(i) vQypf pfprG ;f tifo;kH tvif;rD;oD; (5) ½dpk vif;z&efuvif
pwifwx D iG cf ohJ l
3/ oifonf rnfonfh odyyHÜ nm&Siu f kd tm;usoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
1-4 twdik ;f twm? oauFwESihf odyv ÜH ufawGUcef;oH;k ypön;f rsm;
þoifcef;pmwGif vufawGUb0ütoH;k rsm;aom odyq HÜ ikd &f m twdik ;f twm? oauFw
ESihf odyv
HÜ ufawGUcef;oH;k ypön;f rsm;taMumif;udk avhvmMu&rnfjzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à aeUpOfb0wGit f ok;H jyKaeaom tcsed ?f tuGmta0;? tylcsed ?f j'yfxk (tav;csed )f ponf
wkEYd iS hf oufqikd af om twdik ;f twmrsm;udk tzGUJ vdu
k af qG;aEG;yg/ twef;odYk wifjyyg/
5
trsKd ;trnf twkid ;f twm\,lepf (unit)

tcsed f (time)
tuGmta0; (distance)
tylcsed f (temperature)
j'yfxk (mass)
j'yfom;yrmPudk j'yfx[
k ak c:onf/
vkyif ef; (2)
à txufygZ,m;udk tajccHíaumufcsucf syg/ Edik if t H oD;oD;rS odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;onf
odyqHÜ idk &f mtwdik ;f twm\,lepf (unit) rsm;? oauFwrsm;? odycHÜ ef;oH;k vufawGUypön;f
rsm;udvk nf; wlnpD mG tok;H jyKMuonf/ tok;H rsm;aom ,lepf (unit) ig;rsKd ; &So d nf/
,if;wd\ Yk twdik ;f twmqdik &f m toH;k tEIe;f rsm;\trnfrsm;ESihf oauFwrsm;udMk unfíh
Z,m;wGijf znfph u G yf g/
twdik ;f twmtrnf twdik ;f twmoauFw
trsKd ;trnf
(Unit Name) (Unit Symbol)
rDwm (metre) m
uDv*kd &rf (kilogram) kg
puúeYf (second) s
'D*&Dqv
J pf ;D ,yff (degree celsius) ºC
yg0ifypön;f \ yrmP
rd;k (mole) mol
("mwkaA'wGif oH;k onf)
vkyif ef; (3)

à odycHÜ ef;ok;H vufawGUypön;f rsm;udk azmfjyxm;ygonf/ Z,m;yg odyyHÜ pön;f rsm;udk
rnfonhaf e&mwGif toH;k jyKMuonfukd tkypf v
k u
kd f aqG;aEG;Ny;D jznfph u
G yf g/
odyyHÜ pön;f toH;k jyKykH odyyHÜ pön;f toH;k jyKykH
(u) jcifw,
G zf efwikd f (c) bDum
6
(*) axmufwikd f (C) oH;k acsmif;axmuf
(i) 'pf*spw
f ,fcsed cf iG f (p) Aefqifr;D wdik f
(q) vufawGUcef;oH;k
rsurf eS f (Z) omrdrk w
D m
vkyif ef; (4)

à j'yfpifrsm;udk uk,d pf m;jyKaom oauFwrsm;udv k nf; wlnpD mG tok;H jyKcMhJ uonf/
à oifwMYdk um;zl;orQ "mwfaiGUrsm;ESihf owåKrsm;\trnfrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à j'yfpifrsm;pGm&So
d nft h euf ywf0ef;usiwf iG f aeYpOfxad wGUae&aom j'yfpiftufwrf
tcsKd U\ oauFwrsm;rSm atmufygtwdik ;f jzpfonf/
trnf oauFw
atmufq*D sif O
[du
k 'f ½d*k sif H
Edu
k x
f ½d*k sif N
umAGef C
t"dutcsufrsm;
Edik if t
H oD;oD;rS odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;onf wdik ;f wmrIrsm;wlnpD mG aqmif&u
G Ef ikd &f eftwGuf
tjynfjynfqikd &f m pH,el pfrsm; (Standard International Unit) udo k wfrwS Mf uonf/
twdik ;f twm (Unit) - twdik ;f twmwpfcu k kd azmfjyaom ,lepf/
7
avhusifch ef;
1/ pmoifcef;ESihf ausmif;a&SUtvHwidk t f Mum;&Sd tuGmta0;udk cefrY eS ;f yg/
hf pfNrKd UtuGmta0;udk rnfonfh twdik ;f twm,lepf (unit) jzifh azmfjy
2/ wpfNrKd UESiw
avh&o dS enf;/
3/ vufawGUcef;oH;k a&xkxnfwikd ;f ud&, d mwpfcu k kd azmfjyyg/
1-5 odyyÜH nm&Sirf sm;\ twlwuGy;l aygif;vkyaf qmifyrkH sm;
odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;onf vufawGUprf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif twlwuG yl;aygif;
vkyaf qmifavh&MdS uonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à odyv HÜ ufawGUprf;oyfcsuw f pfcu k kd yl;aygif;aqmif&u G jf cif;jzifh wdusreS u f efaom &v'f
rsm;&&SEd ikd o
f nf/ xdo k &Ykd &Syd u
kH kd oifwu Ykd ,
kd w
f ikd f odyyHÜ nm&Siu f ohJ ,Ydk ql í atmufyg
prf;oyfcsuu f kd twlwuG yl;aygif;vkyaf qmifMunfyh g/
1/ tkypf t k vdu k f a&yrmP tnDtrQxnfx h m;aom zefcu G w f pfcpk , D yl g/
2/ tdro f ;Hk qm; [if;cyfZeG ;f 2 ZGe;f pD,yl g/
3/ qm;rsm; vk;H 0aysm0f ifomG ;onftxd azsmyf g/ Mumcsed u f kd rSwo f m;yg/
4/ awGU&Scd surf sm;udk pmaMumif;a& 3 aMumif;cefY a&;yg/ xdaYk emuf tkypf v k u
kd f
aqG;aEG;zvS,Nf y;D Mumcsed rf sm;udk EdiI ;f ,SOyf g/ rwlnaD om tajzrsm;udk tkypf k
tcsi;f csi;f aqG;aEG;í tajz&Smyg/ &&Sv d maom tcsurf sm;udk twef;odYk wifjy
yg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
okawoevkyif ef;qko d nfrmS todynm? A[kow k ? tawGUtMuKH rsm;udk tajccHí
vlom;ESihf ywf0ef;usit f wGuf aumif;rGeaf omtusKd ;jzpfxeG ;f aprnfh wDxiG qf ef;opf
csurf sm;udk pepfwpfus awG;ac:Buq H zefw;D jcif; jzpfonf/
odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;\ pkaygif;aqmif&u
G jf cif;rsm;aMumifh urÇmv
h ol m;rsm;twGuf
aumif;usKd ;rsm;pGm &&Sad ponf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vufawGUprf;oyfcsurf sm;udk twlwuGy;l aygif;vkyaf qmifpOf rnfoYkd cHpm;&oenf;/
vkyaf qmifNy;D aemuf rnfonfh tusKd ;aus;Zl;&&So
d nf[k xifygoenf;/
1-6 odyeÜH nf;ynmtoH;k csrIrsm;
vlom;wdo Yk nf odyeHÜ nf;ynmrsm;udk aeYpOfb0wGif yHpk t H rsKd ;rsKd ;jzifh toH;k jyKvsu&f MdS u
onf/ xdo
k tYkd oH;k jyK&mwGif vlom;wd\ Yk toH;k csrEI iS hf oabmxm;ay:rlwnfí tusKd ;
oufa&mufrt
I rsKd ;rsKd ;&Syd u
kH kd þoifcef;pmwGif avhvmMurnf/
8
vkyif ef; (1)

à pku d yf sKd ;a&;? use;f rma&;? tpm;taomufww Ydk iG f tok;H jyKaomypön;f tcsKd U\ tusKd ;ESihf
tjypfukd tkypf t k wGi;f aqG;aEG;yg/ awGU&Scd surf sm;udk tkypf t k csi;f csi;f zvS,yf g/
oifah vsmpf mG ok;H jcif;jzifh ydrk o
kd ;Hk pJjG cif;aMumifjh zpfay:
pOf e,fy,f tok;H jyKjcif;
&&SEd ikd af omtusKd ;aus;Zl; Edik af omqk;d usKd ;
1 pdu
k yf sKd ;a&; "mwfajrMoZm
2 use;f rma&; aq;0g;
qm;
3 tpm;taomuf
EGm;EdYk
vkyif ef; (2)
à atmufygo½kyaf zmfyrHk sm;udak vhvmNy;D oifw\ Ydk xifjrif,q
l csuf (tusKd ;ESit
fh jypf) udk
cefrY eS ;f aqG;aEG;yg/ (vkyif ef; (1) udk tajccHyg/)
https://goo.gl/images/xB3Taw https://goo.gl/images/dEDC1s
oD;ESpH u
kd cf if;wGif "mwkaA'yd;k owfaq;zse;f jcif; "mwkvufeuftoH;k jyKjcif;
https://goo.gl/images/2Y12XF https://goo.gl/images/C3duV8
puf½yk rf sm;toH;k jyKí um;rsm;wyfqifxw

k v
f yk jf cif; puf½yk rf sm;toH;k jyKí ppfwu
kd jf cif;
https://goo.gl/images/Rke2hy https://goo.gl/images/fbPeDJ
tPkjrL"mwfaygif;zdk tPkjrLAH;k
9
t"dutcsufrsm;
odyeHÜ nf;usp;l prf;azmfxw k cf surf sm;onf vlom;wd\Yk b0udk enf;trsKd ;rsKd ;jzifh wd;k wuf
jrifrh m;apaomfvnf; wpfcgwpf&H tEÅ&m,fjzpfapEdik o f nf/
odyeHÜ nf;ynmrsm;udk toH;k cs&mwGif vlom;wd\ Yk toH;k csrEI iS o
hf abmxm; ay:rlwnfí
aumif;usKd ;&So
d uJo h Ykd qd;k usKd ;rsm;vnf;&So
d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ aq;okawoevkyif ef;rsm;wGif wd&pämefi,f (<uuf) av;rsm;udk aq;0g;opfrsm; prf;oyf
azmfxw
k &f ef toH;k jyKMuonf/ þodt Yk oH;k jyKjcif;onf
(u) vGrJ mS ;pGmtoH;k jyKjcif;[k,ql Ny;D rvkyo f ifah Mumif; jiif;qdMk uonf/
(c) vlom;rsm; tema&m*guif;&Si;f Ny;D oufwrf;&Snaf eEdik af &;twGuf aq;0g;opfrsm;
prf;oyfazmfxw k &f mwGif toH;k jyKEikd o
f nf[k ,lqMuonf/
txufygtqdk ESpcf t k euf rnfonft h qdu k kd vufcyH goenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
1-7 odypÜH rf;oyfcsufEiS fh &v'f
odypHÜ rf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif yg0ifypön;f rsm;ESihf tajctaet&yf&yfay: rlwnfí
&v'ftrsKd ;rsKd ;ajymif;vJEikd o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
tkypf v
k u
kd f atmufyg prf;oyfcsuw
f pfcu k kd vkyaf qmifMunfyh g/
à a&yrmP tnDtrQ,yl g/
à tkypf k (1) onf qm; 1 ZGe;f (pm;yGw J ifZeG ;f )? tkypf k (2) onf qm; 2 ZGe;f ? tkypf k (3)
onf qm; 3 ZGe;f ,lyg/
à a&xJoYkd owfrw S x
f m;aom qm;yrmPudx k nfí h vH;k 0aysm0f ifomG ;onftxd arTyg/
à qm;tm;vk;H aysm0f ifomG ;onfh Mumcsed uf dk rSwo f m;yg/
tkypf k a& qm; Mumcsed f
1 1 zefcu
G f 1 ZGe;f
2 1 zefcu
G f 2 ZGe;f
3 1 zefcu
G f 3 ZGe;f
txufygprf;oyfcsurf S awGU&Scd surf sm;udk oH;k oyfwifjyyg/
t"dutcsuf
prf;oyfcsuw
f pfcw k iG f prf;oyfrnft
h &mjzpfap? prf;oyfrnft
h ajctaewpfcck jk zpfap
ajymif;vJonfEiS t
hf rQ ,if;\&v'fonfvnf; ajymif;vJonf/
10
avhusifch ef;
vkyif ef; 1 yg prf;oyfcsuw
f iG f
1/ yrmP ajymif;vJtoH;k jyKxm;aomypön;f rSm rnfonf jzpfoenf;/
2/ yHak otjzpf owfrw S x
f m;aomt&mrSm tb,fenf;/
3/ Mumcsed o f nf rnfonfth ay:rlwnfí ajymif;vJoenf;/
1-8 odyeÜH nf;usvkyif ef;pOfrsm;
odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;onf vufawGUprf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif vkyif ef;pOf tqifq
h ifh
owfrw
S í
f vkyaf qmifavh&MdS uonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
yHk (1-3) udMk unfí
h prf;oyfcsuu
f akd vhvmyg/
ylazmif;
a&mfbmvuftw
d f
zefyv
k if;
a&aEG;
yHk (1-3) "mwfaiGUonf tylaMumifh ajymif;vJykH

à "mwfaiGUonf tylaMumifh ajymif;vJyu
kH kd prf;oyfcsujf yKvyk rf nf/ (vkt
d yfaomypön;f rsm;
- zefyv k if;tvGww f pfv;kH ? ylazmif;? a&aEG;yl? a&aEG;ylxnf&h efZvH?k a&mfbm vuftw d f
odrYk [kwf t0wfp/)
à aemufq;kH wGif &&Srd nfth ajzudk BuKd wifcefrY eS ;f yg/
à q&mvkyaf qmifjyaom prf;oyfcsujf yKvyk yf t kH qifqh ifu
h kd tkypf v
k u
kd f rSwof m;yg/
à ylazmif; rnfojYkd zpfvmonfukd apmifMh unfNh y;D awGU&Scd surf sm;udk tkypf t k vduk f rSwpf k
pmtkyw f iG f rSwo
f m;yg/
à awGU&Scd su?f prf;oyfcsurf &S &Sad om tajzudk wifjyyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
à atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u kd af qG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
(1) ,ckjyKvyk af om prf;oyfcsu\ f trnfrmS tb,fenf;/
(2) aemufq;kH wGi&f &Srd nft h ajzudk rnfuo hJ Ykd cefrY eS ;f cJMh uoenf;/
(3) prf;oyfcsuf jyKvyk cf yhJ t kH qifq h ifu
h kd jyefvnfajymjyyg/
(4) rSwpf pk mtkyw f iG f rSwof m;xm;aom awGU&Scd surf sm;udk ajymjyyg/
(5) awGU&Scd surf sm;rS aumufcsucf sxm;aomtajzudk wifjyyg/
11
t"dutcsufrsm;
odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;onf vufawGUprf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif (1) prf;oyfcsuu f kd
owfrw S jf cif; (2) &v'fcefrY eS ;f jcif; (3) vufawGUvkyaf qmifykH tqifq h ifh (4) tcsut
f
vufpak qmif;jcif; (5) aumufcsucf sjcif; [laom odyeHÜ nf;usvyk if ef;pOftqifq h ifuh kd
toH;k jyKí vkyaf qmifMuonf/
prf;oyfcsuw f pfcw k iG f odyeHÜ nf;usvyk if ef;pOfrsm;udk vdu
k ef mjcif;jzifh vufawGUvkyif ef;
rsm;udk atmifjrifpmG aqmif&u G Ef ikd o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vufawGUprf;oyfcsurf sm;jyKvyk &f mwGif vkyaf qmif&rnfh odyeHÜ nf;usvyk if ef;pOfrsm;
udk azmfjyyg/
12
tcef;(2)
j'yf (Matter)
ed'gef;
uREykf w
f \
Ydk ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f ae&m,lEikd o f nfh ouf&o dS ufrhJ t&m0w¬Ktm;vk;H onf
j'yfrsm; jzpfonf/ j'yfrsm;udk ao;i,faomtrIeu f av;rsm;jzifh zJUG pnf;xm;Ny;D tcJ? t&nfEiS hf
taiGU[lí tajctae 3 rsKd ; awGUEkid o f nf/ ,if;wd\ Yk *kPof wdrå sm;rwlnMD uyg/ tajctae
wpfcrk S tjcm;tajctaewpfco k Ykd ajymif;vJEikd o
f nf/ t&m0w¬Kwpfcw k iG yf g&Sad om j'yfrsm;\
yrmPudk ,if;t&m0w¬K\ j'yfxk (mass) [kac:onf/
2-1 j'yfEiS jhf 'yfw\ Ykd tajctaersm; (Matter and Their States)
à j'yfqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
à j'yfwo Ykd nf tcJ odrYk [kwf t&nf odrYk [kwf taiGU[laom tajctaewpfrsKd ;rsKd ;jzifh
wnf&EdS idk o f nf/
à tcJonfj'yfwpfrsKd ;jzpfNy;D ,if;wGif wdusaomxkxnfEiS hf wdusaomyHo k P²mef&odS nf/
ae&m,lNy;D zdoyd í f r&yg/
à t&nfonfj'yfwpfrsKd ;jzpfNy;D ,if;wGif wdusaomxkxnf&NdS y;D wdusaomyHo k P²mef r&Sd
yg/ xnfo h nfch u
G af y:rlwnfí yHo k P²mefajymif;vJEikd o
f nf/ ae&m,lNy;D zdoyd í
f r&yg/
à taiGUonfj'yfwpfrsKd ;jzpfNy;D ,if;wGiw f u
d saomxkxnfEiS fh wdusaomyHo k P²mefr&Syd g/
ae&mwdik ;f ysUH ESUH 0ifa&mufEikd Nf y;D zdoyd í
f &onf/
vkyif ef;
à pmoifcef;ywf0ef;usiw f iG f tcJtajctae&Sd t&m0w¬Krsm;udak jymyg/
à pmtkyt f &G,t f pm; tBu;D tao;? txltyg; rwlnaD om pmtkyw f pftyk pf u
D ,
kd í
l
EdiI ;f ,SOMf unfyh g/
à wpftyk Ef iS w hf pftyk f vufjzifqh Munfyh g/ rnfonfu ydí
k av;oenf;/ rnfonfu ydí k
ae&m,loenf;/
yHk (2-1) csed cf iG rf sm;

à xkpd mtkyEf pS t
f yk u
f kd ae&majymif;í txufygtwdik ;f prf;oyfMunfyh g/
à t&nftajctae&Sd t&m0w¬Krsm;udk ajymyg/
à cGuw f pfck odrYk [kwf ykvif;tvGww f pfcu
k kd vufjzifq
h Munfyh g/ xdaYk emuf ,if;xJoaYkd &
13
tenf;i,fxnfí h qMunfyh g odrYk [kwf csed cf iG jf zifch sed Mf unfyh g/ rnfuohJ aYkd wGU&oenf;/
à taiGUtajctae&Sd t&m0w¬Krsm;udk ajymyg/ avwGif tav;csed &f adS Mumif; oifrnfuhJ
odYk odEikd o
f enf;/ t&m0w¬Krsm;\ tav;csed u f kd odvv kd Qif rnfonft
h &mESihf csed w
f ,
G f
&oenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&?dS oufrhJ t&m0w¬Ktm;vH;k udk j'yfrsm;jzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/
rnfonft h &m0w¬Krqdk j'yfx&k NdS y;D ae&m,lvsS if j'yf[ak c:onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ypön;f wpfc\ k j'yfxo k nf wpforwfwnf; &SEd ikd f r&SEd ikd f ajzqdyk g/
2/ t&nf\j'yfxu k kd odvv kd Qirf nfuo
hJ Ykd csed w
f ,
G rf nfenf;/
3/ ylazmif;twGi;f &Sad vwGif j'yfx&k adS Mumif; rnfoo Ykd Ed ikd rf nfenf;/
4/ j'yfwu Ykd kd tb,faMumifh tajctae 3 rsK;d cGjJ cm;Edik o f enf;/
5/ aeYpOf tpm;tpmpm;onft h cg odrYk [kwf csujf yKwo f nft
h cg awGU&S&d onfh j'yf
rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
6/ vlwYkd touf&iS &f ef rnfonfjh 'yfypön;f rsm; vkt d yfoenf;/ j'yftajctae 3 rsKd ;jzifh
cGjJ cm;azmfjyyg/
7/ oif\aeYpOfb0wGix f ad wGU&aom j'yfypön;f rsm;udk j'yftajctae 3 rsK;d jzifh azmfjy
yg/
8/ tcJ? t&nf? taiGU tajctae 3 rsKd ;vH;k wnf&EdS ikd af om t&m0w¬Kukd azmfjyyg/
2-2 j'yf\0daoovu©Pmrsm; (Characteristics of Matter)
tcJ? t&nfEiS hf taiGU tajctaewGi&f adS om j'yfw\
Ykd 0daoovu©Pmrsm; wlnrD I &Sd
r&Sd avhvmMurnf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à tkypf v k u
kd f tcJ? t&nfEiS hf taiGUwd\ Yk obm0tajctaersm;udk oifah vsmaf om
Oyrmrsm;ay;í azmfxw k yf g/ awGU&Scd surf sm;udk Z,m;wGijf znfph u
G í
f twef;odYk wifjy
yg/ rwlnaD om awGU&Scd surf sm;udk rSwo f m;yg/
j'yf tajctae xkxnf &S^d r&Sd yHo

k P²mef &S^d r&Sd zdoyd í
f &^r&
pmtkyf tcJ &Sd &Sd r&
14
ausmi;fo;kHpmtykf oydHÜ q|rwe;f
vykife;f(2)
j'yt
f ajctae 3 rsKd; pr;foycfsuf
tc?J t&nEfiShf taiUGw\ Ydk 0adoovuP © mrsm;ukd vuafwUGpr;foycfsujfyKvykíf
azmxf w k yfg/ xaYkdemuf awUG&cdSsurfsm;ukd rwS of m;yg/
tcJ
ausmucfw J pvf ;kHu,
kd í
l bu
D mxx J nMhfunhf
yg/ xaYkdemuf jyev f níf pm;yaJGy:wiv f ukd yfg/ rno f Ykd
awUG&rnefn;f/ ykH (2-2) tct
J rsKd;rsK;d
t&nf
yv
k i;fxwJ iGf xnx hf m;aom 100 mL (rv D D
vwD m) xx k n&fdS t&nu f kd yo
kH Pm²et
f rsKd;rsKd;&dS cu
G f
trsKd;rsKd;wiGf ajymi;fvxJ nMhfunyhfg/ rnof nhf umGjcm;
csuuf kd awUG&oen;f/
ykH (2-3) cu
G yfo kH Pm²eafy:rw
l ní f
t&n\ f yo kH Pm²eafjymi;fvyJkH
taiUG
ou&frdSsm;tou&fiSEfikd&fef rno f nu f kd &LS½u
Id f
&oen;f/ rsupfjdzihf jriEfikdf rjriEfikdf ajymyg/ ta&mi&fdS
aom taiUGrsm;ukd awUGz;ljci;f &dS r&dS ajzqykdg/
pmoicfe;ftwiG;foYkd te&YHadSom ye;ftcsKdU ,l
aqmiv
f myg/ rno f nhf x;ljcm;csuf awUG&rnefn;f/ ykH (2-4) avyalzmi;f
t"ud tcsurfsm;
tco J nf wu d saomxx k nEfiShf wud saomyo kH Pm²e&fodS n/f zo d ydí
f r&yg/
t&no f nf wu d saomxx k n&fNdSy;D wu d saomyo kH Pm²ef r&ydSg/ xno hf nchfu
G afy:
rw
l ní f yo kH Pm²eafjymi;fvEJikdo f n/f zo d ydí
f r&yg/
taiUGonf wu d saomxx k nEfiSfh wu d saomyo kH Pm²erf&ydSg/ xno hf nyhfpn
ö ;frsm;\
xxk nu f v
kd u kd íf ysUHEUHSwn&fodS n/f zo d ydí f &on/f
avuh sichfe;f
1/ atmuyfgypn ö ;fto;Do;Dukd ouq
f idk&fm0adoovuP © mEiShf ,OSw
f yJGg/
(u) tcsKd&nf (1) wu d saomxx k nf EiSw hf u
d saomyo kH Pm²e&fodS n/f
(c) atmuq f *Dsif (2) wu d saomxx k n&fNdSy;D wu d saomyo kH Pm²erf&ydSg/
(*) a&?T aMu; (3) wu d saomxx k nEfiShf wu d saomyo kH Pm²erf&ydSg/
15
2/ atmufyguGuv f yfrsm;udk jznfph uG yf g/

(u) wdusaomyHo k P²mefEiS hf wdusaomxkxnfr&So d nfh zdoyd í f &aom t&m0w¬KrmS
------------ jzpfonf/
(c) tcJonf ------------ yHo k P²mef&o dS nf/
(*) xnfo h nfch u G af y:rlwnfí yHo k P²mefajymif;vJEikd o f nfrmS ------------ jzpfonf/
3/ atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udak jzqdyk g/
(u) oHw;kH wpfcu k kd tb,faMumifh tcJ[k owfrw S Ef ikd o f enf;/
(c) qDukd tb,faMumifh t&nf[k owfrw S Ef ikd o
f enf;/
(*) atmufq*D si"f mwfaiGUESihf rd;k ysyH al zmif;xJ&dS [du k 'f ½d*k si"f mwfaiGUwdu
Yk kd tb,f
aMumifh taiGU[k owfrw S Ef ikd of enf;/
(C) ouf&o dS wå0grsm; &SLoGi;f onfrmS rnfonf"h mwfaiGU jzpfoenf;/ &SLxkwv f u
kd f
onfrmS rnfonhf "mwfaiGU jzpfoenf;/
(i) a&ikyo f rm;rsm;ESihf vlemrsm;twGuf vdt k yfaom"mwfaiGUrSm rnfonf"h mwfaiGUjzpf
oenf;/
(p) aMumfjimqkid ;f bkwrf sm;twGi;f tok;H jyKxm;aom "mwfaiGUrSm rnfonh"f mwfaiGU
jzpfoenf;/
2-2-1 trIerf sm;\wnf&rdS EI iS ahf &GUvsm;rI (Arrangement and Movement of Particles)
j'yfrsm;\tajctaeay:rlwnfí ,if;wd\ Yk xkxnf? yHo
k P²mefEiS hf zdoyd Ef ikd rf I &Sd r&Sd
ponfwu Ykd kd avhvmcJNh y;D jzpfonf/ j'yfwiG yf g&Sad om trIerf sm;\ wnf&rdS EI iS ahf &GUvsm;rIukd
avhvmMurnf/
vkyif ef;(1)
tcJ
yHw
k iG f a&Tw;kH &Sd trIeu
f av;rsm;onf rnfuhJ
odYk zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/ trIew f pfcEk iS w
fh pfcMk um; yHk (2-5) tcJwiG f
ae&mvyfrsm;udk rnfoaYkd wGU&oenf;/ ajzqdyk g/ trIerf sm;\ zGUJ pnf;wnf&ydS Hk
t&nf
yHw
k iG f a&&Sd trIeu
f av;rsm;onf rnfuo hJ Ykd
zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/ trIew f pfcEk iS w
fh pfcMk um; ae&mvyf
rsm;udk rnfoaYkd wGU&oenf;/ ajzqdyk g/
yHk (2-6) t&nfwiG f
trIerf sm;\ zGUJ pnf;wnf&ydS Hk
16
taiGU
yHw
k iG f taiGU&Sd trIeu
f av;rsm;onf rnfuo hJ Ykd
zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/ trIef wpfcEk iS w
fh pfcMk um; ae&mvyf
rsm;udk rnfoaYkd wGU&oenf;/ ajzqdyk g/ yHk (2-7) taiGUwGif
vkyif ef;(2) trIerf sm;\ zGUJ pnf;wnf&ydS Hk
à tkypf k 3 pkcí JG tcJ? t&nf?f taiGUwdw Yk iG yf g0ifaom trIeu f av;rsm;\ zGUJ pnf;yHu k kd
ydrk íkd em;vnfoabmaygufap&efo½kyaf zmfrnf/ yxrtkypf o k nf tcJoP²mef o½kyf
azmf&ef a&SUaemuf 3 wef;pDyg/ a&SUqH;k wef;&Sd ausmif;om; 5 OD;onf wpfO;D ESiw hf pfO;D
vufcsi;f csw d í f yl;uyfpmG &yfaeyg/ 'kw, d wef;&Sd ausmif;om; 5 OD;onf a&SUrS
ausmif;om; 5 OD;\ ycH;k udk vufEpS zf ufjzifh cdik Nf rpJ mG toD;oD;udik x f m;yg/ wwd,wef;&Sd
ausmif;om;rsm;onfvnf; xdek nf;wl vkyaf qmifyg/ ausmif;om;tm;vH;k rdrad e&mwGif
omjznf;nif;pGm vIy&f mS ;Munfyh g/ rnfonfukd ud, k pf m;jyKoenf;/
à 'kw, d tkypf rk t S csKUd onf wpfO;D ESiw
hf pfO;D tenf;i,fcmG í &yfyg/ tcsKUd onf yl;uyfí
&yfyg/ ausmif;om;tm;vH;k ae&mwGio f m jznf;nif;pGm vIy&f mS ;Munfyh g/ rnfonfukd
ud, k pf m;jyKoenf;/
à wwd,tkypf rk S ausmif;om;rsm;onf OD;wnf&mrsKd ;pHEk iS hf vIy&f mS ;oGm;vmyg/ rnfonfukd
uk, d pf m;jyKoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/ tkypf w k pfcpk \
D o½kyaf zmfru
I kd jyefvnfo;kH oyf
í rSwcf sucf syg/
(u) tcJ (*) taiGU
(c) t&nf
yHk (2-8) tcJ? t&nfEiS hf taiGUxJ&dS trIerf sm;\ zGUJ pnf;yHu
k kd o½kyaf zmfykH
t"dutcsufrsm;
trIeuf av;rsm;onf tcJ? t&nf? taiGUwdw Yk iG f rwlnaD omtpDtpOfjzifh wnf&o
dS nf/
tcJ? t&nf? taiGUwd\ Yk 0daoovu©P © mrsm; rwlnMD ujcif;rSm zGUJ pnf;xm;aom
trIeuf av;rsm;\ pDpOfwnf&ydS kH uGjJ ym;aomaMumifh jzpfonf/
17
avhusifch ef;
1/ tb,faMumifh tcJuzkd o d yd íf r&oenf;/ taMumif;jyajzqdyk g/
2/ tb,faMumifh t&nfuzkd o d yd í
f r&oenf;/ taMumif;jyajzqdyk g/
3/ pmoifcef;xJEiS hf rd;k ysyH al zmif;xJwiG f taiGUrsm;wnf&ydS kH wlnrD I &Sd r&Sqd ef;ppfyg/
4/ tcJ? t&nf? taiGUwdw Yk iG f trIeu f av;rsm;tcsi;f csi;f qGiJ iftm;udk Bu;D pOf i,fvu kd f
pDpOfwifjyyg/
5/ aMu;eDEiS fh aiGukd tok;H taqmifypön;f rsm;tjzpf jyKvyk v f vdk Qif rnfojYkd yKvyk &f rnf
enf;/ zJUG pnf;xm;aomtrIerf sm; rnfoaYdk jymif;vJomG ;onfukd yHEk iS ahf zmfjyyg/
vkyif ef;(3)
à avhvmawGU&Scd suuf kd tajccHí tcJ? t&nfEiS hf taiGUwdw Yk iG f zGUJ pnf;xm;aom trIef
uav;rsm;\ tpDtpOf? qGiJ iftm;ESihf a&GUvsm;rIwu
Ykd kd Z,m;wGif jznfph u G yf g/
0daoovu©Pm tcJ t&nf taiGU
trIerf sm;\ wnf&ydS kH

tpDtpOf
azmfjycsuf ? ? ?
trIeu
f av;rsm;\
? ? ?
qGiJ iftm;
trIerf sm;\ a&GUvsm;rI ? ? ?
t"dutcsufrsm;
tcJwiG &f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf wdusaomtpDtpOfjzifh pepfwus uspv f sppf mG
zGUJ pnf;wnf&o dS nf/ trIew f pfcEk iS w
hf pfcMk um; ae&mvyf tvGeef nf;yg;í qGt J m;tvGef
aumif;onf/ xdUk aMumifh tcJwiG f wdusaom yHo k P²mef&o dS nf/
t&nfwiG &f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf tcJavmuf uspv f sppf mG zGUJ pnf;xm;jcif; r&Sd
aomfvnf; tcsi;f csi;f qGiJ iftm;&So d nf/ trIew f pfcEk iS w hf pfcMk um; ae&mvyfonf
tcJ&dS ae&mvyfxufyí kd vGwv f yfpmG vIy&f mS ;Edik o
f nf/
taiGUwGi&f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf wpfcEk iS w hf pfck pepfwusppD Of zGUJ pnf;xm;
jcif; r&Syd g/ trIew f pfcEk iS w hf pfck tvGeaf 0;uGmpGmwnf&NdS y;D qGiJ iftm;tvGeef nf;í
vGwv f yfpmG a&GUvsm;Ekid o f nf/ trIeu f av;rsm;onf vm;&mrsKd ;pHo k Ykd ysUH ESv
YH su&f o
dS nf/
taiGUwGif ae&mvyfrsm;pGm&Sad omaMumifh zdoyd í f &onf/
18
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygwdrYk S tajzrSeu f kd a&G;cs,yf g/
(u) tcJwiG &f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf (pepfwus? pepfrus? vGwv f yfpmG )
pDpOfwnf&o dS nf/
(c) t&nfwiG &f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf wpfcEk iS w
hf pfck (eD;uyfpmG ? a0;uGmpGm?
toift h wifh eD;uyfpmG ) wnf&o dS nf/
(*) taiGUwGi&f adS om trIeu f av;rsm;onf (vm;&mwpfzufwnf;? vm;&mESpzf uf?
vm;&mrsK;d pH)k odYk a&GUvsm;Edik o f nf/
(C) j'yftajctae 3 rsK;d wd\ Yk obm0rwlMujcif;rSm zGUJ pnf;xm;aom trIeu f av;
rsm;\ (vm;&m? pDpOfwnf&ydS ?kH wkecf grI) rwlnaD omaMumifjh zpfonf/
2/ atmufygwdu Yk kd taMumif;jy ajzqdyk g/
(u) tkwef &H t H wGi;f odYk xd;k azmufr0ifa&mufEikd jf cif;
(c) a&ul;uefwiG ;f a&ul;Edik jf cif;
(*) taiGUrsm;Mum;wGif oGm;vmvIy&f mS ;Edik jf cif;
2-3 j'yfw\Ykd tajctaeajymif;vJjcif; (Changes of States of Matter)
j'yfwo Ykd nf tajctaewpfcrk S tjcm;tajctaewpfco k Ykd rnfuo
hJ Ykd ajymif;vJEikd f
oenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
à tajctaewpfcrk w
S pfco
k Ykd ajymif;vJEidk af om j'yfypön;f rsm;udk Z,m;wGijf znfph u
G yf g/
tcJ rS t&nf t&nf rS tcJ tcJ rS taiGU t&nf rS taiGU taiGU rS t&nf
a&cJw;kH á a&
à xdaYk emuf a&cJw;kH uduk ikd Mf unfyY g odrYk [kwf cGuwf pfcwk iG x f nfí h acwåapmifq h ikd ;f
Munfyh g/ rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;rnfenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/ pm;p&mrkerYf sm;teuf
yg;pyftwGi;f xnfv
h u kd af omtcg tcsed t f enf;i,ftwGi;f tcJrt S &nfoYkd ajymif;vJ
oGm;aom pm;p&mrsm;udk azmfjyyg/ a&rS a&cJtoGio f Ykd rnfuo hJ Ykd ul;ajymif;Ekid rf nfenf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
à a&cJw;kH i,fav;rsm;udk cGuw f pfcw k iG x
f nfNh y;D acwåapmifq
h ikd ;f Munfyh g/ rnfojYkd zpfomG ;
oenf;/ qufvufí q&mESit hf wl a&tenf;i,fygaom cGuu f kd tylay;Munhyf g/
rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;rnfenf;/ cGuw f pfcx k wJ iG f a&ylxnfMh unfv
h u kd yf gu rnfonfukd awGU
&rnfenf;/ xkcd u G u
f kd tzH;k zH;k vdu
k v f Qif rnfonfukd awGU&rnfenf;/ jzpfpOftqifq h ifh
19
\ vkyaf qmifcsuEf iS hf awGU&Scd suu

f kd a&;yg/
tylay; tylay;
tat;cH tat;cH
yHk (2-9) j'yfw\
Ykd tajctaeajymif;vJjcif;
tylay; tylay;
a&cJ a& a&aiGU
tat;cH tat;cH
à xdaYk emuf vufawGUrSww f rf;a&;yg/ tcJrt
S &nf? t&nfrS tcJ? t&nfrt
S aiGU? taiGUrS
t&nfoaYkd jymif;vJ&ef rnfonft h csuaf y: rlwnfoenf;/ tvm;wljzpfpOfrsKd ;udk Oyrm
wpfcak y;í wifjyyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
t&nftajctaerS taiGUtajctaeodYk ajymif;vJaomjzpfpOfukd taiGUjyefjcif;
(Vapourization) [kac:onf/
taiGUtajctaerS t&nftajctaeodYk ajymif;vJaomjzpfpOfukd aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;
(Condensation) [kac:onf/
tcJtajctaerS taiGUtajctaeodYk wdu k ½f u
kd af jymif;vJaomjzpfpOfukd tcJtaiGUjyef
jcif; (Sublimation) [kac:onf/
tcJ? t&nf? taiGUwdYk tajctaewpfcrk wS pfco k Ykd ajymif;vJ&ef tylay;jcif;? tat;cH
jcif; jzpfpOfrsm; vdt
k yfonf/
tcJtajctaerS t&nftajctaeokYd ajymif;vJjcif;udk t&nfaysmjf cif; [kac:onf/
xdo
k Ykd ajymif;vJ&ef tylvt
kd yfonf/
t&nftajctaerS taiGUtajctaeokYd ajymif;vJjcif;udk t&nfqjl cif; [kac:onf/
t&nftajctaerS tcJtajctaeodYk ajymif;vJjcif;udk t&nfcjJ cif; [kac:onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ uduk mudv k mtcsKd &nfukd ykvif;xJrS a&cJ&adS omzefcu G xf o J Ykd
xnfv h Qif awGU&SEd ikd o
f nfh j'yfwu
Ykd dk azmfjyyg/
2/ atmufyguGuv f yfrsm;udk oifah vsmaf om pum;vH;k ? pum;pk wdjYk zifh
jznfph uG yf g/
tylay; ?
a&cJ a& a&aiGU
? tat;cH
20
3/ za,mif;wdik u
f kd rD;xGe;f onft h cg za,mif;onf rnfuo hJ aYkd jymif;vJomG ;oenf;/
tat;cHvQif rnfuo hJ Ykd xyfraH jymif;vJomG ;oenf;/
4/ toD;? t&Gurf sm;udk aeylxw J iG f Mum&Snpf mG aevSe;f onft h cg rnfojYkd zpfomG ;
oenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
2-4 aysmfrw
S ?f cJrw
S Ef iS hf qlrw
S f ( Melting Point, Freezing Point and Boiling Point )
2-4-1 aysmfjcif;ESiahf ysmfrw

S f (Melting and Melting Point)
vkyif ef;(1) tylay;

à rdrw d u
Ykd ,kd w
f ikd f yg0ifo½kyaf zmfcahJ om tcJ?
t&nf? taiGUwdw Yk iG &f adS om trIerf sm;\
tcJ t&nf
obm0udk jyefvnfwifjyyg/
à txufygyHu k Mkd unfí h tcJut kd ylay;vQif yHk (2-10) tcJtajctaerS
,if;&St d rIeu f av;rsm; rnfuo hJ Ykd ajymif;vJ t&nftajctaeodYk ajymif;vJjcif;
oGm;rnfenf;/ txufygjzpfpOfut kd ajccHí taiGUudt k at;cHvQiv f nf; rnfojYdk zpf
rnfenf;/ ykEH iS w hf uG ajzqkyd g/
vkyif ef;(2)
t&nfaysmfjcif; (Melting)
q&mESit hf wl a&cJt&nfaysmjf cif; prf;oyfcsuu f kd jyKvyk yf g/ tcJtjzpfrS t&nf
tjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJaomtylcsed u f kd aysmrf w
S f [kac:onf/ a&cJonf 0 °C ('D*&Dqv J pf ;D ,yf)
wGif t&nfaysmo f nf/ xkaYd Mumifh a&cJ\ aysmrf wS o
f nf 0 °C ('D*&Dqv J pf ;D ,yf) 32 °F ('D*&D
zm&if[u
kd )f jzpfonf/
yHk (2-11) tcJt&nfaysmjf cif;

t"dutcsufrsm;
tcJtjzpfrS t&nftjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJaom tylcsed u
f kd aysmrf w
S [
f ak c:onf/
a&cJ\aysmrf w
S rf mS 0 °C (32 °F) jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ a&onftcJtjzpfrS t&nftjzpfoYkd tb,faMumifh ajymif;vJEikd o f enf;/ xkjd zpfpOfukd
trnfay;yg/
2/ tcJt&nfaysmjf cif;jzpfpOftm; tok;H jyKonfv
h yk if ef;rsm;udak zmfjyyg/
21
2-4-2 cJjcif;ESichf rJ w
S ?f qljcif;ESiq
fh rl w
S f
(Freezing and Freezing Point, Boiling and Boiling Point)
vkyif ef;(1)
t&nfcjJ cif; (Freezing)
tcJ t&nfaysmjf cif;jzpfpOfut kd ok;H jyKí t&nfcJ
jcif; jzpfpOfjzpfay:yHu k kd BuKd wifcefrY eS ;f yg/ tcJt&nf
aysmjf cif;rS o½kyjf yyku
H ekd rlem,lí t&nfcjJ cif;udk yHjk zifh
azmfjyyg/ t&nftjzpfrS tcJtjzpfoaYkd jymif;vJjcif;udk t
&nfcjJ cif;[kac:Ny;D xko d aYkd jymif;vJaomtylcsed u f kd cJrw
S f
[kac:onf/ a&onf 0 °C wGif cJonf/ xdaYk Mumifh a&\ yHk (2-12) t&nfcjJ cif;
cJrw
S o f nf 0 °C (32 °F) jzpfonf/
vkyif ef;(2)
t&nfqjl cif; (Boiling)
t&nfaysmjf cif;jzpfpOfukd tajccHí t&nfqjl cif;
jzpfpOfukd BuKd wifcefUrSe;f yg/ ykjH zifah zmfjyyg/ a&onf 100 °C
wGiqf yl u
G of nf/ xkaYd Mumifh a&qlrw S o
f nf 100 °C (212 °F)
yHk (2-13) t&nfqjl cif; jzpfonf/
t"dutcsufrsm;
t&nftjzpfrS taiGUtjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJaomtylcsed u f kd qlrwS [
f k ac:onf/
a&\qlrw S of nf 100 °C (212 °F) jzpfonf/
qlrw
S af tmuf tylcsed rf sm;wGif t&nfrt S aiGUtjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJjcif; (taiGUjyefjcif; -
Evaporation) jzpfEi kd of nf/
t&nftjzpfrS tcJtjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJaomtylcsed u f kd cJrw
S f [kac:onf/
a&onf 0 °C wGicf o J nf/ xdUk aMumifah &\cJrw S o
f nf 0 °C (32 °F) jzpfonf/
tylcsed f 0 °C (32 °F) onf a&\cJrw S f (t&nfrS tcJjzpfcsed &f dS tylcsed )f jzpfouJo
h Ykd
a&\aysmrf w S f (tcJrS t&nfjzpfcsed &f dS tylcsed )f vnf; jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;

# !
$% =
2/ atmufygjzpfpOfrsm;udk tylajymif;vJjcif;ay:rlwnfí tkypf Ek pS pf ck yGJ g/
t&nfaysmjf cif;? t&nfqjl cif;? cJjcif;? taiGUjyefjcif;? aiGU&nfzUGJ jcif;
3/ aEG&moDwiG f a&wGi;f ? a&uef? a&tdik rf sm;ü a&enf;&jcif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
22
tcef; (2) udk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;
j'yf
j'yfw\
Ykd tajctae
tcJ t&nf taiGU
j'yf
j'yfw\
Ykd 0daoovu©Pmrsm;
tcJ t&nf taiGU

- wdusaom yHok P²mef&dS - wdusaom yHok P²mefr&Sd - wdusaom yHo
k P²mefr&Sd
- wdusaom xkxnf&dS - wdusaom xkxnf&dS - wdusaom xkxnfr&Sd
- zdoyd í
f r&yg/ - zdoyd í
f r&yg/ - zdoyd í
f &onf/
j'yf
j'yfw\
Ykd tajctae ajymif;vJjcif;
t&nfaysmfjcif; taiGUjyefjcif;
tcJ t&nf taiGU
t&nfcJjcif; aiGU&nfzGJUjcif;
tcJtaiGUjyefjcif;
23
tcef;(3)
tm; (Force)
ed'gef;
þoifcef;pmonf ywf0ef;usiw f iG f odompGm jrifawGU&onft h m;rsm;ESihf obm0
tavsmuf jzpfay:aeaomtm;rsm;udk owdjyKrv d mNy;D xdt
k m;rsm;teuf j'yfqt JG m;? ½ke;f jyeftm;?
vQypf pftm;? oHvu kd t
f m;ESihf tav;csed w
f tYkd aMumif;udk odyeHÜ nf;us em;vnfNy;D cGjJ cm;od&v dS mrnf
jzpfonf/ xdt Yk jyif xdt
k m;rsm;\ oabmobm0rsm;udk od&NdS y;D vufawGUb0wGif toH;k cswwf
vmrnfjzpfonf/
3-1 tm;\t"dyÜm,f

tm;onf yHo
k P²mef? t&G,t f pm;ESihf a&GUvsm;rIukd ajymif;vJapaom oufa&mufrI
jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à pm;yGw J pfv;kH udk a&GUapvdyk gu rnfojYkd yKvyk &f oenf;/ xdo
k jYkd yKvyk Ef ikd &f ef rnfonft
h &m
vdt
k yfoenf;f /
vkyif ef; (2)
à tm;\ t"dymÜ ,fukd rnfoeYkd m;vnfoenf;/
à tm;udk jrifEikd jf cif; &Sd r&Sd ajzqdyk g/
vkyif ef;(3)
à om;a&uGi;f 1 uGi;f udk qGq J efMY unfyh gu
om;a&uGi;f onf rnfojYkd zpfomG ;oenf;/
à om;a&uGi;f udk qGq J efEY ikd &f ef rnfonft h &m yHk (3-1) tm;oufa&mufraI Mumifh
vdt
k yfoenf;/ yHo
k P²mef? t&G,tf pm;ajymif;vJykH
vkyif ef;(4)
à yHk (3-2) (u) ? (c) ESihf (*) wdw Yk iG f tm;oufa&mufraI Mumifh rnfonfah jymif;vJrrI sm;
jzpfay:vmoenf;/
(u) (c) (*)

yHk (3-2) tm;oufa&mufraI Mumifh jzpfay:vmaom ajymif;vJrrI sm;
24
t"dutcsufrsm;
tm;onf t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k yHo
k P²mef? t&G,tf pm;ESihf a&GUvsm;rIuakd jymif;vJapaom
oufa&mufrjI zpfonf/
t&m0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk oufa&mufvu kd af omtm;udk rjrifEikd yf g/ xdok ufa&mufvukd f
aomtm;aMumifh t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k ajymif;vJrrI sm;udo
k m jrifEikd yf gonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tm;qdo k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ t&m0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk tm;oufa&mufaomtcg xdt k &m0w¬Konf rnfoaYkd jymif;vJ
Edik o
f enf;/
3/ abmvH;k *d;k zrf;orm;wpfO;D onf tjrefEeI ;f jrifah omabmvH;k udzk rf;rdomG ;vQif abmvH;k
\tjrefEeI ;f rnfojYkd zpfomG ;rnfenf;/
3-2 tm;trsdK;rsdK; ( Forms of Forces )
ywf0ef;usiw f iG f odompGmjrifawGUae&aom tm;rsm;ESihf obm0tavsmufjzpfay:aom
tm;rsm;[lí&So
d nf/
vkyif ef;
à ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f odompGmjrifawGU&aomtm;rsm;ESihf obm0tavsmufjzpfay:aom
tm;rsm;taMumif; avhvmrnf/
ywf0ef;usiw f iG f odompGmjrifawGUae&aom tm;rsm;rSm tav;csed f (weight) ? um,tm;
(body force) ? ½ke;f jyeftm; (elastic force) ? yGwr f t
I m; (friction) ? t&nftwGi;f yifrh tm;
(buoyancy) ? wGe;f tm;ESihf qGtJ m; (push and pull) ponfwYkd jzpfMuonf/
obm0tavsmufjzpfay:aom tm;rsm;udk j'yfqt JG m; (gravitational force) ? vQypf pftm;
J m;) (electric force) ESihf oHvu
(wGe;f tm;ESihf qGt kd t
f m; (wGe;f tm;ESihf qGtJ m;) (magnetic force)
[lí avhvmEdik o f nf/
,if;tm;rsm;teuf tm; 5 rsKd ; taMumif;udk avhvmMurnf/
t"dutcsuf
ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f odompGmjrifawGUae&aom tm;rsm;ESihf obm0tavsmufjzpfay:
aomtm;rsm;[lí&So d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ uGuvf yfjznfyh g/
(u) av;cGypf&mü av;cGBuKd ;wGif jzpfay:aomtm;rSm --------------- jzpfonf/
25
(c) Murf;jyifay:wGif abmvH;k wpfv;kH udk vSrd v

hf u
kd af omtcg Murf;jyifEiS hf abmvH;k tMum;
jzpfay:aom tm;rSm ------------- jzpfonf/
(*) vufa0SUxd;k &mü ----------- tm;udk toH;k jyK&onf/
2/ ywf0ef;usiwf iG f odompGmjrifawGUae&aom tm; 3 rsKd ;udk Oyrmjzifh azmfjyyg/
3/ obm0tavsmufjzpfay:aom tm;rsm;udk OyrmESiw hf uGazmfjyyg/
3-2-1 j'yfqt JG m; (Gravitational Force)
0w¬Kwpfc\ k j'yfxq k okd nfrmS t&G,t f pm;ae&m,lr&I NdS y;D yg0ifaomj'yfom;yrmPudk
ac:onf/ j'yfxu k kd ydóm? usyo f m;? uDv*kd &rfwjYkd zifh wdik ;f onf/
j'yfxEk pS cf tk Mum;jzpfay:aeaom tjyeftvSeq f t
JG m;udk j'yfqt
JG m;[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à yHk (3-3) udk rnfoYkd em;vnfygoenf;/
yHk (3-3)
vkyif ef; (2)
à rdrw d \Ykd vufxw J iG f ypön;f wpfck
udik x
f m;Ny;D vTwcf sMunfyh g/ rnfoYkd
jzpfomG ;oenf;/
à t&m0w¬Krsm;udk ajrBu;D ay:odYk
usapaomtm;rSm rnfonft h m;
jzpfoenf;/
vkyif ef; (3) yHk (3-4) ypön;f wpfck ajrjyifay:odu
Yk sykH
ywf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&aom j'yfqt JG m;taMumif;t&mrsm;ukd pOf;pm;Munfyh g/
à j'yfqt JG m;ESio
hf ufqikd af om Oyrm 3 ckukd pOf;pm;yg/
à &&Sad omtajzrsm;udk tkypf v k ukd f wifjyyg/
t"du
d tcsufrsm;
j'yfxEk pS cf t
k Mum;jzpfay:aeaom tjyeftvSeq f tJG m;udk j'yfqt JG m;[kac:onf/
urÇmonf j'yfxBk u;D rm;aom t&m0w¬KjzpfaomaMumifh urÇmwGiv f nf; qGtJ m;&So
d nf/
t&m0w¬Kypön;f rsm; ajrjyifay:odu Yk sjcif;rSm urÇmq h t
JG m;&Sad omaMumifjh zpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ j'yfqt JG m;qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ tay:odyYk pfwifvu kd af om abmvH;k onf atmufojYkdyefusonfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
26
3-2-2 ½ke;f jyeftm; (Elastic Force)

½ke;f jyefEikd af om t&m0w¬Kwpfcu k kd zdvQif odrYk [kwf qGq J efv
Y Qif 0w¬K\yHo
k P²mef ajymif;
oGm;onf/ ,if;tay:oufa&mufaomtm;udk z,fvu kd yf gu rlvtajctaeodYk jyefvnf
a&muf&adS paom tm;udk ½ke;f jyeftm;[kac:onf/ xdo k Ydk rlvtajctaeodYk jyefvnfa&muf
&Sad paom *kPo f wåu d kd ½ke;f jyefowå[
d ak c:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à om;a&uGi;f wpfuiG ;f ESihf BuKd ;wpfacsmif;udk qGq
J efaY omtcg om;a&uGi;f ? BuKd ; ponfh
ypön;f rsm;onf rnfoYkd ajymif;vJomG ;ygoenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à om;a&uGi;f udk qGq J efaY omtcg yHo
k P²mef? t&G,t
f pm;
ajymif;vJomG ;onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (3)
om;a&uGi;f uJo h Ykd py&ifonfvnf; ½ke;f jyefowå&d adS om
t&m0w¬Kwpfcjk zpfonf/
à yHk (3-5) udk Munfyh g/ py&ifukd zdMunfyh gu odrYk [kwf yHk (3-5) py&ift½kyf
qGq
J efMY unfyh gu rnfoYkd ajymif;vJomG ;oenf;/
à ½ke;f jyefowå&d o dS nf0h w¬Kukd tm;jyif;jyif;jzifh qGq
J efyY gu rnfoYkd ajymif;vJomG ;rnfenf;/
à py&ifut kd oH;k jyKí jyKvyk x
f m;aom t&m0w¬Kypön;f rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
vkyif ef; (4)
ywf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&aom ½ke;f jyefowå&d o dS nfyh pön;f rsm;udk pOf;pm;Munfyh g/
à ½ke;f jyefowå&d o dS nfyh pön;f rsm;udk &SmazGyg/
à tkypf w k pfpu k tcsuw f pfcsupf u D kd tvSnu hf sajymyg/
vkyif ef; (5)
py&ifwpfcuk jkd zpfap? om;a&uGi;f wpfuiG ;f udjk zpfap tm;tenf;i,fjzifh qGMJ unfyh g/
tm;ydrk pkd u
kd x
f w
k í
f qGMJ unfyh g/ rdrw
d Ykd tm;&So
d rQ qGq
J efMY unfyh g/ xdaYk emuf vTwMf unfyh g/
à jzpfpOf 3 ckwiG f om;a&uGi;f t&G,t f pm;ajymif;vJjcif;udk EdiI ;f ,SOaf vhvmyg/
à om;a&uGi;f onf rlvyHo k P²mefoYkd jyefvnfa&muf&jdS cif; &Sd r&Sd ajzqdyk g/
t"dutcsufrsm;
½ke;f jyefEikd af om t&m0w¬Kwpfcu k kd zdvQif odrYk [kwf qGq J efv
Y Qif 0w¬K\yHo
k P²mef
ajymif;oGm;Ny;D ,if;tay:oufa&mufaomtm;udk z,fvu kd yf gu rlvyHo
k P²mefoYkd jyef
vnfa&muf&EdS ikd o f nf/ xdo
k Ykd rlvyHok P²mefoYkd jyefvnfa&muf&adS paom *kPo f wåu d kd
½ke;f jyefowd[ å k ac:onf/
27
½ke;f jyefowå&d o dS nfh t&m0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk oufa&mufvu kd af om tm;udk z,fvu kd yf gu

rlvtajctaeodYk jyefvnfa&muf&adS paomtm;udk ½ke;f jyeftm;[kac:onf/
½ke;f jyefowå&d adS om 0w¬Kwpfco k nf ,if;tay:oufa&mufaom tm;ay:rlwnfí
yHok P²mefEiS t hf &G,t f pm;onf trsKd ;rsKd ;ajymif;vJEikd o
f nf/ yHyk sujf cif;onf oufa&muf
aom tm;yrmPay:wGif wnfraDS eonf/
½ke;f jyefEikd af omt&m0w¬Kwpfcu k kd cHEikd 0f efxufyrkd sm;aomtm;udt k oH;k jyKí qGqJ efyY gu
yHyk suEf ikd Nf y;D rlvae&modjYk yefra&mufEikd af wmhyg/ ½ke;f jyeftm;wGif uefo Y wfr&I adS Mumif;
od&x dS m;&rnf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ abmyiftwGi;f &Sd py&ifukd zdjcif;? qGq J efjY cif;jyKvyk Mf unfí h ½ke;f jyefowåEd iS hf ½ke;f jyef
tm; taMumif;&Si;f jyyg/
2/ ½ke;f jyefowå&d o
dS nfh ypön;f rsm;udk oifoo d rQ azmfjyyg/
3/ ½ke;f jyeftm;wGif uefo Y wfr&I adS Mumif; rnfoo Ykd Ed ikd o
f enf;/
3-2-3 vQyfppftm; (Electric Force)
vQypf pftm;qdo
k nfrmS vQypf pf"mwfzEkd iS hf vQypf pf"mwfrtMum; jzpfay:onfh tjyef
tvSef oufa&mufaom wGe;f tm; odrYk [kwf qGt J m;jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à rnfonfv h Qypf pfypön;f rsm;wGif (+) ESihf (-) oauFwrsm;udk awGUzl;oenf;/
à (+) ESihf (-) oauFwrsm;udk rnfoYkd em;vnfygoenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à yHk (3-6) udk Munfí
h rnfoYkd em;vnfygoenf;/
yHk (3-6) vQypf pf"mwfzrkd sm;ESihf vQypf pf"mwfrrsm;tMum; jzpfay:aomtm;trsK;d rsK;d
3-2-4 oHvu kd tf m; (Magnetic Force)

oHvu kd t f m;qdok nfrmS 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;tMum;jzpfay:onfh tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufaom
wGe;f tm; odrYk [kwf qGt J m; jzpfonf/
oHvu kd t f m;qdok nfrmS oHxnfypön;f rsm;udk qGiJ ifEikd af omtm; jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (3)
à oHvu dk af csmif;udk Munfyh g/ oHvu
kd w f iG f 0if½;kd pGe;f rnfrQ&o
dS enf;/
à oHvu kd af csmif; 2 acsmif;\ 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;udk eD;uyfpmG xm;ygu rnfojYkd zpfrnfenf;/
28
t"dutcsufrsm;
(+) oauFwonf vQypf pftzdu k kd ud,k pf m;jyKí (-) oauFwonf vQypf pftrudk
ud, k pf m;jyKonf/
vQypf pfaqmifaom trIerf sm;tMum; tjyeftvSev f Qypf pftm;rsm; oufa&mufaeMu
onf/
rsKd ;wlvQypf pfrsm;onff wGe;f uefNy;D ? rsKd ;rwlvQypf pfrsm;onf qGiJ ifMuonf/
oHvu kd w
f iG f ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f (North Pole) ESihf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f (South Pole) [lí
0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ck&o dS nf/
(N) onf ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f udk ud, k pf m;jyKí (S) onf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f udk ud,
k pf m;jyKonf/
rsKd ;wl0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;onf wGe;f uefí rsKd ;rwl0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;onf qGiJ ifMuonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vQypf pftrIeEf pS rf sKd ;udk oauFwESiw hf uG azmfjyyg/
2/ rsKd ;wlvQypf pfrsm;tMum;? rsKd ;rwlvQypf pfrsm;tMum;wGif jzpfay:aeaom vQypf pftm;
rsm;udk yHqk í JG azmfjyyg/
3/ oHvu dk \
f 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;udk rnfonfph mvH;k jzifh azmfjyEdik o
f enf;/
4/ rsKd ;wl0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;tMum;? rsKd ;rwl0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;tMum;wGif jzpfay:aeaom oHvu
dk f
tm;rsm;udk yHq k í JG azmfjyyg/
3-3 tav;csde(f Weight)
0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk urÇmajrBu;D rSqiJG ifaom j'yfqt
JG m;ukd tav;csed [
f ak c:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à MuufoeG ef ?D MuufoeG jf zL? tmvl;? ig;ponfyh pön;f rsm;udk 0,f,&l mwGif uDv*kd &rf?
ydóm? usyo f m;ponfww Ykd iG f rnfonft h jciftwG,u f kd oH;k oenf;/
ypön;f wpfcw k iG f yg0ifaom j'yfom;yrmPudk j'yfx[ k ak c:Ny;D j'yfxu k kd kilogram (kg)
jzifh wdik ;f wmonf/ 0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk urÇmajrBu;D rS qGiJ ifaomtm;udk tav;csed [ f o
k wfrwS f
onf/ tav;csed u f kd newton (N) jzifw h ikd ;f wmonf/ xdaYk Mumifh odyyHÜ nm&yfwiG f j'yfxEk iS hf
tav;csed w f oYkd nf rwlnaD omt&mESpcf jk zpfonf/ vufawGUü uREyfk w f o
Ykd nf t&m0w¬Kypön;f
rsm;udk csed wf ,G f 0,f,al &mif;csMu&mwGif uDv*kd &rf? ydóm? usyo f m; ponfjzifh oH;k pGMJ uonf/
vkyif ef; (2)
a&jznfx h m;aom zefcu
G w
f pfv;kH ESihf a&jznfxh m;aom a&yH;k wpfy;kH udk ' r ' Munfyh g/
à rnfonf0h w¬Kukd ' r ' &ef tm;ydrk v kd tkd yfoenf;/
à rnfonf0h w¬Konf j'yfxyk rkd sm;oenf;/
à rnfonf0h w¬Konf tav;csed yf rkd sm;oenf;/
29
vkyif ef;(3)
a&jynfah eaom wpfvw D maomufa&oefyY v k if;wpfv;kH udk ' r ' Munfyh g/
à ,if;\j'yfxo k nf 1 kg &S\
d / xdak &oefyY v k if;udk urÇmajrBu;D \qGt J m; wpfenf;tm;jzifh
a&oefyY vk if;\ tav;csed o f nf 10 N jzpfonf/
à 0w¬Kwpfc\ k tav;csed u f o kd vd v
kd Qif ,if;0w¬K\ j'yfxk (kg) udk teD;qH;k wefz;kd 10 jzifh
ajrm§ uf&onf/
vkyif ef; (4)
à wpfvw D mpD&adS om a&oefY 2 ykvif;\ j'yfxo
k nf rnfrQ&o
dS enf;/
à wpfvw D mpD&adS om a&oefY 2 ykvif;\ tav;csed o
f nf rnfrQ&o
dS enf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
odyyHÜ nm&yfwiG f j'yfxEk iS hf tav;csed w f o
Ykd nf rwlnaD omt&mESpcf jk zpfonf/
0w¬Kwpfc\ k j'yfom;xkyrmPrsm;vQif tav;csed rf sm;í 0w¬Kwpfc\ k j'yfom;xkyrmP
enf;vQif tav;csed ef nf;rnfjzpfonf/
0w¬Kwpfc\ k tav;csed u f o kd v
d v
kd Qif ,if;0w¬K\ j'yfxk (kg) udk teD;qH;k wefz;kd 10
jzifh ajrm§ uf&onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ j'yfxEk iS hf tav;csed \
f uJjG ym;jcm;em;csuu f kd ajzqdyk g/
2/ 40 kg &Sad om vli,fwpfa,mufEiS hf 20 kg &Sad om uav;wpfa,mufww Ykd iG f
rnfou l tav;csed yf rkd sm;oenf;/
3/ kilo qdo k nft
h oH;k tEIe;f rSm 1000 jzpfojzifh 1 kg wGif j'yfxk gram(g) rnfrQ&odS enf;/
4/ vlBu;D wpfa,muf\ j'yfxo k nf 60 kg jzpfygu ,if;vlBu;D \ tav;csed u f kd &Smyg/
tm;
j'yfqt
JG m; ½ke;f jyeftm; vQypf pftm; oHvu
kd t
f m; tav;csed f
30
tcef;(4)
ouf&t
Sd rsdK;rsdK; (Living Things)
ed'gef;
ouf&rdS sm;wGif tyifavmu (plant kingdom) ESihf owå0gavmu (animal kingdom)
rsm;yg0ifonf/ þoifcef;pmwGif ouf&rdS sm;udt k rsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif;? tyifavmuudk yef;yGihf
aomtyifEiS hf yef;ryGiahf omtyif? owå0gavmuudk ausm½d;k &SEd iS hf ausm½d;k rJ[ h í
l cGjJ cm;jcif;?
ouf&rdS sm;\vu©Pmrsm;ESihf vduk af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifaexdik Ef ikd rf rI sm;udk avhvmMu&rnf/
4-1 ouf&rdS sm;trsKd;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif;
ouf&rdS sm;udk trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;&mwGif ouf&rdS sm;\ cE¨mud,
k &f dS tpdwt
f ydik ;f rsm;? rsK;d yGm;
t*Fgrsm; ? aexdik &f mESihf aygufa&muf&mae&ma'o tay:rlwnfí trsK;d tpm; cGjJ cm;Edik yf gonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ouf&rdS sm;udk rnfoYkd trsKd ;tpm; cGjJ cm;Edik o
f enf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à Z,m;wGif ay;xm;aomowå0grsm;udk trsKd ;tpm;cGyJ g/ erlemykpH u H Mkd unfyh g/
vdyjf ym? us;D uef;? yd;k [yf? quf&uf? pifa&mf? jcif? ,if? Muufqif? yif*iG ?f pmtkyyf ;kd ?
Murf;yd;k ? oef;
ouf&rdS sm;
awmifyyH g jcif
tif;quf
awmifyrH yg
ysEH ikd f
iSuf
rysEH ikd f
yHk (4-1-u) owå0grsm;
31
à atmufazmfjyyg tyifrsm;\ trnfrsm;udk aygufa&muf&mae&mtvdu

k f azmfjyyg/
rmvumyif? aA'gyif? Mumyif? iSuaf ysmyif
tyifrsm;
uke;f ay:ayguf
a&ay:ayguf
yHk (4-1-c) tyifrsm;
vkyif ef; (3)
à ausmif;ywf0ef;usi&f Sd ouf&rSd sm; (tyifEiS hf owå0grsm;) udk pm&if;jyKpyk g/ xdo
k uf&rdS sm;
udk vkyif ef; (2) wGif jyKvyk cf o
hJ nft
h wdik ;f trsK;d tpm; cGjJ cm;yg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&adS vmuudk tyifEiS o hf wå0g[lí t"dutrsK;d tpm;cGjJ cm;íavhvmonf/
xdok Ykd trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;&mwGif ouf&rdS sm;\cE¨mud,
k &f dS tpdwt
f ydik ;f rsm;? rsK;d yGm;t*Fg
rsm; ? aexdik &f mESihf aygufa&muf&may:rlwnfí trsK;d tpm;cGjJ cm;ygonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ouf&rdS sm;udk rnfot
Ydk rsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;ygoenf;/
2/ atmufygZ,m;wGif ay;xm;aom OyrmESihf trsK;d tpm;wl ouf&dS 2 rsK;d udk
jznfph uG yf g/
ouf&rdS sm;
uke;f aeouf&dS a&aeouf&dS
tyif owå0g tyif owå0g
(o&ufyif? --------) (jrif;? --------) (aA'gyif? --------) (ig;? --------)
4-2 tyifrsm;udt
k rsdK;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif;
tyifrsm;udk yef;yGiahf omtyifEiS hf yef;ryGiahf omtyif[í
l trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
4-2-1 yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm; (Flowering Plants)
yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm;udk yGiahf qmifyif[ak c:onf/ yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm;wGif yef;yGiEhf iS hf
32
taphrsm;yg&So d nf/ yGiahf qmifyifrsm;udk aph&u

G af y:rlwnfí aph&u G pf yHk if (dicotyledonous
plant) ESihf aph&u
G x
f ;D yif (monocotyledonous plant) [lícGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm;udk rnfoYkd ac:ygoenf;/ yef;yGiahf omtyifEiS hf yef;ryGiahf omtyif
rnfouYkd mG jcm;oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à ajymif;zl;aph? a&pdrNf y;D tcGcH Rwx f m;aomyJBu;D aphEiS hf a&pdrNf y;D tcGrH cRw&f ao;aom
yJBu;D aphwuYkd ,
kd yl g/ ay;xm;aomtaphrsm;wGif rnfonft h &monf aph&u G jf zpfoenf;/
rnfonft h aphonf aph&u G f 2 ck&NdS y;D rnfonft
h aphonf aph&u G f 1 ck&o
dS enf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm;udk yGiahf qmifyif[ak c:onf/ yef;yGiahf omtyifrsm;wGif tyGiEhf iS hf
taphrsm;yg&So d nf/
xdtk yifrsm;udak ph&u G f (cotyledon) ay:rlwnfítkypf k ESppf k cGjJ cm;xm;onf/ aph&u G f
ESpcf yk gaomtyifukd aph&u G pf yHk if (dicotyledonous plant) ? aph&u
G wf pfcyk gaom tyif
udk aph&u G x
f ;D yif (monocotyledonous plant) [kac:onf/ aph&u G qf o
dk nfrmS taphxJ
wGi&f adS omt&Guf jzpfygonf/ aph&u G x
f wJ iG f tpmodak vSmifxm;Muonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tyifrsm;udk rnfuo hJ Ykd trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;Edik o
f enf;/
2/ yef;yGiahf om tyifrsm;\cGjJ cm;xm;aomtkypf k 2 pkukd azmfjyyg/
3/ aph&u G x f ;D yifqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
4/ aph&u G pf ykH ifqo
kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
4-2-2 yef;ryGiahf omtyifrsm;

yef;ryGiahf omtyifrsm;udk yGirhf yhJ if[ak c:onf/ xdt k yifrsm;\ cE¨mud, k u
f kd o,fvyfpf
(thallus) jzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/ o,fvyfpq f o kd nfrmS tjrpfppf? yifpnfppf? t&Gupf pfrsm;
ryg&Sad om tyifcE¨mud, k u
f kd ac:onf/ yef;ryGiahf omtyifrsm;wGif a&ndy§ if? tonf;yHk
ud,k xf nf&odS nft h yif? armhpyf if? zef;yif? xif;&S L;rsKd ;EG,0f ifyifponfwYkd yg0ifonf/ xdt k yifrsm;
wGif yef;yGirhf sm;ryg&Sb
d J taphtpm; pyd;k yg&So d nf/ xdt k yifrsm;onf a&tdik af &uef pGwpf akd om
ae&mrsm;ESihf at;aomae&mrsm;wGif aygufa&mufMuonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u
kd af qG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
oifw\Ykd ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f awGU&aom yef;ryGio hf nft
h yifrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
33
vkyif ef; (2)

à atmufygtyifwu
Ykd kd aygufa&muf&mae&mrsm;ESi,
hf OS w
f yJG g/
tyiftrnf aygufa&muf&mae&m
(u) zef;yif (1) t&dy&f pGwpf akd omae&m
(c) xif;&S L ;yif (2) a&uef? a&tdik f
(*) armhpyf if (3) pGwpf akd om ajrESiehf &H rH sm;
(C) a&ndy§ if (4) tat;ydik ;f a'o
(i) tonf;yHk ud,
k x
f nf&adS om tyif (5) pGwpf akd om ajr
t"dutcsufrsm;
yef;ryGiahf omtyifrsm;
aygufa&muf&m
yef;ryGiafh omtyifrsm; tyif\vu©Pmrsm;
ae&mrsm;
a&uef? a&tkid f
tyifcE¨mud, k u f kd o,fvyfpjf zifh
odrYk [kwf pkpd w
G af om
zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/ trQiw f ef;
ae&mrsm;wGif ayguf
odrYk [kwf tkypf tk jzpfawGU&onf/
a&mufMuonf/
a&ndy§ if (algae)
tyifcE¨mud, k uf kd o,fvyfpjf zifh
zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/ o,fvpf o f nf t&dyaf umif;Ny;D pGwpf kd
ausm&ifyg trsK;d tpm;jzpfonf/ aom ajray:wGif
tonf;yHk tjrpfa,mif (rhizoid) yg&Sí d tpkvu kd ?f tjym;vdu
k f
ud,
k x
f nf&o dS nfh tyif tkypf vk ukd f ESi;f qDyiG hf yHo
k P²mef uyfí aygufonf/
(liverworts) aygufavh&o dS nf/
tyifcE¨mud, k u
f kd o,fvyfpjf zifh
zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/ o,fvyfpo f nf
pGwpf akd om eH&?H
axmifrwfpmG &SNd y;D ½d;k &Si;f aom
opfyif\ tacguf
yifpnfEiS hf &Guzf wfrsm;yg&So d nf/
rsm;ESihf ajray:wGif
tjrpfryg&Syd g/ taphryg&Sb d J
uyfí aygufonf/
armhpt
f yifrsm; rsK;d 0wfreI rf sm; (spores) jzihf
(mosses)
rsK;d yGm;onf/
34
tjrpfppf ? yifpnfppfrsm;&So d nf/

ajratmuf ½dik Zf rk ;f rsm;rS t&Gu½f ;kd wH
t&dyaf umif;pGm&&SNd y;D
rsm; pkNyKH xu
G Nf y;D ao;i,faom
pGwpf akd om ae&mrsm;
t&Gu`f rmT rsm;
tjzpf
wGif aygufa&muf
cGx
J u
G af eMuonf/ t&Guw f \Ykd
Muonf/
atmufrsuEf mS jyifwiG f rsK;d 0wfreI rf sm;
zef;yifrsm; (ferns) (spores) yg&So d nf/
tjrpfppf? yifpnfppfrsm;ESihf
tyfacsmif;uJo h cYkd Reaf eaom
t&Gurf sm;&SMd uonf/ tyGit hf pm; trsm;pkrmS tat;ydik ;f
uke;f (cones) [kac:aom a'orsm;wGif
t*Fgrsm;rS taphrsm; aygufa&mufNy;D
xkwv f yk jf cif;jzifh rsK;d yGm;onf/ tcsKd UrSm tylyikd ;f wGif
f yifrsm; tzdu
xif;&S L;rsKd ;EG,t k ek ;f ESihf truke;f rsm;onf aygufa&mufMuonf/
(conifers) tyifwpfyifwnf;wGif
jzpfay:aeonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ yef;ryGiahf om tyifrsm;udak zmfjyyg/ xdt k yifrsm;teuf tjrpfppfr&Sad omtyifrsm;udk
azmfjyyg/
2/ xif;&S L;rsKd ;EG,t
f yifrsm;\ taphrsm;onf rnfonft h pdwt
f ydik ;f wGi&f MdS uoenf;/
3/ a&n§yd if? zef;yifEiS hf xif;&S L ;rsKd ;EG,t
f yifrsm;\ rwlnaD omvu©Pmrsm;udak zmfjyyg/
4-3 ouf&w
dS \
Ykd vu©Pm&yfrsm;ESihf vdu
k af vsmnDaxG jyKjyifaexdik jf cif;
4-3-1 ouf&w dS \
Ykd vu©Pm&yfrsm;
ouf&rdS sm;wGif tm[m&jyKjcif;? Bu;D xGm;jcif;? a&GUvsm;jcif;? touf&S Ljcif;? tnpf
taMu;pGejYf cif;? vIUH aqmfru
I w
kd jYkH yefjcif;ESihf rsK;d yGm;jcif;ponfh vu©Pm&yfrsm;&So
d nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à oifwyYkd wf0ef;usiw f iG f awGU&Scd ahJ omt&m 10 ckcefu
Y kd ajymyg/ xdt
k &mrsm;wGif rnfonfh
t&mu ouf&jdS zpfoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à tkypf w k pfppk o
D nf atmufygyku H akd vhvmNy;D ar;cGe;f udk aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/ xdaYk emuf
twef;odYk tvSnu hf swifjyyg/
35
à ay;xm;aom yHw k pfypkH o

D nf rnf onfv h u©Pm&yfukd azmfjyoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à oifwYkd aqG;aEG;xm;onfrsm;udk ydrk ekd m;vnf&ef t"dutcsurf sm;udk zwf½yI g/
(u) (c) (*) (C)
(i) (p) (q)

yHk (4-2) ouf&w
dS \Ykd vu©Pm&yfrsm;
vkyif ef; (3)
à yHw k iG f (1) ? (2) ? (3) ? (4) ? (5) ? (6) ESihf (7) ponfh vkyaf qmifyrkH sm;onf rnfonfh
vu©Pm&yfrsm;udk azmfjyoenf;/ tb,faMumifjh zpfonfukd aqG;aEG; azmfxw k yf g/
(3)
(2)
(6)
(1)
(7) (4)
(5)
yHk (4-3) ouf&rdS sm;\ vu©Pm&yfrsm;
36
vkyif ef; (4)

à ESpaf ,mufpw D NJG y;D wpfO;D u ESpo
f uf&m ouf&v dS u©Pm&yfwpfcuk kd trlt&mvkyjf yyg/
usew
f pfO;D u xdv k u©Pm&yfuakd zmfxw k yf g/ tb,faMumifh xdv
k u©Pm&yf[k owfrw S f
onfuvkd nf; ajymygap/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&rdS sm;wGif ouf&jdS zpfaMumif;udak zmfjyEdik af om vu©Pm&yfrsm;rSm-
(1) tm[m&jyKjcif; (nutrition) - ouf&w dS ikd ;f onf touf&iS o f efaepOf pGr;f tif&&dS ef
twGuf ywf0ef;usirf pS rG ;f tifukd &,lMuonf/ Oyrm - tyifonf tvif;a&mifjzifh tpm
csuo f nf/ vlonf tpm;tpmrsm; pm;oH;k jcif;jzifh pGr;f tif&onf/
(2) Bu;D xGm;jcif; (growth) - ouf&w dS ikd ;f onf Bu;D xGm;zGUH NzKd ;rI&MdS uonf/ ouf&w dS ikd ;f wGif
qJvt f opfrsm; yGm;rsm;aejcif;jzifh Bu;D xGm;vmMuonf/
(3) a&GUvsm;jcif; (movement) - ouf&rdS sm;onf rdrw d \ Ykd cE¨mud, k t f pdwt f ydik ;f
wpfcck u k kd toH;k jyKí wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk a&GUvsm;oGm;vmMuonf/ Oyrm-ig;rsm;
onf a&,ufrsm;udt k oH;k jyKí ul;cyfomG ;vmMuonf/ iSurf sm;onf tawmifyrH sm;udk
toH;k jyKí yso H ef;oGm;vmMuonf/
(4) touf&S L jcif; (respiration) - &S L oGi;f vdu k af om atmufq*D siu f tkd oH;k jyKNy;D
cE¨mud, k wf iG f tm[m&jyKxm;aom armfvu D sK;rsm;udNk zKd cí
JG pGr;f tif? a&ESihf umAGe'f ikd f
atmufq'kd f xGuaf y:vmapjcif; jzpfonf/
(atmufq*D sif + tpmtm[m& pGr;f tif + a& + umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd )f
(5) tnpftaMu;pGejYf cif; (excretion) - ouf&rdS sm;onf ud, k cf E¨mrSrvdtk yfaomt&m
ESihf tqdyt f awmufjzpfapaomt&mrsm;udk pGeyYf pfMuonf/ Oyrm - acR;xGujf cif;? qD;pGejYf cif;
(6) vIUH aqmfru kd jYHk yefjcif; (irritability) - ouf&rdS sm;wGif ywf0ef;usi\
I w f ajymif;vJru I kd
tm½Hck pH m;Ny;D wkjYH yefEikd pf rG ;f &dMS uonf/ Oyrm - ½kww f &uf pl;&Saomtvif;a&mifusa&muf
aomtcg csucf si;f rsuv f ;kH rdwS yf pfjcif;? tyifrsm;onf tvif;a&mifbufoYkd Bu;D xGm;jcif;/
(7) rsKd ;yGm;jcif; (reproduction) - ouf&rdS sm;wGif ,if;wdEYk iS w hf al om ouf&rdS sm;udyk mG ;rsm;
ay;Edik af om jzpfpOf&o dS nf/ Oyrm - aMumifrBu;D rS aMumifuav;rsm; arG;zGm;jcif;?
taphtan§mufaygufjcif;/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oifonf EdpYk uYkd av;i,ft&G,Ef iS hf ,ckt&G,f
wGif rwlnaD om vu©Pm&yfrsm;ukd azmfjy
yg/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
2/ yHw
k iG f ouf&w dS \
Ykd rnfonfv
h u©Pm&yfuakd zmfjyoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
37
3/ ay;xm;aomvu©PmESihf wlnaD omtjyKtrlukd ,SOw f yJG g/

(u)tm[m&jyKjcif; (1) uduk \ kd t&yfonf ,cifuxuf yd&k n S v
f monf/
(c) Bu;D xGm;jcif; (2) ig;rsm;onf a&xJwiG f yg;[ufjzifh touf&SL Muonf/
(*) a&GUvsm;jcif; (3) nDno D nf aeYpOf EGm;EkaYd omufonf/
(C)touf&S L jcif; (4) uav;i,fonf tdy&f mxJwiG f qD;oGm;xm;onf/
(i) tnpftaMu;pGejYf cif; (5) xdu½k;H yif\t&Gurf sm;udk xdvu kd o
f nfEiS hf ydwo
f mG ;onf/
(p) vIUH aqmfru I w
kd jYHk yefjcif; (6) ,keo f nf om;aygufEeI ;f aumif;aom owå0gjzpfonf/
(q)rsKd ;yGm;jcif; (7) vdyo f nfaES;auG;pGmoGm;vmonf/
4-4 ausm½k;d &SEd iS hf ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;udk cGjJ cm;jcif;
t½d;k qpfav;rsm; yl;aygif;Ny;D yifrtv,fausm½d;k wkid f (axial skeleton) jzpfay:vmonf/
xdak usm½d;k wdik &f adS omaMumifh ausm½d;k &So
d wå0g[kac:onf/ ausm½d;k wdik rf &Sv
d Qif ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0g
[kac:onf/
4-4-1 ausm½k;d &Sod wå0grsm; (Vertebrates )
ausm½dk;&Sdowå0grsm;wGifyg0ifaom vu©Pm&yfrsm;ay:rlwnfí trsKd;tpm;cGJjcm;
Edkifonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à oifwaYkd exdik &f m ywf0ef;usi&f dS owå0grsm;udk odoavmufajymyg/
à xdo k wå0grsm;udk ausm½d;k &d?S ausm½d;k rJh cGjJ cm;yg/
uav;rsm;&SmazGxm;aomowå0grsm;
ausm½d;k &do
S wå0grsm; ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;
vkyif ef; (2)
à ausm½d;k &So
d wå0grsm;udk t"dutkypf Bk u;D 5 pkcjJG cm;yg/
ausm½d;k &do
S wå0grsm;
taMu;cG&H o
dS wå0g taMu;cGrH o
hJ wå0g
a&,ufawmif&dS a&,ufawmifrhJ tawmif&Sd tawmifro hJ wå0g
owå0g owå0g owå0g
O Oaom taumifvu kd f
Oyrm-ig; Oyrm- a>r Oyrm-iSuf owå 0 g arG
; owå 0 g
Oyrm - zm; Oyrm - <uuf
yHk (4-4) ausm½d;k &So

d wå0g t"dutkypf Bk u;D 5 pk
38
tkypf ak cgif;aqmifwpfO;D urdrw

d aYkd qG;aEG;xm;aomtajzrsm;udo
k ifyek ;f ay:wGiw
f ifjyyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ausm½d;k &Sd owå0gtkypf w
k iG f t"dutkypf Bk u;D 5 pkyg0ifonf/
ausm½d;k &Sd
pOf t"du xif&mS ;aom vu©Pmrsm; Oyrm
owå0gtkypf k
[efcsun f pD mG a&ul;&ef a&,ufawmif?
touf&S L &ef yg;[ufrsm;(gill)ESifh cE¨mud, k f
1 ig;rsm; tay:wGif zH;k tkyx f m;aom taMu;cGH ig;
(scale) wdy Yk g0ifonf/ wpfcsKUd ig;rsm;wGif
taMu;cGrH &Syd g/
oGm;vmvSKy&f mS ;&ef a&SUvuf 2 acsmif;?
uke;f aea&ae
aemufajc 2 acsmif; &do S nf/ taMu;cGrH &dyS g/
2 owå0grsm; zm;
rdsK;yGm;csed w f iG Of rsm;udk a&xJoOYkd csonf/
(amphibians)
OrS taumifaygufonf/
wGm;oGm;owå0g trsm;pkwiG f a&SUvuf 2
wGm;oGm;
acsmif;? aemufajc 2 acsmif; &do S nf/ tdraf jrm§ if
3 owå0grsm;
odaYk omf a>rwGif ajcvuf r&d/S rsKd ;yGm;csed w f iG f a>r
(reptiles)
Orsm;udk uke;f ay:ü Ocsonf/
tawmifyw H pfpykH gNy;D ? iSuaf rG;awmifrsm;
4 iSurf sm; (birds) jzifh zH;k tkyx f m;onf/ a&SUvufwpfpo Hk nf us;D uef;
tawmifyt H jzpfoYkd ajymif;vJaeonf/
ud, k cf E¨mudk tarG;jzifh zH;k tkyx f m;onf/ vl
Edw
Yk ukd f owå0grsm;
5 rdcifEiS yhf pkH w
H al om om;i,frsm; arG;zGm; aMumif
(mammals)
onf/ om;i,frsm;udk Ed&Yk nfwu kd af uR;onf/ <uuf
avhusifch ef;
1/ ausm½d;k &doS wå0gwGif t"dutkypf Bk u;D b,fErS sKd ;cGjJ cm;xm;oenf;/
2/ rdru d ,
kd w
f idk v
f nf; rnfonfh owå0gtrsK;d tpm;jzpfygoenf;/
3/ atmufazmfjyyg ausm½d;k &So d wå0grsm;onf rnfonft h "dutkypf w
k iG f yg0ifoenf;/
(u) (c) (*) (C) (i)
39
4/ tawmifyw H pfpykH gNy;D ? iSuaf rG;awmifrsm;jzifh zH;k tkyxf m;aom owå0g 3 rsKd ;udk
azmfjyyg/
5/ tdr?f ausmif;? ywf0ef;usi&f dS ausm½d;k &do S wå0gwdu Yk kd tkypf k 2 pk cJjG cm;yHt
k &
trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm; jyyg/
4-4-2 ausm½d;k rJo h wå0grsm; (Invertebrates)
ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;udv k nf; xdok wå0grsm;\ yg0ifaomvu©Pm&yfrsm;ay:rlwnfí
trsK;d tpm;cGjJ cm;Edik of nf/
ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;
ajcaxmuf&adS om owå0grsm; ajcaxmufr&Sad om owå0grsm;
vkyif ef;(1)
à ywf0ef;usi&f dS ausm½d;k rJo
h wå0grsm;udk oifoo
d avmufajymyg/
vkyif ef;(2)
à oifwt Ykd m;vH;k wlnaD omtcsu?f rwlnaD omtcsurf sm;t& tkypf k 2 pkzUJG yg/
à tkypf k 1 onf ajcaxmuf&adS om owå0grsm;? tkypf k 2 onf ajcaxmufr&Sad om
owå0grsm;[k rSwo f m;í tkypf ak cgif;aqmifu tajzrsm;udk oifyek ;f wGif a&;yg/
tkypf k 1 cGjJ cm;&ef - ausm½d;k rJo

h wå0g 3 rsKd ; (atmufwiG af zmfjyxm;onft
h wdik ;f )
ajcaxmuf&adS om owå0grsm;
ajcaxmuf 3 pHk ajcaxmuf 5 pHEk iS hf ajcaxmuf

ajcaxmuf 4 pH&k dS
&Sd owå0g tpHk 20 Mum;&Sd owå0g tpHrk sm;pGm&Sd owå0g
owå0g (arachnid)
(insect) (crustacean) (myriapod)
Oyrm - yifu h ?l Oyrm - uif;ajcrsm;?

Oyrm - vdyjf ym Oyrm - ykpeG ?f uPef;
uif;Nr;D aumuf yd;k em;oefaumif
yHk (4-5) ajcaxmuf&adS om ausm½d;k rJo

h wå0grsm;
40
tkypf k (2) cGjJ cm;&ef - cE¨mud,

k >f yefy&kH dS owå0g (worm-like) ESihf cE¨mud,
k >f yefyrkH &Sd owå0g
(non-worm-like)
ajcaxmufr&Sad om owå0grsm;
cE¨mud, k >f yefy&kH dS (worm-like) owå0g cE¨mud, k >f yefyrkH &Sd (non-worm-like) owå0g
cE¨mud, k qf pfyikd ;f cE¨mud, k q f pfyikd ;f ud,
k x f nfaysmNh y;D ud, k x
f nfrmNy;D ql;uJo
h Ykd
&So
d wå0g r&So
d wå0g tcGyH gaom owå0g tzH;k tum&Sd owå0g
&Snv f sm;>yefykH
Oyrm - wDaumif? Oyrm - c½k?
ud,k cf E¨m&Sd owå0g Oyrm - oHyjcKyf
arQmh a,mufomG ;
Oyrm - oefaumif
yHk (4-6) ajcaxmufr&Sad om ausm½d;k rJo

h wå0grsm;
t"dutcsufrsm;
ausm½d;k rJo k iG f tBu;D qH;k tkypf jk zpfaom (Arthropods) \
h wå0gtkypf w
xif&mS ;aomvu©Pmrsm;
ausm½d;k rJh
owå0grsm; tkypf k qpfyikd ;f yg
cE¨mud,
k f
ajcaxmuf Oyrm
tpdwtf ydik ;f
ta&twGuf
tif;quf oH;k ydik ;f (acgif;ydik ;f ? vdyjf ym? yk&u
G q f w
d ?f
3 pkH
(Insect) &ifyikd ;f ? 0rf;Adu k yf ikd ;f ) ESaH umif
ESpyf ikd ;f (acgif;&ifyikd ;f ?
Arachnid 4 pHk yihu
f l
0rf;Adu k yf ikd ;f )
ESpyf ikd ;f (acgif;&ifyikd ;f ? 5 pHEk iS hf tpHk 20
Crustacean ykpeG ?f uPef;
0rf;Adu k yf ikd ;f ) Mum;
uif;ajcrsm;?
Myriapod qpfyikd ;f rsm;pGm&Sd tpHrk sm;pGm
yk;d em;oefaumif
uk,
d x
f nf>yefy&Hk dS owå0g arQm?h oefaumif? wDaumif
uk,
d x
f nf>yefyrHk &Sd owå0g c½k ? oHyjcKyf
41
avhusifch ef;
1/ ausm½d;k rJoh wå0gwGiyf g0ifaom owå0gtrsKd ;tpm;rsm;udk oifoo d avmufazmfjyyg/
2/ tif;qufwiG &f aSd om xif&mS ;onfv h u©Pm 3 csuu f kd azmfjyyg/
3/ oif\tdrw f iG af wGU&aomtif;quftrdsK;tpm;rsm;udak zmfjyyg/
4/ atmufwiG af zmfjyxm;aom owå0grsm;udk Z,m;wGix f nfo h iG ;f azmfjyyg/
yifu h ?l uif;ajcrsm;? ,ifaumif? yd;k [yf? jcif? vdyjf ym? jc? cgcsO?f yk&u G q
f w
d ?f
yd;k em;oefaumif? uif;Nr;D aumuf? ykpeG ?f uPef;
ajcaxmuf 3 pH&k Sd ajcaxmuf 4 pH&k Sd ajcaxmuf 5 pHEk iS hf tpHk ajcaxmuftpHk

owå0grsm; owå0grsm; 20 Mum;&Sd owå0grsm; rsm;pGm&Sd owå0grsm;
4-4-3 ouf&rdS sm;\obm0ywf0ef;usifEiS v

hf u
kd af vsmnDaxGaexdik yf kH
ouf&rdS sm;onf obm0ywf0ef;usiEf iS hf vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG aexdik Ef ikd &f ef jyKjyif
ajymif;vJrrI sm; jyKvyk Mf uonf/
4-4-3-1 vdu
k af vsmnDaxGaexdik jf cif; (Adaptation)
vkyif ef; (1)

à ½kww f &ufr;kd &Gmvmí csr;f vmaomtcgwGif oifwYkd rnfoYkd vkyaf qmifMuygoenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à ay;xm;aom ywf0ef;usit f ajctaersm;wGif rnfonfo h uf&rdS sm; touf&iS o
f efEikd f
rnfenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
(u) a&vH;k 0r&Sad om uke;f ay:a&mufvmaom ig;
(c) rd;k rsm;Ny;D a&0yfaomaMumifh tjrpfyyk o f mG ;aom oabFmyif
(*) aexdik &f m0ef;usiEf iS v hf ukd Nf y;D ta&mifajymif;avh&adS om zm;
(C) taxmuftuefuw kd , G w f ufNy;D pdr;f vef;pdjk ynfaeaom bl;yif
vkyif ef; (3)
à ay;xm;aomtyifrsm;udk Z,m;wGif cGjJ cm;jznfph u G yf g/ tb,faMumifh xdt k ajctae
rsm;wGif &Sio
f efEikd o
f nfukd taMumif;jycsuaf y;yg/ tkypf v
k u
kd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
&Sm;apmif;yif? vrkyif? usm;vQmyif? xaemif;yif? aA'gyif? uepdyk if? Mumyif
42
tb,faMumif&h iS o f efEikd o
f nf/
rd;k enf;ajcmufaoGUaom a'oaygufyif
ao;i,faomt&Gurf sm;&So d nfth wGuf
erlemtajz - xaemif;yif
yifaiGUjyefru
I kd avsmeh nf;aponf/
a&iefyikd ;f a'oaygufyif
tb,faMumif&h iS o
f efEikd o
f nf/
erlemtajz - uepdyk if
a&csKd yikd ;f a'oaygufyif
tb,faMumif&h iS o
f efEikd o
f nf/
erlemtajz - Mumyif
vkyif ef; (4)
à tkypf v k ukd af qG;aEG;yg/ ay;xm;aomowå0grsm;\ tajctaeudq k ef;ppfNy;D vku
d af vsmnD
axGpmG jyKjyifaexdik jf cif;trsKd ;tpm;udk cGjJ cm;azmfjyí taMumif;jycsuaf y;yg/
- tom;udk tpdr;f twdik ;f udu k jf zwfpm;aomufEikd af om acG;
- &efoEl iS ahf wGUvQif yHpk aH jymif;aom yd;k em;oefaumif
- csw d af umufyEkH w I of ;D jzifh <uufrsm;udq k wk Nf zpJ m;aom vif;,kef
- ntarSmifwiG t f pm&Sm&ef Bu;D rm;aomrsuv f ;kH &Sad om ZD;uGuf
- &efot Yl EÅ&m,fru S if;a0;apvdí k tkypf zk UJG aeavh&adS om orifrsm;
tjyKtrltm;jzifh vdu
k af vsmnDaxGatmif jyKjyifjcif; taMumif;jycsuf
zGUJ pnf;yHt
k & vdu
k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifxm;jcif; taMumif;jycsuf
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&rdS sm;onf ywf0ef;usit f rsKd ;rsKd ;wGif touf&iS o f efEikd &f eftwGuf vdu k af vsmnD
axGr&I aSd tmif jyKjyif&onft h aMumif;t&if;rsm;rSm - tylcsed ?f &moDOwk? tpm&&Srd EI iS hf
&eforl sm;&Srd pI onfwt Ykd ay:rlwnfaeonf/ odjYk zpfí ouf&rdS sm;onf vdt k yfonft h cg
wGif vdu k af vsmnDaxGonfjh yKjyifru I kd jyKMu&onf/ xdo k Ykd rjyKvyk Ef ikd yf gu touf&iS o f ef
&ef tcGit hf vrf;f enf;yg;Muonf/
ouf&rdS sm;\ vdu k af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifaexdik jf cif;wGif t"dutm;jzifh 2 rsKd ;&So d nf/
,if;wdrYk mS -
(1) ouf&\ dS ud,k tf *Fgtpdwt f ydik ;f wpfcck u k kd xl;uJpmG jyKjyifxm;jcif;
Oyrm- bl;yif - ESmarmif;EG,&f ?dS tjriho f w
Ykd uf/ acG; - pG,o f mG ;&S?d udu k jf zwfpm;/
(2) tjyKtrltm;jzifh vdu k af vsmnDaxGatmif jyKjyifaexdik jf cif;
Oyrm - zm;onf ywf0ef;usiEf iS ahf &maESmoGm;Ny;D ta&mifajymif;jcif;jzifh &efot Yl EÅ&m,f
rS uif;vGwjf cif;
43
avhusifch ef;
1/ ay;xm;aomyHrk sm;rS tyifEiS o
hf wå0gwdw
Yk iG f rnfoaYkd om vdu
k af vsmnDaxG jyKjyifr&I dS
ygoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
&Sm;apmif;yif ewforD; axmifacsmufyif
zm; ukvm;tkwf
2/ oifoad om odrYk [kwf jrifz;l aom vku d af vsmnDaxGr&I o dS nfh tyifEiS hf owå0g wpfrsKd ;pDukd
azmfjyyg/ rnfonft h rsKd ;tpm;jzpfonfukd &Si;f jyyg/
3/ ay;xm;aom ouf&rdS sm;ESihf vdu k af vsmnDaxG&rdS u I kd ,SOwf yJG g/
(u) bJ (1) xlaomtarG;&Sd
(c) aeMumyef; (2) a&&Sm;aomae&mwGi&f iS o f efeikd f
(*) 0uf0H (3) tkypf zk UJG aeavh&dS
(C) orif (4) aea&mifvm&modrYk suEf mS rlavh&dS
(i) uEÅm&yif (5) a&,ufygaomajcaxmuf&dS
4/ avhusichf ef; eHygwf (3) rS ouf&w dS \Ykd vdu
k af vsmnDaxGaomjyKjyifru I kd zGUJ pnf;ykt
H &
odrYk [kwf tjyKtrlt& cGjJ cm;azmfjyyg/
4-4-3-2 ouf&rdS sm;\BuD;xGm;jcif;? rsKd;yGm;jcif;? tm[m&jyKjcif;ESit
hf umtuG,jf yKjcif;
vkyif ef;(1)
à ouf&w dS \
Ykd vdu
k af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifrt
I rsKd ;tpm; 2 rsKd ;udk azmfjyyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
à ay;xm;aomvkyif ef;Z,m;rS vdt k yfaomae&mudk aqG;aEG;azmfxw k jf znfph u
G yf g/
à aqG;aEG;cJah omouf&dS 4 rsKd ;\ jyKjyifaexdik yf t
kH &oufqikd &f mtrsKd ;tpm;udk a&G;cs,yf g/
44
ouf&rdS sm; vdu

k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifrI jyKvyk &f onft
h aMumif;t&if;
xif;&S L;yif ------- aomt&Gurf sm; &So
d nf/ ESi;f rsm;wifraeap&ef/
acG; ------------------ &So
d nf/ tom;ESihf t½d;k rsm;udk udu
k jf zwfpm;&ef/
ydv
k m0uf0H xlxaJ omtarG;rsm;&So
d nf/ ---------------------&ef/
ydawmufyif toD;wGif ---------- yg&So
d nf/ avESit
hf wlviG yhf gEdik Nf y;D ---------- &ef/
(u) ywf0ef;usi\ f ajymif;vJruI v
kd u
kd af vsmnDaxG&&dS ef/
(c) tpmtm[m&udk &,l&ef/
(*) &efot l EÅ&m,frvS w
G af jrmuf&ef/
(C) rsKd ;yGm;&ef/
vkyif ef; (3)
à ausmif;om;rsm; 2 a,mufpw D í
JG vkyif ef;uwfjym; 1 ckp,D Nl y;D uwfjym;ygazmfjycsuu
f kd
aqG;aEG;wdik yf ifí oufqikd &f mud, k pf m;jyK ouf&\dS aemufwiG f rwfwwf&yfyg/ wpftyk f
pkvQif 4 wGpJ yD g0ifrnf/ erlemykpH uH Mkd unfyh g/
erlemtkypf zk UGJ &rnfyh pHk H

yxrtwGJ ouf&t dS rsKd ;tpm;
'kw,
d twGJ vdu k af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifaexdik yf kH
wwd,twGJ jyKvyk &f onft h aMumif;t&if;
pwkwt¬ wGJ zGUJ pnf;yHt k & ^ aexdik yf t
kH &
vkyif ef; (4)
à ay;xm;aom Z,m;ygtaMumif;t&mudk tkypf v
k u
kd af qG;aEG;azmfxw
k yf g/
ouf&rdS sm;\ vdu

k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifaexdik rf I
vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG vdu
k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyif
pOf ouf&dS trsK;d tpm;
jyKjyifrI (zGUJ pnf;yHt
k &) aexdik rf I (jyKral exdik yf t
kH &)
1 ukvm;tkwf
2 yd;k em;oefaumif
3 a&waumif;yif
4 uke;f vdyf
5 aA'gyif
45
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&rdS sm; vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG touf&iS af exdik af omae&mudk ,if;wd\ Yk &Sio f ef&m
0ef;usi[ f ak c:onf /
xd0k ef;usiw f iG f aexdik Ef ikd &f eftwGuf ,if;wd\ Yk ud,
k cf E¨m&Sd t*Fgtpdwt f ydifk ;f tcsKd UESihf
aexdik rf yI pkH u
H kd jyKjyifrI jyKMuonf/
vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifaexdik rf yI pkH rH sm;wGif (u) ywf0ef;usi\ f ½kww f &uf ajymif;vJ
rIukd cHEikd &f efvu kd af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifjcif;? (c) tpm;tpm&,l&ef vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG
jyKjyifrjI yKjcif;? (*) &efot Yl EÅ&m,frv S w
G af jrmuf&ef vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifaexdik f
jcif;? (C) Bu;D xGm;&eftwGuf vdu k af vsmnDaxGpmG jyKjyifaexdik jf cif; ponfjzifh trsKd ;rsKd ;
&So
d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ bJ? vdyjf ym? Muufww Ykd iG f rnfonfo
h wå0gonf a&wGif ul;Edik o
f enf;/ tb,faMumifh
enf;/
2/ yHw
k iG f ay;xm;aom ouf&rdS sm;
wGif &Sio f efr&I &S&d ef rnfoYkd
vdu
k af vsmnDaxG jyKjyifxm;yg
oenf;/
3/ ay;xm;aom ouf&Sd tkypf rk sm;\ vdu

k af vsmnDaxGjyKjyifrI trsKd ;tpm;udk oufqikd f
&m Z,m;atmufwiG xf nfyh g/
(u) tkypf k (c) tkypf k (*) tkypf k (C) tkypf k
aMumif 0uf0H vdyf aeMumyif
EG,yf if vl jzL ydawmufyif
a&waumif;yif oif;acGcsyf
usm;
ywf0ef;usi\ f tpm;tpm&,l&ef &efot l EÅ&m,frS Bu;D xGm;&efEiS hf
ajymif;vJruI kd vdu
k af vsm vGwaf jrmuf&ef rsKd ;yGm;&ef
vdu
k af vsm nDaxGpmG jyKjyifrI vdu
k af vsm vduk af vsm
nDaxGpmG aeEdik rf I nDaxGpmG jyKjyifrI nDaxGpmG jyKjyifrI
46
tcef; (4) udk jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif;
ouf&t
dS rsKd ;rsK;d
vu©Pm&yfrsm;
- Bu;D xGm;jcif;
- tm[m&jyKjcif;
- tnpftaMu;pGejYf cif;
- touf&S Ljcif;
- a&GUvsm;jcif;
- rsK;d yGm;jcif;
- vIUH aqmfru I w
kd jYHk yefjcif;
xl;uJaom vu©Pm&yf
(vdu
k af vsmnDaxG aexdik jf cif;)
zGUJ pnf;yHt
k & tjyKtrlt&
tyif owå0g
yef;yGiahf om yef;ryGiahf om
ausm½d;k &Sd ausm½d;k rJh
tyif tyif
aph&u
G x
f ;D - a&n§d - ig; - ajcaxmuf&adS om
- tonf;yHk - uke;f aea&ae owå0g
ud,
k xf nf&dS - wGm;oGm; - ajcaxmufr&Sad om
aph&u
G pf kH - armhpf - iSuf owå0g
- zef; - Edw
Yk u
kd f - ud,k x f nfaysmh
- xif;&S L; tcGyH g owå0g
- ud,k x f nfrm?
ql;zH;k owå0g
47
tcef;(5)
qJvfESifhqJvfzGJUpnf;wnfaqmufykH (Cell and Cell Structure)
ed'gef;
qJvo f nfouf&w dS \
Ydk tajccHtusq;Hk ,lepfwpfcjk zpfonf/ ouf&w Sd u
Ykd kd qJvw
f pfck
wnf;jzifah omfvnf;aumif;? qJvrf sm;pGmjzifah omfvnf;aumif; zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufxm;onf/
ouf&q dS v f iG f yg0ifaom t*FgEkyrf sm; (organelles) udk tPkMunfu
J w h &d ,
d m (microscope) jzifh
Munfrh o S m jrif&onf/
5-1 tPkMunfu h &d ,
d m (Microscope)
tPkMunfuh &d ,
d mqdo k nfrmS omrefrsupf jd zifh rjrifEikd af om tvGeaf o;i,fonft h &m
rsm;udk tqaygif;rsm;pGmcsUJ í MunfEh ikd &f ef toH;k jyKaomud&,
d m jzpfonf/ ouf&q dS v
J zf UJG pnf;yHk
rsm;udk avhvm&mwGif r&Srd jzpfvtkd yfaomt&m jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ay;xm;aom ud&, d mrsm;wGif rnfonfu
h &d ,
d mu tvGeaf o;i,faomyd;k rTm;rsm;udk
Munfjh rifEikd yf goenf;/
eu©ww
f m&mMunfrh eS af jymif; tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d m ta0;Munfrh eS af jymif;
yHk (5-1) ud&,
d mrsm;
vkyif ef;(2)
à ay;xm;aom tPkMunfu h &d ,
d m\ tpdwt
f ydik ;f rsm;ESihf toH;k jyKyu
kH kd tkypf v
k u
kd f
aqG;aEG; avhvmyg/
tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d m (Microscope)
tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d m\tpdwt
f ydik ;f rsm; toH;k jyKykH
(1) rsuMf unfrh eS f (eyepiece) rsupf jd zifu
h yfíMunf&h aom rSeb f vD ;l jzpfonf/
(2) tPkMunfu h &d ,d m\ud, k x
f nf tay:rS rsupf jd zifu
h yfíMunf&h aomrSeb f v
D ;l ESihf
(body tube) t&m0w¬Kukd tPkpw d Mf unfrh eS b
f vD ;l wdjYk zifh
qufay;aomtydik ;f jzpfonf/
(3) tMurf;csed cf vkwf t&m0w¬Kukd tMurf;jrifomatmifcsed af y;onf/
(coarse adjustment)
48
(4)tEkpw
d cf sed cf vkwf t&m0w¬Ku&kd iS ;f vif;jywfom;pGmjrif&efcsed af y;onf/

(5) vufuikd f (arm) ud&,d mudk udik wf ,

G Nf y;D a&TU&mwGif toH;k jyKaom
tydik ;f jzpfonf/
(6) uvpf (clip) zefjym;udk ra&GUatmif zdñyS af y;onf/
(7) csUJ tm;trsKd ;rsKd ;&Sad om rSeb
f v
D ;l rsm; vdt
k yfaomcsUJ tm;udk a&G;cs,t f ok;H jyKEikd o
f nf/
(objective lens)
k zf efjym;wifaompif ( stage) qvdu
(8) qvdu k f zefjym;wifaomae&m jzpfonf/
(9) tvif;csed af y;aomrSef (mirror) qvdu
k jf ym;ay:odYk tvif;pkvmap&ef csed af y;onf/
(10) atmufajc (base) wnfNird pf mG tok;H jyKEikd &f ef taxmuftulay;onfh
tydik ;f jzpfonf/
(1) rsuMf unfrh eS f
(2) tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d m\ud,
k x
f nf
(3) tMurf;csed cf vkwf
(4) tEkpw
d cf sed cf vkwf
(5) vufuikd f
(6) uvpf
(7) csUJ tm;trsKd ;rsKd ;&Sad om rSeb
f v
D ;l rsm;
(8) qvdu
k zf efjym;wifaompif
(9) tvif;csed af y;aomrSef
(10) atmufajc
yHk (5-2) tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d m
vkyif ef; (3)
à ay;xm;aomar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u
(u) rsuMf unfrh eS u f kd rnfuo hJ t
Ykd ok;H jyKygoenf;/
(c) t&m0w¬Kukd &Si;f vif;jywfom;pGmjrif&ef ud&, d m\ rnfonfh tpdwt
f ydik ;f udk
csed af y;oenf;/
(*) uvpfukd rnfuo hJ Ykd tok;H jyK&oenf;/
(C) avhvmMunf½h v I akd omt&mudk jywfom;pGmjrifEikd &f ef ud&, d m\ rnfonfh
rSeb f v D ;l rsm;udk tok;H jyK&rnfenf;/
(i) tvif;zrf;ay;aomrSeu f kd rnfuo hJ Ykd tok;H jyK&oenf;/
49
t"dutcsufrsm;
tPkMunfu h &d ,d mqdo k nfrmS omrefrsupf jd zifh rjrifEikd af om tvGeaf o;i,fonfh
t&mrsm;udk tqaygif;rsm;pGmcsUJ í MunfEh ikd &f ef toH;k jyKaomud&, d m jzpfonf/
tPkMunfu h &d ,d mwGif rsuMf unfrh eS ?f tPkMunfu h &d ,
d m\ud, k x f nf? tMurf;csed f
cvkw?f tEkpw d cf sed cf vkw?f vufuikd ?f uvpf? csUJ tm;trsKd ;rsKd ;&Sad om rSeb f v
D ;l rsm;?
qvdu
k zf efjym;wifaompif? tvif;csed af y;aomrSeEf iS hf atmufajcwdyYk g0ifonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tPkMunfu h &d ,
d mqdo k nfrmS tb,fenf;/ rnfonft h pdwt f ydik ;f rsm; yg0if zGUJ pnf;
xm;oenf;/
2/ tPkMunfu h &d ,
d matmufwiG jf rif&aom qm;ESio hf Mum;wd\ Yk yHo k P²mef rnfoYkd
&So
d enf;/
3/ omrefrsupf jd zifh rjrifEikd af om yd;k rTm;rsm;udk &Si;f vif;pGmjrifEikd &f ef tPkMunfu h &d , d m
\ rnfonft h pdwt f ydik ;f udk toH;k jyK&rnfenf;/
5-2 qJvf (Cell)
qJvo f nf EsLuvd,ESihf qdu k wf ykd vmZrfwyYkd g0ifaom y½dw k ykd vmZrf tydik ;f tp
jzpfonf/ ouf&jdS zpfpOfrsm;udk qJvw f pfcwk nf;jzifv
h nf; vkyaf qmifEikd of nf/ (Oyrm-trD;Am;?
yg&mrDp, D rf) ouf&t dS rsm;pkonf qJvrf sm;pGmjzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;Ny;D jzpfpOfrsm;udk qJvrf sm;u
tzGUJ vdu
k f pkaygif; vkyaf qmifMuonf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à omrefrsupf jd zifrh jrifEikd af om tvGeaf o;i,fonfh t&mrsm;udk tqaygif;rsm;pGm
csUJ MunfEh ikd &f ef rnfonfu h &d ,
d mudk toH;k jyKygoenf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
à uefa& odrYk [kwf ajrmif;a& wpfpuf odrYk [kwf MuufoeG ef \ D tajr;§ yg;udck mG í
a&wpfpufcsNy;D qvdu k jf ym;ay:wGiw
f ifum tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d mjzifMh unfyh g/ jrif&aom
t&mrsm;udk yHq
k yJG g/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&rdS sm;udk wnfaqmufxm;aom tajccH,el pfukd qJvf [kac:onf/
omrefrsupf jd zifh rjrifEikd af omt&mrsm;udk tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d mjzifMh unfí
h jrifEikd yf gonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ouf&rdS sm;udk zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufxm;aom tajccH,el pfukd rnfoaYkd c:oenf;/
2/ qJvw f pfcw
k nf;jzifh ouf&jdS zpfpOfrsm;udk vkyaf qmifEikd af om owå0gudk azmfjyyg/
50
5-3 qJvw f pfc\

k zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufykH (Cell Structure)
EsLuvd,onf qJvt f wGi;f &Sd rsKd ;½k;d ADZo,faqmifxm;aomt&mjzpfNy;D qJv\
f vkyf
aqmifcsurf sm;udk xde;f csKyaf y;onf/ qdu k w f ykd vmZrfonf ausmufausmuJo
h Ukd aomt&mjzpfNy;D
"mwk jzpfpOftrsm;pkukd vkyaf qmifay;aom t*FgEkyrf sm; yg0ifonf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à ay;xm;aom ouf&q
dS v
J yf w
kH pfcw
k iG f rnfonft
h &mrsm; yg0ifoenf;/
(u)
(c)
yHk (5-3) ouf&q

dS v
J f
vkyif ef;(2)
à ausmif;om;tkypf w
k pftyk pf pk u
D qJvEf pS rf sKd ;\yHrk sm;udMk unfí
h wlncD suf rwlncD surf sm;
udk a&;yg/
qdu
k w
f ykd vmZrf (cytoplasm)
EsLuvd, (nucleus)
qJvt
f ajr;§ yg; (cell membrane)
qJvef &H H ( cell wall)
uvd½k ykd vwf (chloroplast)
owå0gqJvf tyifqv
J f
yHk (5-4) owå0gqJvEf iS hf tyifqv
J f
u
vkyif ef;(3) c
à ay;xm;aom ouf&q dS v
J yf u
Hk kd avhvmNy;D tñTe;f rsm; *
xnfyh g/ rnfonfq
h v
J f trsK;d tpm;jzpfoenf;/
yHk (5-5) ouf&q

dS v
J f
51
t"dutcsufrsm;
qJvw f pfcw k iG f t"dutpdwt f ydik ;f 3 ckyg0ifonf / xdt k pdwtf ydik ;f wdrYk mS ...
(1) qJvt f ajr;§ yg; (cell membrane) ( qJvu f kd zH;k umay;xm;aomtjyifvmT )
(2) qdu k wf ykd vmZrf (cytoplasm) (qJv\ f ausmufausmuJo h aYkd omt&m)
(3) EsLuvd, (nucleus) ( qJvt f wGi;f &Sd rsKd ;½k;d ADZo,faqmifxm;aomt&m)
tyifqv J w f iG f uvd½k ykd vwf (chloroplast) ESihf qJvef &H H (cell wall) rsm;&SNd y;D owå0gqJvf
wGif xdt
k &mrsm; ryg&Syd g/
avhusifch ef;
1/ qJvw f pfcwk iG f t"dutpdwt f ydik ;f b,fEcS yk goenf;/ xdt
k pdwt f ydik ;f rsm;udak zmfjyyg/
2/ qJvef &H u H kd rnfonfq h v
J w
f iG f awGU&oenf;/
3/ tyifqv J Ef iS hf owå0gqJv\f rwlnaD omtcsurf sm;udak zmfjyyg/
4/ ay;xm;aomyHrk sm;wGif rnfonfyh rkH sm;onf ouf&q dS vJ jf zpfoenf;/
yHk (u) yHk (c) yHk (*)

tPkMunfu
h &d ,
d mjzifh toH;k jyKavhvmjcif;
qJvf
tyifqv
J f owå0gqJvf
- qJvef &H H -
- qJvt f ajr;§ yg; - qJvt f ajr;§ yg;
- qduk w
f ykd vmZrf - qduk w
f ykd vmZrff
- uvd½k ykd vwf -
- EsLuvd, - EsLuvd,
52
ausmif;oHk;pmtkyf odyÜH q|rwef;
tcef;(6)
rsdK;yGm;jcif; (Reproduction)
ed'gef;
rsKd ;yGm;jcif;onf ouf&v dS u©Pm&yfrsm;teuf ta&;Bu;D aomvu©Pm&yfwpfck jzpf
onf/ rsKd ;yGm;jcif;qdo k nfrmS ouf&rdS sm;wGif ,if;wdEYk iS rhf sKd ;pdww
f o
l uf&rdS sm;udk yGm;rsm;ay;
Edik af omjzpfpOf jzpfonf/ þoifcef;pmwGif tyifEiS o hf wå0g 2 rsKd ;pvH;k ü vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;ESihf
vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;taMumif;t&mwdYk yg0ifonf/
6-1 ouf&rdS sm;\rdsK;yGm;jcif; (Reproduction of Living Things)
ouf&rdS sm; rsKd ;okO;f aysmufu,G rf rI jzpfap&ef rsKd ;yGm;jcif;jzifh rdr\ d rsKd ;qufrsm;udk
qufvuf wnfwaHh pEdik o f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à rsKd ;yGm;jcif;qdok nfrmS tb,fenf;/ ywf0ef;usiw
f iG f rnfonfo
h uf&rdS sm;\ rsK;d yGm;jcif;udk
jrifz;l oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à ay;xm;aomouf&rdS sm;onf rnfoYkd rsKd ;yGm;Muygoenf;/ tkypf v
k u
kd f aqG;aEG;ajzqkyd g/
pG,af wmfyif &Guu

f syifaygufyif yef'g0uf0H [du
k 'f &m
yHk (6-1) ouf&rdS sm; rsK;d yGm;jcif;trsK;d rsK;d
t"dutcsufrsm;
tzd?k tr &S&d rnf/ Oyrm
txD;(zcif)+tr(rdcif) om;orD; jrif;xD;+jrif;r jrif;av;arG;zGm;
vdi&f dS
tzd*k rdEiS hf tr*rdwYkd aygif;pyfí tyif
rsKd ;yGm;jcif; o&ufyiG hf
aygufonf/ *rdqo kd nfrmS rsKd ;yGm;qJvf
tzd*k rd+tr*rd o&ufyifayguf
jzpfonf/
tydik ;f ydik ;f jywfjcif; (fragmentation)
txD;? tr&S&d efrvd/k rlvouf&rdS S 4if;
vdirf hJ (Oyrm-yvefae;&D;,m;)
ESix
hf yfwal om ouf&rdS sm; yGm;rsm; vm
rsKd ;yGm;jcif; yifyikd ;f rsKd ;yGm;jcif;(vegetative propagation)
jcif;jzpfonf/
(Oyrm-tmvl;)
53
avhusifch ef;
1/ oifoad om rsKd ;yGm;jcif;rsm;udk Oyrmjzifh azmfjy
yg/
2/ ay;xm;aomyHrk sm;rS ouf&rdS sm;onf rnfonfh (u) zef;yif
rsKd ;yGm;jcif;jzifh rsKd ;yGm;Muoenf;/
3/ yifyikd ;f rsKd ;yGm;jcif;\ tm;omcsurf sm;udk azmfjy
yg/ (*) yvefae;&D;,m; (c) 0g;yif
6-2 tyifrsm;\rsdK;yGm;jcif; ( Reproduction of Plants)
tyifrsm;\rsKd ;yGm;jcif;wGif vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;? vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;ESihf yifyikd ;f rsK;d yGm;jcif;[lí
oH;k rsKd ;&Syd gonf/
ta&;Bu;D aom pdu k yf sKd ;oD;ESrH sm;ESifh pD;yGm;jzpfpu
kd yf sKd ;aom oD;ESyH ifwpfcsKUd udk yifyikd ;f tm;jzifh
vnf; rsKd ;yGm;í&onf/
6-2-1 vdi&f rdS sdK;yGm;jcif; (Sexual Reproduction)
yef;yGirhf sm;onf tyifrsm;\ rsKd ;yGm;t*Fgrsm; jzpfonf/ yef;yGit fh rsm;pkwoYkd nf tzdk
rsKd ;yGm;t*FgESifh trrsKd ;yGm;t*Fgrsm;jzihf zJUG pnf;xm;onf/ yef;yGirhf sm;wGi0f wfreI t f w
d rf S tzd*k rd
ESihf taphtrd rf S tr*rdukd xkwaf y;onf/ 0wfreI u f ;l jcif;jzpfpOfjzpfay:Ny;D aemuf tzd*k rdEiS hf tr
*rdwYkd aygif;pyfNy;D oaEätmifum taphrsm; jzpfvmonf/ xdrk w S pfqifh taphaygufjcif;tm;jzifh
tyifopfrsm; &&Sv d monf/ þenf;udk tyifrsm;\ vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ay;xm;aom yef;yGiw
hf iG f rnfonft
h pdwt
f ydik ;f rsm;aygif;pyfygu taphjzpfvmrnfenf;/
0wfrIeftdwf (tzdk*rd)
taphavmif;
0wfrIef
taphtdrf (tr*rd)
ykH (6-2) yef;yGifh\ tpdwftydkif;rsm;

vkyif ef; (2)
à oifwyYkd wf0ef;usi&f dS tyiftrnfrsm;udak jymyg/ xdtk yifrsm;teuf rnfonht f yifrsm;
onf taphraS ygufoenf;/ rnfonfrh sK;d yGm;enf;jzpfoenf;/ tkypf zk UJG í aqG;aEG;Ny;D
wifjyyg/
54
6-2-2 vdirf rhJ sdK;yGm;jcif; (Asexual Reproduction)

wpfcsKUd aomtyifrsm;onf rsK;d 0wfreI af c:pyd;k rsm;ESihf
rsK;d yGm;Muonf/ xdt k yifrsm;wGif tzd*k rdEiS hf tr*rdrsm;aygif;pyf
yg0ifjcif;r&Syd gojzifh vdirf rhJ sK;d yGm;yifrsm;[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à zef;yifonf rnfuo
hJ Ykd tyifopf jzpfay:vmoenf;/
6-2-3 yifyikd ;f rsdK;yGm;jcif; (Vegetative Propagation) ykH (6-3) zef;yif
tjrpf? t&Gu?f tudik ;f ? ajratmufyifpnfonf yifyikd ;f t*Fgrsm; (vegetative organs)
jzpfonf/ tqkyd g yifyikd ;f t*Fgrsm;rS tyifopfjzpfay:vmMuonf/ Oyrm - jrif;cGm&GuEf iS hf
jrufyifrsK;d wdüYk rl rdrw
d \
Ykd yifpnfyikd ;f udk &Snv
f sm;apNy;D ajrBu;D ütjrpfw,
G af pjcif;tm;jzifh yifyikd ;f
rsK;d yGm;jcif;udk jzpfaponf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ay;xm;aom tyifrsm;wGif tyifopfrsm; rnfuo
hJ Ykd jzpfay:vmonfukd azmfjyyg/
&Guv
f yS if BuyH if ESi;f qDyif yk@&duyf if
ykH (6-4) yifydkif;enf;jzifh rsdK;yGm;aomtyifrsm;
vkyif ef; (2)
à tjrpfw, G Nf y;D wGm;oGm;aeaom jruf odrYk [kwf jrif;cGm&Guyf ifwo
Ykd nf rnfuo
hJ Ykd tyif
opfrsm; jzpfay:vmoenf;/ xdt k yifrsm;udk tb,faMumihf wGm;oGm;yif[ak c:oenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
tyifrsm;\rsKd ;yGm;jcif;wGif vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;? vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;ESihf yifyikd ;f rsK;d yGm;jcif;[lí
3 rsKd ;&dyS gonf/
vdi&f rdS sK;d yGm;jcif;rSm yef;yGirhf sm;\ 0wfreI tf w fd &f dS tzd*k rdEiS hf taphtrd &f dS tr*rdwYkd
aygif;pyfí oaEätmifNy;D taphjzpfvmum taphrt S yifopfaygufvmjcif; jzpfonf/
Oyrm-o&ufyif? oabFmyif? yJyiftrsKd ;rsKd ;/
vdirf rhJ sK;d yGm;jcif;wGif wpfcsKUd aomtyifrsm;onf tzd*k rdEiS hf tr*rdwrYkd yg0ifbJ pyd;k rsm;
rS tyifopfaygufvmjcif;jzpfonf/ Oyrm - zef;yif? armhpyf if/
yifyikd ;f rsKd ;yGm;jcif;rSm tyif\taphrrS [kwb f J tjcm;aomtpdwt f ydik ;f rsm; (tudik ;f ?
yifpnf? t&Gu)f rS tyifopfrsm; &&So d nf/ Oyrm - jrufyif? jrif;cGm&Guyf if? pawmfb,f&/D
55
avhusifch ef;
1/ oifoad om vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;jzifh rsK;d yGm;onhtf yifrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ rdrad 'owGi&f Ekid af om tyif\ yifyikd ;f tpdwt f ydik ;f (tmvl;? MuufoeG ef ?D csi;f )
wpfrsKd ;rsKd ;udk toH;k jyKNy;D tyifaygufvmonftxd vufawGUvkyaf qmifMunhyf g/
3/ oifoad om taphjzifh rsKd ;yGm;onft h yif 5 rsKd ;udak zmfjyyg/
4/ atmufygtyifrsm;udak vhvmNy;D ,if;wk\ Yd rsKd ;yGm;jcif;trsKd ;tpm;udk ajzqdyk g/
&Guuf s
tmvl;yif csi;f yif o&ufyif oabFmyif
yifaygufyif
6-3 owå0grsm;\rsdK;yGm;jcif; (Reproduction of Animals)

owå0grsm;wGif vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;ESihf vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;[lí ESprf sKd ;cGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
6-3-1 vdirf rhJ sdK;yGm;jcif; (Asexual Reproduction)
owå0grsm;wGif txD;? tr [lír&Sb d J wpfaumifwnf;rS yGm;rsm;jcif;udk vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;
[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ay;xm;aom ouf&rdS sm;wGif rnfonfh ouf&o
dS nf vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;enf;jzifh rsKd ;yGm;oenf;/
jrif; vl trD;Am;
yHk (6-5) ouf&Sdrsm;
vkyif ef; (2)

à tkypf zk UJG avhvmyg/
à ay;xm;aom owå0grsm; rnfoYkd rsKd ;yGm;Muoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
56
yg&mrDpD,rf [dkuf'&m
ykH (6-6) ouf&Sdrsm;\vdifrJhrsdK;yGm;ykHrsm;
6-3-2 vdi&f rdS sdK;yGm;jcif; (Sexual Reproduction)
txD; (tzd*k rd) ESihf tr (tr*rd) wdaYk ygif;pyf rsKd ;yGm;vQif vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif; [kac:onf/
k nfrmS trrsKd ;O (egg) ESihf tzko
vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;qdo d u
k af umif (sperm) wdYk aygif;pyf
oaEätmifNy;D oaEätmifO (zygote) jzpfay:jcif;udk ac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ay;xm;aomowå0grsm;wGif rnfonfo
h wå0gonf vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;enf;jzifh yGm;rsm;vm
oenf;/
ig;g yg&mrDpD,rf yvefae;&D;,m;

ykH (6-7) ouf&SdwdkY\rsdK;yGm;ykHrsm;
vkyif ef; (2)
à ay;xm;aom ouf&rdS sm;onf rnfonfh oaEätmifjcif;tqifrh sm; &So
d enf;/
à tkypf v k u
yHk (6-8) ouf&SdwdkY\ oaEätmifyHkrsm;

t"dutcsufrsm;
vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;onf txD;? tr &S&d efrvdyk g/ rlvouf&rdS S ,if;ESix hf yfwal om
ouf&rdS sm; yGm;rsm;vmjcif; jzpfonf/
vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;qdo
k nfrmS trrsKd ;O (egg) ESihf tzko
d u
k af umif (sperm) wdYk aygif;pyf
oaEätmifNy;D oaEätmifO (zygote) jzpfay:jcif;udk ac:onf/
57
oaEätmifjcif; 2 rsKd ;&So

d nf/
jyifyoaEätmifjcif; - trrsKd ;OESihf tzdo
k uk wf oYkd nf cE¨mud, k jf yifywGif awGUqkNH y;D
oaEätmifMuonf/ (Oyrm - ig;? zm;? a&ykwo f if )
twGi;f oaEätmifjcif; -trrsKd ;OESihf tzdok uk wf o Ykd nf rdcif\cE©mud, k t
f wGi;f wGif
awGUqkNH y;D oaEätmifMuonf/ (Oyrm - vl? jrif;)
avhusifch ef;
1/ owå0grsm;wGiaf wGU&aom vdirf rhJ sKd ;yGm;jcif;rsm;udk Oyrmjzifh azmfjyyg/
2/ vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;wGif oaEätmifjcif; b,fErS sKd ; &So d enf;/
3/ vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;wGif twGi;f oaEätmifjcif;jzifh rsKd ;yGm;aomowå0g 3 rsKd ; udk azmfjy
yg/
4/ vdi&f rdS sKd ;yGm;jcif;wGif jyifyoaEätmifjcif;jzifh rsKd ;yGm;aomowå0g 3 rsKd ; udk azmfjyyg/
rsKd ;yGm;jcif;
tyifrsm; rsK;d yGm;jcif; owå0grsm; rsK;d yGm;jcif;
vdi&f dS vdirf hJ yifyikd ;f vdi&f dS vdirf hJ

rsK;d yGm;jcif; rsK;d yGm;jcif; rsK;d yGm;jcif; rsK;d yGm;jcif; rsK;d yGm;jcif;
yef;yGihf tyif\ twGi;f tjyif

tyif&dS zl;xGujf cif;
aom tpdwf oaEätmif oaEätmif
pyd;k rsm;
tyifrsm; tydik ;f rsm;
rdcif\ rdcif\ pHu
k yJG mG ;jcif;
ud,
k w f iG ;f ü ud,k jf yify (ESpyf ikd ;f
oaEöm; wGif odrjf ywfjcif;)
tjrpf?
t&Gu&f dS b0 oaEöm;
taphrsm; t&GuEf iS hf
pyd;k rsm; jzwfausmf b0
ajratmuf
yifpnf jzwfausmf tydik ;f ydik ;f
jywfjcif;
58
tcef; (7)
urÇmN*dK[f (Planet Earth)
ed'gef;
þtcef;wGif urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfjcif;ESihf urÇmonf aeukv d n S yfh wfjcif;
urÇmt h jyifyikd ;f rsm;jzpfaom ajrxk? a&xk? avxk? ZD0xkw\ Ykd zGUJ pnf;yHk ESihf urÇmah jrrsuEf mS jyif
ajymif;vJ&jcif;taMumif;&if;wku Yd kd oif,&l rnfjzpfonf/ rlvwef;wGif urÇmBu;D \ yko H P²mefEiS fh
N*Kd [rf sm;vSnyfh wfjcif;? ajrqDvmT \*kPo f wåEd iS hf ajrqDvmT wdu k pf m;jcif; tajccHtaMumif;
t&mrsm;udk od&cdS NhJ y;D jzpfonf/
7-1 urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfjcif;ESihf aeudv
k n
S yfh wfjcif;
7-1-1 urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfjcif; (Earth's rotation)
rlvwef; odyb HÜ mom&yfwiG f urÇmBu;D \ yHo k P²mefEiS hf N*Kd [rf sm; vSnyhf wfjcif;taMumif;
udk tenf;i,fo&d cdS NhJ y;D jzpfonf/ oifwo Ykd cd NhJ y;D aom tcsurf sm;udk tajccHí atmufygar;cGe;f
rsm;udk ajzqdyk g/
à urÇmBu;D onf rnfuo hJ Ykd yko
H P²mef&o dS enf;/
à urÇmBu;D onf Nird o f ufaeonf okrYd [kwf vnfywfaeonf/ oifw\ Ykd xifjrifcsuu
f kd
ajymjyyg/
vkyif ef; (1)
à yxrOD;pGm ausmif;om;wpfa,muf twef;a&SUokYd xGuyf g/
à rdrcd E¨mud, k u
f kd wpfywf okrYd [kwf ESpyf wf em&DvufwaH jymif;jyef (vuf0&J pf) twkid ;f
vSnyfh g/
à useaf usmif;om;? ausmif;olrsm;u yxrausmif;om; jyKvyk o f uJoh Ydk pmoifcef;\
oifah wmfaomae&mwGif vufawGUjyKvyk yf g/ (jznf;nif;pGmvSnyhf g/)
0if½;kd
vkyif ef; (2) 23ƒ H
66ƒ H
aeywfvrf;jyifnD
ykH (7-1) urÇm0h if½f ;kd apmif;aeykH

ykH (7-1) udk avhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u dk f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif rnfoaYdk om yko H P²mefjzihf vnfywfaeoenf;/
59
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif vnfaf ejcif;udk vnfywfjcif; (Earth's rotation) [kac:
onf/
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif 23 w
H rd ;f apmif;í vnfywfaeonf/
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif taemufrt S a&SUokYd em&DvufwaH jymif;jyef (vuf0&J pf)
twdik ;f vnfywfaeonf/
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif wpfywfjynhaf tmifvnf&ef tcsed 2f 4em&D (wpf&uf)
Mumonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vnfywfjcif; (Earth's rotation) qko d nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ urÇmonf 0if½;kd ay:wGif rnfoYkd vnfywfaeoenf;/
3/ atmufygwdu Yk kd tajzrSeaf &G;cs,yf g/
(u) urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif wpfywfjynhaf tmifvnf&ef tcsed f (22em&D? 23em&D?
24em&D) Mumonf/
(c) urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif (22 ?H 23 ?H 24 )H wdr;f apmif;ívnfywfaeonf/
7-1-2 urÇmonf aeukv d n S yfh wfjcif; (Revolution)
rlvwef;odyb ÜH mom&yf&dS N*Kd [rf sm;vSnyhf wfjcif;taMumif;ESihf oifcNhJ y;D onfh taMumif;
t&mwdu
Yk kd tajccHí atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzqdyk g/
à urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif wpfywfjynhaf tmifvnf&ef tcsed rf nfrQMumoenf;/
à urÇmBu;D onf rnfonfukd A[djk yKí vSnyhf wfaeoenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
vnfywfjcif;
(Earth's rotation)
24 em&D
vSnyhf wfjcif;
ae (Revolution)
365† &uf
ykH (7-2) urÇmonf aeudk vSnyhf wfykH
60
à yxrOD;pGm ausmif;om;ESpaf ,muf twef;a&SUodYk xGuyf g/ wpfa,mufukd ]ae} [k

,lqí usew f pfa,mufukd ]urÇm} [k ,lqyg/ ausmif;om;wpfa,muf (ae) rSm
&yfaeNy;D ,if;udk A[djk yKí useaf usmif;om; (urÇm) onf olu Y ,
dk o
f l vnfywf&if;jzifh
A[kd (ae) ukd owfrw S v
f rf;aMumif;twkid ;f vSnyfh wfyg/ þuJo h Ydk aeudk urÇmu
vSnyfh wfaeaMumif; o½kyjf yyg/
vkyif ef;(2)
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v
k u
kd af qG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à urÇmonfaeudk wpfywfjynhaf tmif vSnyhf wf&ef tcsed rf nfrQMumrnfenf;/
à azazmf0g&DvwGif &ufaygif;rnfrQ&o dS enf;/ ESppf OfEpS w
f ikd ;f &uftwdtus r&Sjd cif;rSm
tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef;(3)
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfjcif;ESihf urÇmonf aeudk vSnyhf wfjcif;taMumif;udk
od&cdS NhJ y;D jzpfonf/ ,if;tajctaeESpcf k rnfoYkd uGjJ ym;jcm;em;onfukd EdiI ;f ,SOaf vhvmMurnf/
ykH (7-3) urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:vnfywfí aeudk vSnyhf wfjcif;
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u kd af qG;aEG;yg/

à urÇmonfrrd 0d if½;kd ay:wGif vnfywfjcif;ESihf aeudv k n
S yhf wfjcif; rnfou
Ykd mG jcm;onfukd
EdiI ;f ,SONf y;D Z,m;wGif jznfph u
G yf g/
urÇmonfrrd 0d if½;kd ay: vnfywfjcif; urÇmonfaeudk vSnyhf wfjcif;
61
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmonfaeudk vSnyfh wfaejcif;ukd urÇmywfvrf;aMumif; wpfywfjzpfay:jcif;
(Revolution) [kac:onf/
urÇmonf aeukv d n S yfh wfomG ;aeaom vrf;aMumif;udk ywfvrf;[kac:onf/
urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGiv f nfywf&if; aeudk em&DvufwaH jymif;jyef (vuf0&J pf) jzifh
wdusaom ywfvrf;wpfcrk S bJOyHo k P²mefvrf;aMumif;twdik ;f vSnyfh wfaeonf/
urÇmonf aeudw k pfywfjynfah tmifvn S &fh ef tcsed w
f pfEpS f (365 &uf) Mumonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ urÇmywfvrf;aMumif; wpfywfjzpfay:jcif;qko d nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ urÇmonf aeudrk nfoYkd vSnyhf wfaeoenf;/
3/ &ufxyfEpS f rnfoYkd jzpfvmoenf;/
4/ urÇmonf rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif vnfywfjcif; (Earth's rotation) ESihf urÇmonf aeudk
vSnyfh wfjcif; (Revolution) wdo Yk nf rnfoYkd uJjG ym;jcm;em;oenf;/
(u) urÇmonf aeudk (puf0ikd ;f yH?k bJOyH?k rlrrSeyf )kH ywfvrf;jzifh vSnyhf wfaeonf/
(c) &ufxyfEpS o f nf (4 ESp?f 5 ESp?f 6 ESp)f wpfBurd f jzpfay:onf/
urÇmN*dK[foifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif;/
urÇmN*Kd [f
0if½;kd ay:wGif vnfywfjcif; aeudv

k n
S yhf wfjcif;
24 em&D 365 &uf
62
7-2 urÇmt
h ay:,HvmT wnfaqmufykH
7-2-1 ajrxk (Lithosphere)
urÇmBu;D wGif obm0ywf0ef;usit f ydik ;f 4 ydik ;f &So
d nf/ ,if;wdrYk mS ajrxk? a&xk? avxk?
ZD0xkwYkd jzpfMuonf/ urÇmt h ay:,HvmT ajrxkwiG f wGi;f xGuyf pön;f rsm;? ausmufw;kH
ausmufcrJ sm;ESihf ajrqDvmT wdu
Yk kd t"duawGUEdik o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
yHk (7-4) udk avhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u
dk f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à urÇmBu;D wGif obm0ywf0ef;usit f ydik ;f rnfrQ yg0ifoenf;/ ,if;wdu Yk kd azmfjyyg/
à vlEiS t hf yifwoYkd nf rnfonft
h ydik ;f wGif t"du rSw D if;aexdik Mf uoenf;/
avxk
ZD0xk
ajrxk a&xk
yHk (7-4) urÇmh ajrxk? a&xk? avxk? ZD0xk
vkyif ef; (2)

urÇmt h wGi;f ydik ;f wGif urÇmAh [d?k urÇmMh um;vTm? urÇmt
h ay:,HvmT [lí tvTm 3 vTm
yg0ifonf/
ykH (7-5) udak vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u
dk af qG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à urÇmBu;D twGi;f ydik ;f wGif tvTmrnfrQyg0ifoenf;/ ,if;wdu Yk kd azmfjyyg/
à ajrxkwiG f rnfonft h ydik ;f rsm; yg0ifoenf;/
ork'&´ majrxkcsyf uke;f ajrxkcsyf
tay:,HvmT
Mum;vTm ajrxk
A[dk urÇmth ay:,HvmT
urÇmMh um;vTmtay:ydik ;f
urÇmMh um;vTmatmufyikd ;f
urÇmAh [dt
k jyifyikd ;f
urÇmAh [dt k wGi;f ydik ;f
yHk (7-5) urÇmt

h wGi;f ydik ;f wnfaqmufykH
63
vkyif ef; (3)

urÇmt h ay:,HvmT (crust) onf tjyifbufq;kH tvTmjzpfNy;D uke;f ajrxktay:,HvmT
(uke;f ajrxkcsy)f ESihf ork'&´ mxktay:,HvmT (ork'&´ majrxkcsy)f wdYk yg0ifonf/
yHk (7-6) udak vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v
k u
kd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à vIy&f mS ;aeaoma&jyifay:wGif ysOjf ym;wpfcsyw f ifxm;ygu xdyk sOjf ym;onf rnfoYkd
jzpfaernfenf;/
à urÇmMh um;vTma&GUvsm;rIaMumifh urÇmt h ay:,HvmT wGif rnfonfwYkd jzpfay:Edik o f enf;/
awmifuek ;f awmifwef;
ork'&´ m
rD;awmif
uke;f ajrxkcsyf
ork'&´ m ajrxkcsyf
urÇmt h ay:,HvmT
urÇmMh um;vTmtay:ydik ;f urÇmMh um;vTmtay:ydik ;f
yHk (7-6) urÇmMh um;vTma&GUvsm;rIaMumifh jzpfay:vmaom toGio

f P²mefrsm;
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmah jrxkonf a&GUvsm;aeaomurÇmN*Kd [\ f tay:,Htpdwt f ydik ;f jzpfNy;D urÇmh
tay:,HvmT (crust) ESihf urÇmMh um;vTmtay:ydik ;f (upper mantle) \tay:qH;k tydik ;f wdYk
yg0ifonf/
urÇmMh um;vTma&GUvsm;rIaMumifh urÇmt h ay:,HvmT wGif uke;f ajrxkrsm; a&GUvsm;jcif;?
ajrivsirf sm;jzpfay:jcif;? rD;awmifrsm;aygufujJG cif;ESifh awmifuek ;f awmifwef;rsm;jzpf
ay:vmjcif;jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ urÇmah jrxkqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/ urÇmah jrxkwiG f rnfonfwu Ykd kd t"du awGU&S&d
oenf;/
(u) urÇmt h ay:,HvmT wnfNird rf rI &Sjd cif;onf urÇmh (Mum;vTm? twGi;f vTm? Mum;vTm ESihf
twGi;f vTm) a&GUvsm;rIaMumifjh zpfonf/
(c) vlom;wdo Yk nf urÇmah jrxk\ (tay:,HvmT ? Mum;vTm? twGi;f vTm) wGif aexdik f
Muonf/
(*) rD;awmifaygufujJG cif;onf (tay:,HvmT ? Mum;vTm? twGi;f vTm) a&GUvsm;rIaMumifh
jzpfonf/
64
7-2-2 a&xk (Hydrosphere)

ouf&wdS t
Ykd wGuf t"duvdt
k yfaom aomufo;kH a&t&if;tjrpfukd a&xkrS &&So
d nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
urÇmrh suEf mS jyif\ oH;k yHk ESpyf u
kH kd a&xku zH;k tkyx
f m;onf/ urÇmah &xkukd a&ief 97%
cefEY iS hf a&csKd 3% cefY jzifh yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;onf/ a&iefrsm;onf a&csKd rsm;\ yif&if;jzpfonf/
yHk (7-7) udak vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u
à urÇmrh suEf mS jyifwiG f a&xkEiS ahf jrxk rnfonfuydrk sm;rnf[k oifxifoenf;/
à urÇmah &xk wnf&EdS ikd af omae&mrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
yHk (7-7) urÇmN*Kd [f

vkyif ef; (2)
rd;k &Gmusjcif;
pGr;f tif yif&if;
yifaiGUjyefjcif;
a&cJ^qD;ESi;f p;D qi
;f a&aiGU jyefjcif;
pdr0hf if uef jrpf
ajratmufa&jyif ork'&´ m
ajratmufa&pD;qif;
yHk (7-8) a&csKd &&Syd kH

à urÇmah &xkwiG f a&csKEd iS afh &iefyrmP rnfonfu ydrk sm;rnf[k xifoenf;/
à a&csKd udk rnfuo hJ &Ydk &So
d nf[k xifoenf;/
à t0Dpw d iG ;f ESihf a&wGi;f rsm;rS a&csKd &&Sjd cif;rSm tb,faMumihef nf;/
65
vkyif ef; (3)

urÇmay:&Sd t"dua&csKd &&SEd ikd af om ae&mrsm;rSm 0if½;kd pGe;f a'o a&cJjyifBu;D rsm;?
ajratmufa&? tif;? tdik ?f uef? jrpf? acsmif;? qnfajrmif;wmwrHwYkd jzpfMuonf/
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v
k u
à oifwaYkd exdik &f ma'owGif a&csKd &&SEd ikd af om ae&mrsm;udk ajymjyyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmah &xkwiG f yifv,fork'&´ m? tif;? tkid ?f jrpf? acsmif;rsm;&Sd a&rsm;? ajratmufa&?
a&cJjrpfEiS fh avxkx&J dS a&ck;d a&aiGUwkYd yg0ifonf/
rk;d a&ESifh qD;ESi;f rsm;onf ajrBu;D twGi;f pdr0fh ifNy;D ausmufvmT rsm;twGi;f cdak tmif;&m
rS ajratmufa& jzpfay:vmonf/ ajratmufa&udk a&csKd tjzpf xkw, f o l ;Hk pJv
G suf
&Sod nf/
avhusifch ef;
(u) urÇmrh suEf mS jyif\ ( ? ? ) udk a&xku zH;k tkyx
f m;onf/
(c) urÇmah &xkwiG f a&ief (70%? 88%? 97%) cef&Y o dS nf/
(*) urÇmah &xkwiG f a&csKd (3%? 5%? 7%) cef&Y o
dS nf/
(C) a&csKd rsm;\yif&if;onf (ajratmufa&? yifv,fork'&´ m? jrpfacsmif;) jzpfonf/
7-2-3 avxk (Atmosphere)
urÇmah vxkqo kd nfrmS urÇmN*Kd [u f 0kd ef;&Hxm;aom "mwfaiGUrsm;yg0ifonft
h vTmjzpfNy;D
urÇm\j'yfqt JG m;aMumifh wnf&adS ejcif;jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf vk u
à urÇmajrBu;D \ tay:,HrsuEf mS jyifukd rnfonfu 0ef;&Hxm;oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
avxkwiG af tmufq*D si?f Eduk x
f ½d*k si?f umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd Ef iS hf tjcm;"mwfaiGUtenf;
i,fjzifh yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;onf/
à urÇmah vxkukd rnfoYkd zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/
à urÇmah vxk\ t"dutvTmrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
66
tdyZf pkd zD;,m; (Exosphere)

omrdpk zD;,m; (Thermosphere)
rDqpkd zD;,m; (Mesosphere)
px&mwdpk zD;,m; (Stratosphere)
x½dyk pkd zD;,m; (Troposphere)
(rSwcf suf - yHo

k nfpau;udu
k rf [kwyf g/)
yHk (7-9) urÇmah vxk
vkyif ef; (3)
urÇmah vxkwiG yf g0ifaom px&mwdpk zD;,m;tvTmwGif tdZk ek ;f tvTm&So d nf/ tdZk ek ;f
tvTmonf vlom;wdt Yk ay: tEÅ&m,fay;aom aerSa&mifjcnfrsm;udk umuG,af y;onf/
k u
kd af qG;aEG;ajzqdyk gap/
à urÇmah vxkonf ouf&rdS sm;twGuf tb,faMumift h a&;Bu;D oenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmah vxkqo kd nfrmS urÇmN*Kd [uf kd 0ef;&Hxm;aom "mwfaiGUrsm;yg0ifonfh tvTmjzpf
Ny;D urÇm\ j'yfqt
JG m;aMumifh wnf&adS ejcif;jzpfonf/
urÇmah vxkwiG f x½dyk pkd zD;,m;tvTm? px&mwdpk zD;,m;tvTm? rDqpkd zD;,m;tvTm?
omrdpk zD;,m;tvTm? tdyZf pkd zD;,m;tvTm[lí t"dutvTm 5 vTm&So d nf/
px&mwdpk zD;,m;tvTmwGif tdZk ek ;f tvTm&So d nf/ vlEiS hf ouf&rdS sm;onf x½dyk pkd zD;,m;
tvTmwGif aexdik Mf uonf/ x½dyk pkd zD;,m;tvTmonf 10 uDvrkd w D mrQom xlonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ urÇmah vxkqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ tdZk ek ;f tvTmonf rnfonfah e&mwGi&f o
dS enf;/ vlom;wdt
Yk ay: rnfoYkd tusKd ;jyK
oenf;/
7-2-4 ZD0xk (Biosphere)
ZD0xkwiG f ouf&rdS sm;ESihf ouf&rdS sm;udak xmufyahH y;aom oufrahJ vmuwdYk yg0ifonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
yHk (7-10) udk avhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf zk UJG aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à ZD0xkukd rnfoYkd zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/
67
ouf&adS vmu oufrahJ vmu

(vl? tyif? wd&pämef) (ajrxk? a&xk? avxk)
yHk (7-10) ZD0xkzUJG pnf;yHk

vkyif ef; (2)
vlom;wd\ Yk vkyaf qmifroI nf ZD0xktay:wGirf sm;pGm oufa&mufr&I o dS nf/ pdu k yf sKd ;enf;
opfrsm; toH;k jyKjcif;? wd&pämefrsm;zrf;qD;owfjzwfjcif;? opfawmrsm; ckwv f jJS cif;? armfawmf,mOf
rsm;ESihf puf½rkH sm;tvGerf sm;jym;vmjcif; ponfwo Ykd nf vlom;wd\
Yk vkyaf qmifrrI sm;jzpfonf/
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf zk UJG aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à ouf&adS vmuwGif rnfonfwYkd yg0ifoenf;/
à oufrahJ vmuwGif rnfonfwYkd yg0ifoenf;/
à ZD0xkay:odYk aumif;usKd ; odrYk [kwf qd;k usKd ;oufa&mufapaom vlw\ Ykd vkyaf qmifcsuf
rsm;udk ajymjyyg/
vkyif ef; (3)
tyifEiS hf owå0grsm;aoqH;k aomtcg ykyo f ;kd aqG;jrnfNh y;D ,if;wdrYk S xGuv
f maomtm[m&
"mwfrsm;ESihf "mwfypön;f rsm;onf ajrxkwiG f wpfpw d w
f pfyikd ;f yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;onf/
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf zk UJG aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à ouf&rdS sm;twGuf vdt k yfaomtpm;tpmrsm;udk rnfonfrS &&So d enf;/
vkyif ef; (4)
a&xkonf ZD0xkzUHG NzKd ;&Sio
f ef&eftwGuf axmufyahH y;onf/ ouf&rdS sm;&Sio
f ef&ef tpm;
tpmESihf a&udk tvHt k avmuf&&Sjd cif;? a&t&if;tjrpfrsm;avsmeh nf;roGm;ap&ef xde;f odr;f apmifh
a&Smufjcif;wdoYk nf ZD0xkEiS hf a&xkw\ Ykd tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufrjI zpfonf/
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf zk UJG aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à ouf&rdS sm; touf&iS af exdik Ef ikd &f ef rnfonfu t"duvdt k yfoenf;/
à a&t&if;tjrpfrsm; rqH;k ½I;H ap&ef rnfoYkd jyKvyk &f rnfenf;/
vkyif ef; (5)
tyifrsm; (ZD0xk) onf av (avxk) rS &&Sad om umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd jf zifh tpmcsuNf y;D
atmufq*D siu f kd xkwaf y;onf/ vlEiS hf owå0grsm; (ZD0xk) onf ,if;wdpYk m;oH;k aom tpm;tpm
68
udk touf½jI cif; (avxkrS atmufq*D si)f jzifh tpmNzKd cí JG avxkxo J Ykd umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd u
f kd
wpfzefjyefxwk af y;onf/
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf zk UJG aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm; touf&iS &f efvt kd yfaom umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd Ef iS hf atmufq*D siu f kd
rnfonfrS &&So d enf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
ZD0xkqo kd nfrmS ouf&rdS sm;wnf&adS exdik af om urÇmN*Kd [\ f tvTmwpfcjk zpfonf/
ZD0xkwiG f ouf&rdS sm;ESihf ouf&rdS sm;udk axmufyahH y;aom oufrahJ vmuwdyYk g0ifonf/
ZD0xkEiS ahf &xk? ajrxk? avxkwo dYk nf wpfcEk iS w
hf pfck tjyeftvSeo
f ufa&mufrrI sm;
&SMd uonf/ xdo k oYkd ufa&mufrrI sm;onf vlom;rsm;twGuf aumif;usKd ;rsm;pGm&&So d uJo
h Ukd
qd;k usKd ;rsm;vnf; jzpfay:aponf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ZD0xkqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/ rnfonfwYkd yg0ifoenf;/
2/ ZD0xkEiS ahf jrxk tjyeftvSeof ufa&mufyu kH kd Oyrmwpfcak y;í &Si;f jyyg/
3/ ZD0xkEiS ahf &xk tjyeftvSeof ufa&mufyukH kd Oyrmwpfcak y;í &Si;f jyyg/
4/ ZD0xkEiS ahf vxk tjyeftvSeo f ufa&mufyu kH kd Oyrmwpfcak y;í &Si;f jyyg/
urÇmt
h ay:,HvmT wnfaqmufyo
kH ifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif;/
urÇmt
h ay:,HvmT wnfaqmufykH
ajrxk a&xk avxk ZD0xk
-a&ief 97 % -x½dyk pkd zD;,m; -ouf&adS vmu

-wGi;f xGuyf pön;f rsm;
-px&mwdpk zD;,m; (vl? tyif? wd&pämef)
-ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm; -a&csKd 3 %
-rDqpkd zD;,m; -oufrahJ vmu
-ajrqDvmT rsm;
-omrdpk zD;,m; (ajrxk? a&xk? avxk)
-tdyZf pkd zD;,m;
69
7-3 urÇmrh sufEmS jyifajymif;vJ&aomtaMumif;&if;rsm;

7-3-1 ajrwGi;f ajrjyifjzpfpOfrsm;aMumifh ajymif;vJaeaomurÇmajrjyif
urÇmajrjyifonf ajrwGi;f ajrjyifjzpfpOfrsm;aMumifh tpOfajymif;vJvsu&f o
dS nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
urÇmajrjyifonf a&? av? rd;k ? a&cJ? 'Da&? vdiI ;f ? tylprG ;f tif? zdtm;? wGe;f tm;ponfh
obm0jzpfpOfrsm;aMumifh ajymif;vJaeonf/
yHk (7-11? 7-12? 7-13) wduYk akd vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u
à urÇmajrjyifukd ajymif;vJaponft h aMumif;&if;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/
146437425356186963/
yHk (7-11) yHk (7-12) yHk (7-13)
a&aMumifh wdu
k pf m;cH&yHk a&cJjrpfwukd pf m;yHk yifv,fviId ;f wdu
k pf m;cH&yHk
vkyif ef; (2)
tylprG ;f tif? zdtm;? wGe;f tm;wdaYk Mumifh ajrwGi;f
vIy&f mS ;rIrsm;vnf; jzpfay:vmonf/
yHk (7-14) udak vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk
tkypf vk ukd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à yHw k iG f rD;awmifaygufu&JG jcif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à ajrwGi;f vIy&f mS ;rIrsm;u ausmufrsm;udk rnfoYkd jzpfap https://goo.gl/images/ByMrLZ
oenf;/ yHk (7-14) rD;awmifaygufuyJG kH
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmajrjyifonf ajrwGi;f ajrjyifjzpfpOfrsm;aMumifh tpOfajymif;vJvsu&f o dS nf/
ajymif;vJrrI sm;udk a&? av? rd;k ? a&cJ? 'Da&? vdiI ;f ? tylprG ;f tif? zdtm;? wGe;f tm;ponfh
obm0jzpfpOfrsm;u zefw;D Muonf/
a&? av? rd;k ? a&cJ? 'Da&? vdiI ;f ponfh obm0jzpfpOfrsm;u ajrjyifwiG f wdu k pf m;o,faqmif
ydcYk sjcif;udk jzpfaponf/
urÇmajratmuf&dS tylprG ;f tif? zdtm;? wGe;f tm;rsm;aMumifh ajrwGi;f vIy&f mS ;rIrsm; jzpf
ay:Ny;D rD;awmifaygufujJG cif;? ivsiv f yI jf cif;? ausmufrsm;yHyk sujf cif;ESihf toGiaf jymif;
jcif;wdu Yk kd jzpfaponf/
70
avhusifch ef;
1/ urÇmajrjyifajymif;vJru I kd jzpfapaom obm0jzpfpOfrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ urÇmah jrwGi;f vIy&f mS ;rIukd jzpfaponfh taMumif;&if;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
3/ rnfonfjh zpfpOfrsm;u rD;awmifaygufujJG cif;ESihf ivsiv f yI jf cif;udk jzpfapoenf;/
7-3-2 ausmufajcrGjcif;ESiw hf u
kd pf m;jcif;
urÇmah jrrsuEf mS jyif&dS ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;ESihf wGi;f xGurf sm;onf ajcrGc&H jcif;ESihf
wdu
k pf m;cH&jcif;wdaYk Mumifh ysupf ;D a&GUvsm;oGm;Muonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
ausmufajcrGjcif; (ausmufaMurGjcif;) qdo k nfrmS ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;ESihf wGi;f xGuf
rsm;onf &moDOwk'PfaMumifh aqG;jrnf?h aMurG? jyKe;f wD;? ysupf ;D oGm;jcif;jzpfNy;D ,if;wdo Yk nf
a&GUvsm;oGm;jcif; r&Syd g/
k u
à ausmufw;kH ausmufcBJ u;D rsm; tufuaJG MurGaeonfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
wdu k pf m;jcif;qdo
k nfrmS usKd ;yJyh supf ;D oGm;aom ausmufpausmufersm;ESihf wGi;f xGurf sm;
onf ajrqGt J m;? a&? a&cJEiS hf wdu
k cf wfavwdaYk Mumifh a&GUvsm;oGm;jcif; jzpfonf/
à wdu k pf m;jcif;udk rnfonfwu Ykd vkyaf qmifay;oenf;/
à yHw k iG f ausmufaqmif rnfoYkd jzpfay:aeoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
yHk (7-15) wdu

k pf m;jcif;
t"dutcsufrsm;
ausmufajcrGjcif; (ausmufaMurGjcif;) qdo k nfrmS ausmufw;kH ? ausmufcrJ sm;ESihf
wGi;f xGurf sm;onf &moDOwk 'PfaMumifh aqG;jrnf?h aMurG? jyKe;f wD;? ysupf ;D oGm;jcif;jzpfNy;D
,if;wdo Yk nf a&GUvsm;oGm;jcif;r&Syd g/
ausmufajcrGjcif;wGif ½kyaf jcrGjcif;ESihf "mwfajcrGjcif;[lí 2 rsKd ;&So
d nf/
wdu
k pf m;jcif;qdo
k nfrmS usKd ;yJyh supf ;D oGm;aom ausmufpausmufersm;ESihf wGi;f xGurf sm;
onf ajrqGt J m;? a&? a&cJEiS hf wduk cf wfavwdaYk Mumifh a&GUvsm;oGm;jcif;jzpfonf/
71
avhusifch ef;
1/ ausmufajcrGjcif;qdo k nfrmS tb,fenf;/ ausmufajcrGjcif;enf;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ wduk pf m;jcif;qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
3/ ausmufajcrGjcif;ESihf wduk pf m;jcif;wdo
Yk nf rnfoYkd uGjJ ym;jcm;em;oenf;/
7-3-3 ½kyaf jcrGjcif;
½kyaf jcrGjcif;wGif ausmuf\"mwkzUJG pnf;yHk ajymif;oGm;jcif;r&Syd J ausmufom;xk uGt
J uf
NyKd ysuNf y;D ausmufpausmufersm; jzpfay:jcif; jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
k u
à ½kyaf jcrGjcif;udk rnfoYkd em;vnfoenf;/
à ½kyaf jcrGjcif; (ausmufrsm;tufuyJG supf ;D Mu&jcif;) udjk zpfapaom taMumif;&if;rsm;udk
oifood rQajymjyyg/
yHk (7-16) ½kyaf jcrGjcif;
tylcsed f
a&cJjcif; avwdu
k pf m;jcif;
½kyaf jcrGjcif;
tyifEiS o
hf wå0g vlom;wd\
Yk vkyq
f mifrI
vkyif ef; (2)

ausmuftufuaJG Mumif;rsm;twGi;f cdak tmif;aeaoma&onf at;cJomG ;aomtcg
xkxnfBu;D rm;vmNy;D Bu;D rm;aom wGe;f ueftm;rsm;jzpfay:&mrS xdak usmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;udk
aMurGysupf ;D aponf/
k u kd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à a&onf a&cJtjzpfoaYkd &muf&o dS mG ;aomtcg xkxnf rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;oenf;/
à yHk (7-17) udak vhvmNy;D awGU&Scd surf sm;udk tkypf vk ukd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
72
yHk (7-17) a&cJjcif;aMumifah usmufaMurGjcif;
vkyif ef; (3)

tylcsed af jymif;vJraI Mumifh ausmufrsm; usKH Ujcif;? yGjcif; tBurd Bf urd jf zpfay:&mrS
ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;\ tay:,HvmT tufuu JG m aMurGysupf ;D onf/ avESit hf wlygvm
aom oJrsm;onf ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;\ rsuEf mS jyifukd yGww f u
kd pf m;&mrS wjznf;jznf;
aMurGysupf ;D onf/
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u kd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à tylcsed u f mG jcm;rIaMumifh jzpfay:aom tpdik t f cJ\ obm0udk ajymjyyg/
à avwdu k af omtcg avxJwiG f rnfonfwYkd yg0ifrnf[k xifoenf;/
à yHk ( 7-18 ) ESihf yHk ( 7-19 ) wdu Yk kd avhvmNy;D awGU&Scd surf sm;udk aqG;aEG;yg/
https://goo.gl/images/7bwxdk https://goo.gl/images/twDdQ5
yHk ( 7-18 ) tylcsed af jymif;vJraI Mumifh aMurGjcif; yHk ( 7-19 ) avwdu

k pf m;rIaMumifh aMurGjcif;
vkyif ef; (4)
ausmuftufuaJG Mumif;rsm;twGi;f opfyiftjrpfrsm; wd;k 0ifBu;D xGm;jcif;? tcsKd Uowå0grsm;
onf EIwo f ;D rsm;jzifh ausmufrsm;udk wl;qGjcif;wdaYk Mumifv h nf; ausmufrsm;udk tufuu JG m
aMurGysupf ;D aponf/
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u
à tkwef &H rH sm;wGif tyifrsm; wG,u f yfaygufa&muf
avh&odS nf/ ,if;tyifrsm; Bu;D xGm;vmygu rnfoYkd
jzpfvmrnf[k xifoenf;/
à yHk ( 7-20 ) wGif tyifEiS ahf usmufrsm; rnfoYkd jzpfae
https://goo.gl/images/hVMyhY
oenf;/ xdo k jYkd zpfvmyHu
k kd em;vnfoavmuf &Si;f jy
yHk ( 7-20 ) tyifaMumifh
yg/
ausmufaMurGjcif;
73
vkyif ef; (5)

k u
à EIwo f ;D jzifh wl;qGwwfaom owå0grsm;aMumifh
ausmufrsuEf mS jyifrsm; rnfoYkd jzpfEikd o
f enf;/
https://goo.gl/images/wcgv9E
yHk (7-21) owå0grsm;aMumifh

ausmufaMurGjcif;
vkyif ef; (6)

vlom;wdo
Yk nf wnfaqmufa&;vkyif ef;rsm;wGif ausmufrsm;udk toH;k jyKjcif;aMumifh
ausmufawmifrsm; aMurGysupf ;D onf/

k ukd af qG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à yHk (7-22) wGif ausmufawmifrsm;udk rnfoYkd
vkyaf qmifaeMuoenf;/ xdo k Ykd jyKvyk jf cif;aMumifh
ausmufrsm; rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;oenf;/
https://goo.gl/images/UAehL8
yHk (7-22) ausmufawmifrsm;tm; NzKd cw

JG ;l azmfaeyHk
t"dutcsufrsm;
½kyaf jcrGjcif;wGif ausmufom;xkonf uGt J ufNyKd ysuíf ausmufpausmufersm;
jzpfay:vmNy;D xdak usmufom;xk\ "mwkzUJG pnf;yHak jymif;vJomG ;jcif; r&Syd g/
½kyaf jcrGjcif;onf a&cJjcif;? tylcsed af jymif;vJjcif;? avwdu k pf m;jcif;? tyif? owå0gESihf
vlom;wd\ Yk vkyaf qmifrrI sm;aMumifh jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ½kyaf jcrGjcif;qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ ½kyaf jcrGjcif;udk t"dujzpfapaom taMumif;&if;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
3/ ausmuftufuaJG Mumif;rsm;twGi;f a&rsm; 0ifa&mufcakd tmif;ae&mrS ausmufrsm;
rnfoYkd aMurGysupf ;D Mu&oenf;/
4/ tylaMumifh ausmufrsm; rnfoYkd tufuaJG MurGysupf ;D Mu&oenf;/
5/ avaMumifh ausmufrsm; rnfoYkd tufuaJG MurGysupf ;D Mu&oenf;/
6/ tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm;aMumifh ausmufrsm; rnfoYkd tufuaJG MurGysupf ;D Mu&oenf;/
74
7-3-4 "mwfajcrGjcif;
"mwfajcrGjcif;jzpfpOfwiG f ausmufrsm; aMuysuo f mG ;onfomru "mwkzUJG pnf;yHk
ajymif;vJjcif;jzifh wGi;f xGut
f opfrsm;vnf; jzpfay:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ½kyaf jcrGjcif;ESi"hf mwfajcrGjcif; wlnrD I &Sd r&Sd aqG;aEG;yg/
à "mwfajcrGjcif;udjk zpfapaom taMumif;&if;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
atmufq*D si^f
rd;k a& umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd f
"mwfajcrGjcif;
qm;iefa& a&
vkyif ef; (2)

ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;udk wGi;f xGujf 'yfaygif;rsm;pGmjzifh yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;onf/ tcsKd U
j'yfaygif;rsm;onf tufppfEiS hf "mwfjyKNy;D *kPo f wård sm; ajymif;oGm;onf/ rd;k a&wGif tvGef
aysmah om tufppf"mwfygaomaMumifh ausmufom;xkukd aMurGysupf ;D aponf/

k u
kd f aqG;aEG;
ajzqdyk g/
à yHk (7-23) wGif xH;k ausmuf*l rnfoYkd jzpfay:
vmoenf;/
yHk (7-23) xH;k ausmuf*l
vkyif ef; (3)

ausmufw;kH ausmufaqmifrsm;\ ausmufom;xkwiG yf g0ifaom wGi;f xGujf 'yfaygif;
tcsKd Uonf avxkx&J dS atmufq*D siEf iS hf a&cd;k a&aiGUwd\
Yk "mwfjyKraI Mumifh wGi;f xGujf 'yfaygif;
topfrsm; jzpfay:Muonf/ xdjk zpfpOfaMumifh ausmufom;xk tay:,HvmT "mwf ajymif;vJrI
jzpfay:Ny;D aMurGysupf ;D jcif;udk jzpfay:aponf/
75
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u kd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/

à oHutkd csed Mf umjrifph mG tjyifwiG x f m;ygu rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;oenf;/ xdo
k jYkd zpf&jcif;rSm
tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à ausmufom;xktay:,HvmT "mwfajymif;vJjcif;jzpfay:onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (4)
a&aMumifh ausmufom;xk aMurGysupf ;D jcif;onf ½kyaf jcrGjcif;tjyif "mwfajcrGjcif;
aMumifv h nf; jzpfay:onf/ a&onf "mwfajcrG&mwGif tvGet f a&;Bu;D onf/ wGi;f xGuf
j'yfaygif;rsm;onf a&ESihf "mwfjyKaygif;pyfNy;D a&aygif;wGi;f xGut
f opfrsm; ( hydrated new
minerals ) jzpfay:Edi
k o
f nf/
https://www.colourbox.de/
yHk (7-24) ajrap;wGi;f xGujf zpfay:aeaom ajrqDvmT

k u
à yHk (7-24) wGif ajrqDvmT udk rnfoYkd awGU&oenf;/ xdok jYkd zpfaejcif;rSm tb,faMumifh
enf;/
vkyif ef; (5)
yifv,fa&wGif qm;trdsK;rsKd ;aysm0f ifaeNy;D ,if;qm;iefa&rsm;onf urf;ajca'o&Sd
ausmuftufuaJG Mumif;rsm;twGi;f odYk 0ifa&mufcakd tmif;aeavh&o dS nf/ xdq k m;iefa&rsm;
aeyl&edS af Mumifh taiGUjyefNy;D aemuf qm;yGirhf sm; pkyv
kH m&mrS us,jf yefv Y mNy;D ausmufom;xkukd
½kyaf jcrGjcif;tjyif "mwfajcrGjcif;udjk zpfapNy;D tufuaJG MurGaponf/
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k u kd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
à yifv,fa&rsm; taiGUjyefNy;D aemuf rnfonfwYkd use&f dS
oenf;/
à yHk (7-25) wGif yifv,furf;ajca'o&Sd ausmufaqmifrsm;
www.rockhounders1.com rnfoYkd jzpfaeoenf;/ xdo k jYkd zpf&jcif;rSm tb,faMumifh
yHk (7-25) qm;iefa&0ifaeaom enf;/
ausmufaqmifrsm;
t"dutcsuf
"mwfajcrGjcif;wGif avxJ&dS atmufq*D si?f umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd ?f a&? rd;k a& ESihf
qm;iefa&wdu Yk ausmufrsm;ESix
hf ad wGU"mwfjyKNy;D ausmufrsm;udk aMuysuof mG ;aponf
omru wGi;f xGut f opfrsm;vnf;jzpfay:Edik o
f nf/
76
avhusifch ef;
1/ "mwfajcrGjcif;qdok nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ "mwfajcrGjcif;udjk zpfapaom taMumif;&if;rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
7-3-5 o,f,yl Ukd aqmifjcif;
pD;qif;a&ESiw hf u
kd cf wfavwdo Yk nf ausmufpausmufersm;? oJreI Ef iS hf ajrrIew f uYkd kd
enf;vrf;trsKd ;rsKd ;jzifh o,f,yl aYkd qmifonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u kd f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
à yHk (7-26) wGiyf ifv,furf;ajcü rnfonft h &mrsm;udk awGU&oenf;/ xdo
k Ykd awGU&jcif;rSm
tb,faMumifeh nf;/
o,f,yl aYkd qmifjcif;
pD;qif;a& wdu
k cf wfav
-ckeaf ygufa&GUvsm;um
-vdrv hf o
J ,faqmifjcif;
o,faqmifjcif;
-arsm0ifo,faqmifjcif;
yHk (7-26) yifv,furf;ajc -avwGicf w kd aJG pvsuf
-aysm0f ifo,faqmifjcif;
o,faqmifjcif;
vkyif ef;(2)
pD;qif;a&onf tenfrsm;udk enf; 3 enf;jzifh o,f,yl aYkd qmifonf/
yHk (7-27) udk Munfí h atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf vk u
à tenfrsm;udk pD;qif;a&u rnfoYkd o,f,yl aYkd qmifay;Edik o f enf;/
à pD;qif;a&onf ausmufw;kH ausmufcrJ sm;ESihf oJv;kH Bu;D rsm;udk rnfuo hJ Ykd o,f,yl aYkd qmif
ay;oenf;/
à pD;qif;a&onf oJreI Ef iS ahf jrrIeI rf sm;udk rnfuohJ Ykd o,f,yl aYkd qmifay;oenf;/
à pD;qif;a&onf ausmufaMurGpmrsm;rS xGuv f maom j'yfpifEiS hf j'yfaygif;rsm;udk
rnfuo hJ Ykd o,f,yl aYkd qmifay;oenf;/ aysm0f ifo,faqmifjcif;
arsm0ifo,faqmifjcif; (j'yfpifEiS hf "mwfaygif;rsm;)
(oJreI ?f ajrrIe)f
vdrv
hf o
J ,faqmifjcif;
yHk (7-27) pD;qif;a&\ o,f,yl aYkd qmifjcif;
77
vkyif ef; (3)

avonf tenfrsm;udk enf; 2 enf;jzifh o,f,yl aYkd qmifonf/
à oJv;kH rsm;udk wdu k cf wfavu rnfoYkd o,f,yl aYkd qmifay;oenf;/
à oJreI Ef iS hf ajrrIerf sm;udk wdu
k cf wfavu rnfoYkd o,f,yl aYkd qmifay;oenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
pD;qif;a&ESiw hf u
kd cf wfavwdu Yk ausmufpausmufersm;? oJreI Ef iS hf ajrrIew f u Ykd kd o,f,l
ydaYk qmifonf/
pD;qif;a&onf tenfrsm;udk vdrv hf ?J arsm0if? aysm0f if[al om enf; 3 enf;jzifh o,f,l
ydaYk qmifonf/
wdu k cf wfavonf avvrf;aMumif;twdik ;f oJv;kH rsm;udt k qifq
h ifh ckeaf ygufapum
o,faqmifjcif;? oJreI Ef iS hf ajrrIerf sm;udk avwGif cdw k aJG pvsuf o,faqmifjcif;[laom
enf; 2 enf;jzifh o,f,yl aYkd qmifonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygwdu Yk kd ,SOw
f yJG g/
(u) vdrv hf o
J ,faqmifjcif; (a&) (1) oJv;kH
(c) ckeaf ygufa&GUvsm;o,faqmifjcif; (av) (2) oJreI ?f ajrrIef
(*) arsm0ifo,faqmifjcif; (a&) (3) ausmufp&pfcJ
(C) aysm0f ifo,faqmifjcif; (a&) (4) j'yfpifEiS hf j'yfaygif;rsm;
urÇmah jrrsufEmS jyifajymif;vJ&jcif;taMumif;&if;rsm; oifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif;/
urÇmah jrrsuEf mS jyifajymif;vJ&jcif;taMumif;&if;rsm;
ajrwGi;f ajrjyif ausmufajcrGjcif; wdu

k pf m;jcif; o,f,yl aYkd qmifjcif;
jzpfpOf (½ky?f "mwf)
a&? av? rd;k ? (½ky-f a&cJjcif;? ajrqGt

J m;? a&? pD;qif;a&?
a&cJ? 'Da&? vIid ;f ? tylcsed af jymif;vJjcif;? a&cJEiS hf wdu
k cf wfav
tylprG ;f tif? avwdu k pf m;jcif;? tyif? wdu
k cf wfav
zdtm;? wGe;f tm; owå0g? vlom;)
("mwf-atmufq*D si?f
umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd ?f a&)
78
tcef;(8)
a*[pepf (Ecosystem)
ed'gef;
a*[pepfwpfcw k iG f ouf&EdS iS hf oufrrhJ sm;yg0ifonf/ ouf&rdS sm;tcsi;f csi;f aomfvnf;
aumif;? ouf&EdS iS fh ,if;\ywf0ef;usiaf omfvnf;aumif; tjyeftvSef qufpyfr&I o dS nf/
8-1 a*[pepf
a*[pepfwpfcw k iG f ouf&rdS sm; (biotic factors) jzpfMuaom vlom;rsm;? owå0grsm;?
tyifrsm;ESihf oufrrhJ sm; (abiotic factors) jzpfMuaom uke;f ? ajr? a&? av? tylcsed f ponfh
tajctaersm;ay:wGif tjyeftvSef qufpyfrcDS Nkd y;D tusK;d jyKaexkid Mf uonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à atmufazmfjyyg tcsurf sm;yg0ifaom awmtkyw f pfcyk u kH akd &;qJyG g/
1/ opfyifBu;D wpfyifwiG f a`rw G pfaumifaexdik Nf y;D iSuw f pfaumifem;aeonf/
2/ xdo k pfyif\ ab;ywf0ef;usiw f iG f pdr;f pdak om yef;yifrsm;? jrufyifrsm;ESihf
a&tdik if ,fav; wpfc&k o
dS nf/
3/ a&tdik ef m;wGif zm;av;wpfaumif ckeq f cG ek q f aG jy;aeNy;D yk&u G q
f w
d rf sm; tpm
o,faeMuonf/
vkyif ef; (2)
à xdak wmtkyw
f iG f xyfraH wGUEdik o
f nfh ouf&rdS sm;udk cefrY eS ;f a&;qJyG g/
vkyif ef; (3)
à qJx G m;aomykrH S ouf&rdS sm; &Sio
f ef&ef r&Srd jzpfvt
kd yfaom oufryhJ wf0ef;usirf sm;udk
azmfxw k Nf y;D tb,faMumifh ta&;ygonfuadk qG;aEG;í oifyek ;f ay:rSZ,m;wGif
jznfph u
G yf g/
vkyif ef; (4)
à oufryhJ wf0ef;usiw f iG yf g0ifaomt&mrsm; tcsi;f csi;f rnfoq
Ykd ufpyfonfukd tkypf k
vdu
k f aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
&Sio
f efaexdik &f mt&yf ouf&rdS sm; &Sio
f efaexdik &f efvt
kd yfaom ywf0ef;usif
(habitat) jzpfonf/
rsK;d wlouf&t
dS yk pf k &Sio f efaexdik &f m t&yfa'owpfcw
k nf;wGif aexdik af om
(population) rsK;d wlouf&tdS pkta0;jzpfonf/
79
uGjJ ym;aomouf&t
dS pktzGUJ uGjJ ym;onfh ouf&rdS sK;d pdwrf sm;\ tpktzGUJ jzpfonf/
(community)
a*[pepf ae&ma'owpfct k wGi;f wGif rSw
D if;aexdik af om ouf&dS
(ecosystem) rsm;ESio
hf ufrrhJ sm;tm;vH;k tjyeftvSeq f ufpyfaeaom
pepfjzpfonf/
&Sio
f efaexdik &f m uGjJ ym;aom ouf&dS
+ rsKd ;wlouf&t
dS yk pf k + = a*[pepf
t&yf tpktzGUJ
a*[pepf
ae pdx
k ikd ;f q
aexdik &f mt&yfa'o
uGjJ ym;aom ouf&dS

tpktzGUJ (tyif)
uGjJ ym;aom ouf&dS
tpktzGUJ (owå0g)
a*[pepf
oufryhJ wf0ef;usif (ouf&rdS sm;twGuf r&Srd jzpfvt
kd yfaomt&mrsm;)
ouf&rdS sm;tm;vH;k \ zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufyHk (structure) ESihf ZD0½kywf iG ;f jzpfysujf cif;
(metabolism) wdt
Yk wGuf a&ESiahf v r&Srd jzpf vdt k yfonf/
atmufq*D sif ouf&rdS sm;\ tpmNzKd prG ;f tifvw
T jf cif; (touf&LS jcif;) twGuf
( O2 ) r&Srd jzpf vdt
k yfonf/
a& umAGe'f ikd f
ESihf tpdr;f a&mif&adS om tyifrsm;onf tvif;rDt S pmpkzUGJ jcif;
atmufq'kd f
(photosynthesis) jzpfpOfü toH;k jyKonf/
av ( CO2 )
avxkxw J iG &f adS oma&aiGUyrmPudk pdx k ikd ;f q[kac:onf/ ,if;
onf tyifrsm;ESio hf wå0grsm; a&qH;k ½H;I rItay: oufa&mufr&I dS
pkx
d idk ;f q
onf/ pdx k ikd ;f qjrifv h Qif a&qH;k ½H;I rIeI nf;í pdx k ikd ;f qedrv hf Qif
a&qH;k ½H;I rIrsm;onf/
tvif;jyif;tm;onf tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm; &Sio f efrt I ay:wGif
tvif;jyif;tm;
oufa&mufr&I o dS nf/
ae
tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm;\ ZD0ur®vyk if ef;rsm;onf tylcsed t f ay:
a&mif
rlwnfaeonf/ wpfcsKd Uouf&rdS sm;onf tvGejf rifrh m;aom tylcsed f
jcnf tylcsed f
wGif &Sio f efEikd Mf uNy;D wpfcsKd UrSmedrahf omtylcsed w f iG f &Sio f efEikd Mf u
onf/
80
ouf&ydS wf0ef;usif
owå0g? tyif? rdEI iS hf bufw;D &D;,m;rsm;yg0ifonf/ ouf&ydS wf0ef;usiw f iG f
yg0ifaom ouf&rdS sm;twGi;f wGif tjyeftvSeq f ufpyfr&I o
dS nf/ Oyrm – jrufukd orifu
pm;onf/ orifukd usm;u pm;onf/ þjzpfpOfukd tpmuGi;f quf (food chain) [kac:onf/
ouf&EdS iS hf oufr?hJ oufrt hJ csif;csif; tjyeftvSeq f ufpyfykH
xdjYk yif oufryhJ wf0ef;usiu f vnf; ouf&ydS wf0ef;usit f ay: oufa&mufr&I odS nf/
Oyrm - tyifonf tpmcsu&f ef aea&mifjcnfvt dk yfonf/
oufryhJ wf0ef;usit f wGi;f wGiv f nf; tjyeftvSeof ufa&mufr&I o dS nf/ Oyrm -
tylcsed w
f ;kd vQif a&onf vsijf refpmG taiGUjyefEidk o f nf/ a&aiGUjyefjcif;aMumifh ywf0ef;usif
wGif tylcsed w f ;kd jcif;? avsmjh cif;udk jzpfaponf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ a*[pepf (ecosystem) qko d nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ a*[pepfwpfcjk zpf&ef rnfonfwYkd vdt k yfoenf;/
3/ rsKd ;wlouf&t dS yk pf k (population) ESihf uGjJ ym;aom ouf&t dS pktzJUG (community) wdYk
onf rnfoYkd uGmjcm;oenf;/
4/ ay;xm;aoma&uefwiG f rnfonfo h uf&rdS sm;
aexdik Mf uoenf;/ oufryhJ wf0ef;usio f nf xdk
ouf&rdS sm;ESihf rnfoYkd qufpyfoenf;/
5/ &Sio f efaexkid &f m t&yfa'o (habitat) qko d nfrmS
tb,fenf;/ yku H Mkd unfí
h &Siof efaexdik &f m t&yf
3 rsKd ; udk azmfjyyg/
8-2 a*[pepftrsdK;rsdK; (Different types of Ecosystem)
urÇmay:wGif obm0a*[pepf trsKd ;rsKd ;&So d nf/ a*[pepfukd t"dutm;jzifh
a&a*[pepf (aquatic ecosystem) ESihf uke;f a*[pepf (terrestrial ecosystem) [lí 2 rsK;d
cGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à jrefrmEdik if t
H wGi;f &Sd obm0a*[pepfrsm;udk ajymjyyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
à atmufazmfjyyga*[pepfrsm;wGif &Sio
f efaexdik af omouf&rdS sm;udk jznfph u
G yf g/
a&a*[pepf (aquatic ecosystem) uke;f a*[pepf (terrestrial ecosystem)
81
vkyif ef; (3)

à ay;xm;aom yHk 2 yk&H dS a*[
pepfrsm;wGif rnfonfh uGmjcm;
csu&f o
dS enf;/ rnfonfh ouf&dS
rsm; &Siof efEikd o
f enf;/
yk(H 8-1) a*[pepf trsKd ;rsKd ;
vkyif ef; (4)
à ay;xm;aom ouf&rdS sm;onf atmufazmfjyyg a&csKd EiS hf a&ief a*[pepfwiG f rnfonfü
&Sio
f efaexdik Mf uoenf;/
Mumyif? vrkawm? yifv,fa&nd?§ a&arSmyf if? ig;ajyr? a&ykwo
f if? a,mufomG ;? uPef;/
a&csKd a&ief
vkyif ef; (5)

à atmufazmfjyyg yHk 5 yH\
k jcm;em;csuu
f kd aqG;aEG;azmfxw
k yf g/
(u) (c) (*)
(C) (i)
ykH (8-2) a*[pepftrsKd ;rsKd ;
vkyif ef; (6)
à ay;xm;aom owå0gESit hf yifrsm;onf vkyif ef; (5) rS yHrk sm;teuf rnfonfah e&mwGif
&Sio
f efaexdik Ef ikd Mf uoenf;/
usm;? ukvm;tkw?f iSu?f opfuv k m;tkw?f cavmufa>r? usm;vQmyif? qif? jrufyif?
uRe;f yif? aA'gyif? xef;yif? Mumyif? vrkyif? o&ufyif? ig;ref;/
82
t"dutcsufrsm;
a*[pepfwiG f a&a*[pepfEiS hf uke;f a*[pepfwyYkd g0ifonf/
a&a*[pepfwiG f a&csKd EiS ahf &iefa*[pepf[í l xyfrcH jJG cm;Edik o
f nf/
a&csKd a*[pepf (Freshwater ecosystem) wGif a&uef? prf;acsmif;rsm;ESihf jrpfrsm;yg0if
onf/ a&iefa*[pepf (Marine ecosystem) wGif yifv,fEiS hf ork'&´ mwdyYk g0ifonf/
prf;acsmif;rsm;onf jrpfacsmif;rsm;xJoYkd pD;0ifí jrpfacsmif;rsm;onf yifv,fwiG ;f odYk
pD;0ifojzifh prf;acsmif;? jrpfacsmif;a*[pepfonf yifv,fa*[pepfEiS hf csw d qf ufaom
a*[pepfjzpfonf/
uke;f a*[pepfwiG v f nf; opfawm (Forest) ? jrufcif;vGijf yif (Grassland) ? oJuEÅm&
(Desert) [líxyfrc H jJG cm;Edik o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ a*[pepfukd t"dutm;jzifh trsKd ;tpm; rnfrQcjGJ cm;xm;oenf;/ ,if;wduYk kd azmfjy
yg/
2/ atmufazmfjyyg ouf&rdS sm;\ &Siof efaexdik &f ma*[pepfukd owfrw
S yf g/ (erlem
tajz jyxm;onf/)
ou
&f
pe a*[ rdS sm;
prf
sm;
a&csKd
a&ief
opfawm
jrufcif;
vGijf yif
oJuEÅm&
3/ ay;xm;aomouf&rdS sm;udk tok;H jyKí oifah vsmaf oma*[pepfwpfcu k kd a&;qJG

wnfaqmufyg/
pmuav;? bJ? EGm;? qdw?f &SO?hf ykwo f ifnKd ? aA'gyif? Mumyif? a&arSmyf if? ig;?
o&ufyif? pyg;cif;? jrufyif? vdyjf ym? ysm;? vdy?f opfcyG if? iSuaf ysmyif/
83
8-3 tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm;\qufpyfrI

uREyfk w
f \ Ykd ouf&adS *[pepfwiG f tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm;onf tjyeftvSef qufpyfrrI sm;
&Sad eMuonf/ tyifrx S w
k vf yk af om tpm;tpmudk owå0grsm;u pm;ok;H Muonf/ owå0grsm;
rS&LS xkwaf om umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd Ef iS hf pGexYf u
G yf pön;f rsm;onf tyifwt Ykd wGuf Bu;D xGm;rIukd
taxmuftuljzpfaponf/ tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm; aoausaqG;jrnfo h mG ;vQif wDaumif? bufw;D
&D;,m;ESihf rdI ponfrsm;u ajczsuaf y;Ny;D ajrqDvmT twGuf vdt k yfaomajrMoZmrsm; jzpfaponf/
ouf&t dS csi;f csi;f twlwuGaexdik &f mwGif (1) tjcm; ouf&u dS kd tusKd ;rJah pjcif; ? (2)
ouf&w dS pfO;D wnf;tusKd ;jzpfxeG ;f Ny;D tjcm;ouf&t dS wGuf tusKd ;jzpfxeG ;f jcif;vnf;r&Sd tEÅ&m,f
vnf;r&Sd aexdik jf cif;ESihf (3) tcsi;f csi;f tjyeftvSet f usKd ;jyKaexdik jf cif;yHpk rH sm;&So
d nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ywf0ef;usiw
f iG af wGU&aom tyifEiS o
hf wå0grsm;\ trnf 15 rsKd ;udk ajymjyyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
à rSww f rf;wifxm;aom tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm; 15 rsKd ;udk ausmif;om;tkypf k 1 pkvQif
ouf&dS 5 rsKd ;pD,í
l atmufazmfjyygZ,m;wGif jznfo
h iG ;f yg/
xkwv
f yk o
f l pm;oH;k ol taqG;pm;ol
vkyif ef; (3)

à ausmif;om;rsm; tkypf zk UGJ í atmufygar;cGe;f udk aqG;aEG;yg/
à atmufazmfjyyg ouf&t dS wJrG sm;wGif rnfonfo h uf&u dS rnfonfo h uf&u dS kd tqifqh ifh
pm;oH;k oenf;/
(a>r? <uuf? pyg;ES?H ZD;uGu)f ? (jcaoF?h ,ke?f ajracG;? rkev
f mOeD) ? (zm;? a>r? jruf? ESaH umif)
erlemtajz (a&n§d ig;uav; zsH ig;ref;)

vkyif ef; (4)
à ay;xm;aom yHrk sm;teuf tcsi;f csi;f qufpyfrcDS akd exdik Mf uaom yHrk sm;udk a&G;xkwyf g/
oefaumif vdyjf ym opfcyG if yef;yGihf opfyif vl\ tl

yHk (8-3) ouf&t
dS rsKd ;rsKd ;
84
vkyif ef; (5)

à vkyif ef; (4) rS&&Sv
d maom ouf&t
dS wJw
G pfwpGJ oD nf rnfoYkd qufpyfyf goenf;/
à &&Sv d maom&v'fukd atmufygZ,m;wGijf znfph u
G íf tkypf u
k ,kd pf m;vS,u
f wifjyyg/
qufpyfr&I adS omyHw

k \
Ykd trnfrsm; tjyeftvSeq
f ufpyfaexdik jf cif;yHpk H
t"dutcsufrsm;
ouf&adS vmuwGif tyiftcsi;f csi;f qufE, T rf ?I owå0gtcsi;f csi;f qufE,
T rf ?I tyif
ESio
hf wå0gqufE, T rf rI sm; &SMd uonf/ ,if;wdo
Yk nf tpmtm[m&jyK&efEiS hf aumif;pGm
&Siof efaexdik &f eftwGuf qufpyfaexdik Mf uonf/
pm;oH;k olrsm; (Consumers)

ae
ESaH umif <uufpwk f ZD;uGuf
(rlvpm;oH;k ol) ('kw,d pm;oH;k ol) (wwd,pm;oH;k ol)
a&
umAGe'f ikd f
atmufq'kd f
tpmxkwv
f yk o
f l (Producer) taqG;pm;ol (Decomposer)
yHk (8-4) tpmxkwv
f yk o
f ?l pm;oH;k olEiS hf taqG;pm;olw\
Ykd qufpyfykH
taqG;pm;ol (Decomposer)
tykytf aqG; odrYk [kwf aoqH;k Ny;D aomouf&rdS sm;udpk m;oH;k aom wDaumif? rdEI iS hf
bufw;D &D;,m;rsm;ponfukd taqG;pm;ol (decomposer) [kac:onf/ xdt k aqG;pm;
ouf&rdS sm;onf tykyt f aqG;rsm;udk NzKd cí
GJ a&? owåK"mwfEiS hf umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd rf sm;udk
xkwvf w T uf m ajrBu;D udk tm[m&<u,fapNy;D tjcm;ouf&dS (Oyrm-tyif) rsm;u
wpfzefjyefvnf toH;k jyKayonf/
85
twlwuG,OS w f aJG exkid jf cif; (Symbiosis)

trsKd ;tpm;rwlonfh ouf&EdS pS rf sKd ; odrYk [kwf ESprf sK;d xufyakd omouf&rdS sm;
twlwuG aexkid jf cif;udak c:onf/ obm0ywf0ef;usiw f iG f twl,OS w
f aJG exdik jf cif; 3 rsKd ;
cGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
1/ uyfyg;tusKd ;jyKaexdik jf cif; (Parasitism)
2/ wpfO;D wnf;tusKd ;&Sad exdik jf cif; (Commensalism)
3/ wpfO;D ESiw hf pfO;D tjyeftvSet f usKd ;&Sad exdik jf cif; (Mutualism)
1/ uyfyg;tusdK;jyKaexdik jf cif;
wpfO;D utusKd ;&SNd y;D usew f pfO;D ukt
d usKd ;rJah paom qufpyfaexdik jf cif;jzpfonf/
tusKd ;jzpfxeG ;f oGm;aom ouf&u dS kd uyfyg; (parasite) [kac:Ny;D tusKd ;rjzpfxeG ;f bJ
xdcu
kd rf &I &Sad om ouf&udS kd vufcaH umif (host) [k ac:onf/
2/ wpfO;D wnf;tusdK;&Sad exdik jf cif;
wpfO;D ESiw hf pfO;D trSo D [JjyK&mwGif wpfO;D utusKd ;&SNd y;D usew
f pfO;D onf aumif;jcif;
qd;k jcif;r&S?d rlvtwdik ;f &Sad ejcif;udk wpfO;D wnf; tusKd ;&Sad exdik jf cif; [kac:onf/
3/ wpfO;D ESiw hf pfO;D tjyeftvSet f usdK;&Sad exdik jf cif;
ouf&EdS pS Of ;D pvH;k tjyeftvSet f usKd ;jzpfapaom qufE, T rf u
I kd wpfO;D ESiw
hf pfO;D
tjyeftvSet f usKd ;&Sad exdik jf cif; [kac:onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ a*[pepfwpfcw k iG f xkwv f yk o f q
l o
kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/ Oyrmay;ajzqdyk g/
2/ taqG;pm;olrsm;onf a*[pepfukd rnfoYkd tusKd ;jyKoenf;/
3/ pm;oH;k olEiS hf taqG;pm;olw\ Ykd uGmjcm;csuu f kd azmfjyyg/
4/ tyifEiS o hf wå0grsm; rnfot Ykd jyeftvSet f usKd ;jyKonfukd Oyrm wpfcak y;í ajzqkd
yg/
5/ ay;xm;aomyHw k iG f yef;yGiEhf iS yhf sm;onf rnfoYkd tjyef
tvSef qufpyfr&I o dS enf;/
6/ rdrad exdik &f m ywf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&S&d aom tyifEiS hf
owå0grsm;udk tyiftcsi;f csi;f qufpyfaomtkypf ?k yef;yGiEhf iS yhf sm;
tyifEiS hf owå0gwkYd qufpyfaomtkypf ?k owå0g tcsi;f csi;f
qufpyfaom tkypf [ k í l cGjJ cm;wifjyyg/
7/ azmfjyygyHw k iG f vlEiS jhf cifrsm;onf rnfonfh tjyeftvSef
qufpyfaexdik jf cif;rsKd ; jzpfoenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vlEiS jhf cif
86
8/ atmufygwdu Yk kd tajzrSeaf &G;yg/

(u) tvif;a&mifo;kH Ny;D ud, k wf ikd f tpmzGUJ pnf;Edik af omtyifrmS (uefpeG ;f yif? rd?I
a&TE, G yf if) jzpfonf/
(c) a>ronf (0uf? <uuf? jrufyif) udpk m;onf/
(*) rdo
I nf (xkwv f yk of ?l pm;ok;H ol? taqG;pm;ol) jzpfonf/
9/ atmufygyHrk sm;udMk unfí h ar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzyg/
(u) yHk (1) ESihf yHk (2) wGif azmfjyxm;aom wd& pämefwo Ykd nf rnfoq
Ykd ufpyfae
oenf;/
(c) xdq k ufpyfro I nf AsKd i;f udk rnfuo hJ Ykd tusKd ;jzpfxeG ;f apoenf;/
yHk (1) yHk (2)

a*[pepf
a&csKd a&ief opfawm jrufcif;vGijf yif oJuEÅm&

a*[pepf a*[pepf a*[pepf a*[pepf a*[pepf
oufrhJ ywf0ef;usif ouf&dS ywf0ef;usif
twlwuG ,SOw
f aJG exdik jf cif; tyif
(tpmxkwv
f yk o
f )l
uyfyg;tusKd ;jyK
aexdik jf cif; owå0g (pm;oH;k ol)
wpfO;D wnf;
tusKd ;&Sad exdik jf cif; rdI (taqG; pm;ol)
wpfO;D ESiw
hf pfO;D
tjyeftvSef tusKd ;&Sd
aexdik jf cif;
87
tcef; (9)
j'yfpif? j'yfaygif;ESihf j'yfaESmrsm; (Elements, Compounds and Mixtures)
ed'gef;
ouf&?dS oufrt hJ &m0w¬Ktm;vH;k onf j'yfrsm;jzifzh UJG pnf;xm;aMumif; avhvmod&cdS NhJ y;D
jzpfonf/ rdrw d yYkd wf0ef;usi&f dS ajr? a&? av? tpm;taomufEiS hf aysm&f nftrsKd ;rsKd ;wdw Yk iG f j'yfrsm;
a&maESmyg0ifaeMuonf/ j'yfrsm;wGif j'yfpif? j'yfaygif;ESihf j'yfaESm[lí trsKd ;rsKd ;&SEd ikd o f nf/
,if;wdw
Yk iG rf wlnaD om 0daoovu©Pmrsm;&SMd uonf/ j'yfaESmrsm;wGif yg0ifaomypön;f rsm;udk
,if;wd\
Yk obm0ay:rlwnfí oifah vsmaf omcGx J w
k ef nf;rsm;jzifh cGx
J w
k Ef ikd o
f nf/ txufyg
avhvmod&cdS surf sm;udk aeYpOfb0ESiq hf ufpyfNy;D vufawGUtoH;k csEikd rf nfjzpfonf/
9-1 j'yfpifEiS hf tufwrfrsm; (Elements and Atoms)
rdrw
d yYkd wf0ef;usiw
f iG f j'yfpiftrsKd ;rsKd ;udk awGU&SEd ikd o
f nf/ j'yfpifwpfco k nf rsKd ;wltufwrf
rsm;jzifo
h mzGUJ pnf;xm;onf/ Oyrm a&Tw;kH onf a&Ttufwrfrsm;jzifo h mzGUJ pnf;xm;onf/
9-1-1 j'yfpifrsm; (Elements)
à j'yfpifqo dk nfrmS tb,fenf;/
urÇmajray:wGif j'yfpifaygif; 118 rsKd ;&So
d nf/ obm0wGif 92 rsKd ;udak wGUEdik Nf y;D usef
j'yfpif 26 rsKd ;onf odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm;u vufawGUcef;wGif jyKvyk x
f m;aom j'yfpifrsm;jzpfonf/
j'yfpiferlemtcsKd Uudk yHk (9-1) wGif azmfjyxm;onf/
owåKj'yfpifrsm;
aiG oGyf oH aMu;eD jy'g;

owåKr[kwaf omj'yfpifrsm;
uefY rD;aoG; tdik t

f 'kd if; atmufq*D sif uvd&k if;
yHk (9-1) j'yfpifrsm;
urÇmth ay:,HajrvTmwGif trsm;qH;k awGU&SEd ikd af om j'yfpifrmS atmufq*D sif (46.6%)
jzpfonf/ ajcmufaoGUaomavwGif Edu
k xf ½d*k sif (78.09%) ESihf atmufq*D sif (20.95%)
88
yg0ifonf/ vlom;rsm;\cE¨mud, k wf iG f atmufq*D sif (65%)? [ku

d 'f ½d*k si?f umAGe?f Edu
k x
f ½d*k si?f
u,fvq f ,
D rfEiS hf tjcm;j'yfpifrsm;vnf; yg0ifonf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à rdrw d yYkd wf0ef;usiw f iG f rnfonft
h &mESirhf Qra&mbJ oD;oefw Y nf&adS eonfh j'yfrsm;udk
ajymyg/ rD;aoG;wH;k (umAGe)f wpfcu k kd trIejf zpfonftxdcpJG w
d vf ukd vf Qif rnfonfwu Ykd kd
&&SEd ikd rf nfenf;/ a& (H2O) udk ("mwkaA'enf;roH;k bJ) xyfrcH pJG w d v f ukd v
f Qif rnfonf
wdu
Yk &kd &SEd ikd o
f enf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
à oifoo d rQ j'yfpifrsm;udak jymyg/
t"dutcsuf
j'yfpifqo
kd nfrmS tufwrfwpfrsKd ;wnf;jzifo h m zGUJ pnf;xm;Ny;D xyfrcH pJG w
d v
f Qif tjcm;
rnfonfyh pön;f rQr&Edik af om j'yfjzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzyg/
1/ qm;? puúL? yvwfpwpfEiS hf oJwo Ykd nf j'yfpifrsm;jzpfrjzpfukd &Si;f jyyg/
2/ atmufyg ay;xm;aomypön;f rsm;rS j'yfpifrsm;udk a&G;cs,yf g/
jy'g;? aMu;eD? oHaygif? oGy?f "mwfajrMoZm? yd;k owfaq;? aiGzvm;?atmufq*D sif
3/ vlwt Ykd ouf&LS &ef t"duvkt d yfaom"mwfaiGU j'yfpifrmS tb,fenf;/
4/ omrdrk w D mwGitf oH;k jyKaom j'yfpifukd azmfjyyg/
9-1-2 j'yfpifrsm;udtk rsdK;tpm;cGjJ cm;jcif;
!

j'yfpifrsm;udk rnfuo hJ t
Ykd rsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;Edik o
f enf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
à yHk (9-1) ygj'yfpifrsm;ESihf tjcm;rnfonfh j'yfpifrsm;udk tjym;cwfjcif;? eef;qGjJ cif; jyKvyk f
Edik o
f enf;/ ,if;j'yfpifwo
Ykd nf tylEiS v
hf Qyu
f ;l Edik jf cif; &Sd r&Sd qef;ppfyg/ txufygtcsuf
rsm;ay:rlwnfí ,if;j'yfpifrsm;udk rsKd ;wlppk nf;yg/
a&Tjym; tvlreD ,
D rfjym; aMu;eDeef;BuKd ;rQif
yHk (9-2) owåKj'yfpifrsm;
89
vkyif ef;(2)
à atmufygj'yfpifrsm;udk owåKj'yfpifEiS hf owåKr[kwjf 'yfpif[í l tkypf v k u
kd t
f rsKd ;tpm;
cGjJ cm;yg/ Z,m;ESiahf zmfjyyg/
umAGe?f aMu;eD? atmufq*D si?f Eduk x
f ½d*k si?f [du
k 'f ½d*k si?f oH? uef?Y oGy?f uvd&k if;
t"dutcsufrsm;
j'yfpifrsm;udk owåKj'yfpifEiS hf owåKr[kwjf 'yfpif[í l cGjJ cm;Ekid o f nf/
tjym;cwfEikd jf cif;ESihf eef;qGEJ ikd jf cif;? tylEiS fh vQyu f ;l Edik jf cif;&Sad om j'yfpifrsm;onf
owåKj'yfpifrsm;jzpfonf/
tjym;cwfEikd af om owå&d jdS cif;aMumifh owåKj'yfpifrsm;udk yHo k P²meftrsKd ;rsKd ;&Sad om
t&m0w¬Kypön;f rsm;jyKvyk Ef ikd o f nf/
tjym;cwfEikd jf cif;ESihf eef;qGEJ ikd jf cif;? tylEiS v fh Qyu
f ;l Edik jf cif;r&Sad om j'yfpifrsm;onf
owåKr[kwjf 'yfpifrsm;jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzqdyk g/
1/ j'yfpifrsm;udk rnfonft h csuaf y:rlwnfí owåKj'yfpifEiS hf owåKr[kwjf 'yfpif [lí
cGjJ cm;oenf;/
2/ aeYpOfb0wGif toH;k rsm;aomowåKj'yfpifrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
3/ rdryd wf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&S&d aom yHok P²meftrsKd ;rsKd ;&SEd idk o
f nfh owåKj'yfpifrsm;udk
azmfjyyg/
4/ aMu;eDukd vQypf pf0ikd , f mBuKd ;tjzpftoH;k jyKEikd jf cif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
9-1-3 j'yfpifrsm;\trnfEiS o hf auFwrsm; (Names and Symbols of Elements)
j'yfpifrsm;wGif oufqikd &f mtrnfEiS hf oauFwrsm;toD;oD;&SMd uonf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à atmufygj'yfpifrsm;\ t*Fvyd t f rnfEiS hf oauFwudk rSwo
f m;yg/
j'yfpiftrnf
j'yfpifoauFw
jrefrm t*Fvyd f
umAGef Carbon C
[du k 'f ½d*k sif Hydrogen H
atmufq*D sif Oxygen O
Eduk xf ½d*k sif Nitrogen N
qk'd ,D rf Sodium Na
uvd&k if; Chlorine Cl
90
vkyif ef;(2)
à j'yfpiftrnf (jrefrm? t*Fvyd )f ESihf oauFwa&;om;xm;aom uwfxpl uúL uwfjym;
rsm;udk rSeu
f efpmG ,SOw
f yJG g/ tcsi;f csi;f rSef rrSef qH;k jzwfyg/
t"dutcsuf
umAGe?f [du k 'f ½d*k si?f atmufq*D si?f Edu
k x
f ½d*k si?f qd'k ,
D rfEiS hf uvd&k if; tp&Sad om
j'yfpifrsm;udk Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sodium, Chlorine [kak c:a0:Ny;D
C, H, O, N, Na ESihf Cl tp&So d nfh oauFwrsm;jzifh toD;oD;owfrw S x f m;onf/
avhusifch ef;
atmufygwdrYk S tajzrSeaf &G;cs,yf g/
1/ umAGe\ f oauFwonf ( C, O, H ) jzpfonf/
2/ uvd&k if;\ oauFwonf ( Ca, Cl, Cr ) jzpfonf/
3/ qd'k , D rf\ oauFwonf ( Sr, Na, Ne ) jzpfonf/
9-1-4 tufwrfrsm; (Atoms)
j'yfpifrsm;udk xyfrcH pJG w
d v
f Qif tjcm;rnfonfyh pön;f rQr&Edik af Mumif; odcNhJ y;D jzpfonf/
j'yfpifwpfcpk w
D ikd ;f udk tufwrf (trIe)f rsm;jzihf zGUJ pnf;xm;aMumif; avhvmrnf/ tufwrfqdk
onfrmS tb,fenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
à tkypf v k ukd f wpfzUJG pD j'yfpiftrnf? oauFwESihf tufwrftrnfygaom uwfjym;rsm;udk
toH;k jyKí twef;a&SU oifyek ;f ay:&SZd ,m;wGif ,SOw
f aJG jzqdyk g/
tkypf k (1) j'yfpiftrnfa&;xm;aom uwfjym;rsm; jyKvyk yf g/
tkypf k (2) j'yfpifoauFwygaom uwfjym;rsm; jyKvyk yf g/
tkypf k (3) j'yfpiftufwrftrnfa&;xm;aom uwfjym;rsm;jyKvyk yf g/
vkyif ef;(2)
à uefY (qmvzm) wH;k ESihf uefY (qmvzm) rIeu
Yf ,kd yl g/ ,if;wdw Yk iG f rnfonfjh 'yfpiftufwrf
rsm;ygoenf;/ ,if;j'yfpiftufwrfrsm;udk rsupf jd zifh jrifEikd f rjrifEidk ?f *kPo
f wdw
å n
l rD I
&Sd r&Sd avhvmyg/
t"dutcsuf
tufwrfqo dk nfrmS j'yfpifwpfcw
k iG yf g0ifaom omrefrsupf jd zifh rjrifEikd o
f nfh tvGef
ao;i,faom tajccHtrIef jzpfonf/ j'yfpifwpfrsKd ;wnf;wGi&f adS om tufwrftcsi;f
csi;f onf *kPo f wåw d n
l MD uonf/
91
avhusifch ef;
1/ a&\"mwkaA'oauFwrSm H2O jzpfonf/ ,if;wGiyf g0ifaom j'yfpiftufwrf
rsm;udak zmfjyyg/
2/ rd;k ysyH al zmif;wGit
f oH;k jyKaom"mwfaiGUrSm [du k 'f ½d*k si"f mwfaiGU jzpfonf/ ,if;wGif
rnfonfh j'yfpiftufwrf yg0ifoenf;/
3/ um;bD;avjznf&h mwGif avtjyif Edu k xf ½d*k si"f mwfaiGUudv k nf; toH;k jyKEikd o
f nf/
,if;"mwfaiGUwGiyf g0ifaom j'yfpiftufwrf\oauFwudk azmfjyyg/
9-2 armfvuD sL; ESihf j'yfaygif;rsm; (Molecules and Compounds)
j'yfpiftufwrfrsm;tcsi;f csi;f aygif;pyfjcif;jzifh armfvu
D sL;rsm;ESihf j'yfaygif;rsm;jzpfay:
vmonf/
9-2-1 armfvuD sL;rsm;ESiahf rmfvu
D sL;trsdK;tpm;rsm; (Molecules and Types of Molecules)
armfvuD sL;qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
H O N C Cl
à txufygj'yfpiftufwrfrsm;rS (u) rsKd ;wltufwrfEpS cf k odrYk [kwf oH;k ck (c) rsKd ;rwl
tufwrfEpS cf k odrYk [kwf oH;k ck ab;csi;f uyfí csw
d q
f ufjyyg/
Oyrm - (u) H H (c) C O
à ESpcf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf x

k ufyakd om j'yfpiftufwrfrsm; "mwkenf;t&aygif;pyfxm;aom
tufwrftpkukd rnfoaYkd c:oenf;/ armfvu
D sL;trsKd ;tpm; b,fErS sKd ;&So
d enf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
à Z,m;wGiaf zmfjyxm;aom armfvu D sL;rsm;tm; aeYpOfawGU&SEd ikd af omae&mrsm;ESihf toH;k jyK
Edik af omae&mrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
oauFw trnf awGU&SEd ikd o

f nfah e&m
H H [du
k 'f ½d*k sif rd;k ysyH al zmif;
urÇmajrBu;D txuf 20 rS 30 uDvrkd w D m
O tdZk ek ;f tuGmwGi&f NdS y;D aea&mifjcnfrv
S maom c&rf;
O O
vGeaf &mifjcnfukd umuG,af y;aomtvTm
92
C O umAGerf adk emufq'kd f ?
Edu
k xf ½d*k sif puf½?kH tvky½f rkH x
S u
G af om"mwfaiGU? vQypf ;D
N O
atmufq'kd f vufjcif;
[duk 'f ½du
k vd&k pf
H Cl pufrv I ufrI vkyif ef;rsm;wGif toH;k jyKjcif;
tufppf (qm;i&Jr;D )
O a& ?
H H
O C
O
umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd f ?
t"dutcsufrsm;
rsKd ;wl odrYk [kwf rsKd ;rwl j'yfpiftufwrfEpS cf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf x k ufyakd om tufwrfrsm;
"mwkenf;t&aygif;pyfjcif;jzifh armfvu D sL; jzpfay:vmonf/
ESpcf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf xk ufyakd om j'yfpiftufwrfrsm; "mwkenf;t& aygif;pyfxm;aom
tufwrftpkukd armfvu D sL;[kac:onf/
rsKd ;wltufwrfrsm;aygif;pyfjcif;jzifh &&Sad omarmfvu D sL;ESihf rsKd ;rwltufwrfrsm;aygif;
pyfjcif;jzifh &&Sad omarmfvu D sL;[lí armfvu D sL; ESprf sKd ;&So
d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ O onf rnfonfah rmfvu D sL;rsKd ; jzpfoenf;/ rnfonfh j'yfpiftufwrfrsm;
H H
a&armfvuD sL; yg0ifoenf;/ pmjzifah zmfjyyg/
2/ oifoad om armfvu D sL;ESprf sKd ;udyk EkH iS whf uG azmfjyyg/ ,if;armfvu D sL;wdw
Yk iG f yg0ifaom
j'yfpiftufwrftoD;oD;wd\ Yk trnfrsm;udak zmfjyyg/
3/ ay;xm;aomtajzrsm;rS tajzrSeu f akd &G;cs,yf g/
(u) avwGiyf g0ifaom "mwfaiGUrsm;teuf j'yfpifwpfrsKd ;xufyakd om "mwfaiGU
armfvu D sL;rSm (atmufq*D si?f Edu k xf ½d*k si?f umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'dk )f jzpfonf/
(c) atmufq*D sif armfvu D sL;\ oauFwrSm (2 O, O2, O3 ) jzpfonf/
(*) j'yfpifwpfc\ k armfvu D sL;udk (ESpcf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf x k ufyakd om rsKd ;wltufwrfrsm;?
rsKd ;rwlaom tufwrfEpS cf ?k ESpcf x k ufyakd omrsKd ;rwlonfh tufwrfrsm;) jzifh zJUG pnf;
xm;onf/
(C) CCl4 (umAGew f ufx&muvk½d 'kd )f armfvu D sL;wpfcw k iG yf g0ifaom tufwrf
ta&twGurf mS (3? 4? 5) ckjzpfNy;D tufwrftrsKd ;tpm;rSm (2? 3? 5) rsKd ; jzpfonf/
(i) rsKd ;rwl j'yfpifo;Hk rsKd ;yg0ifaom armfvu D sL;rSm (NH3 , CHCl3 , HCl) jzpfonf/
93
9-2-2 j'yfaygif;rsm;ESi, fh if;wk\

Yd zGUJ pnf;yHk (Compounds and Their Composition)
rsKd ;wlj'yfpifrsm; aygif;pyfjcif;jzif&h &Sv
d monfh armfvu D sL;ESihf rsKd ;rwlj'yfpiftufwrfrsm;
aygif;pyfjcif;jzif&h &Sv
d monfh armfvu D sL;rsm; rnfuo hJ uYkd mG jcm;oenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
(u) H H H H
[du
k 'f ½d*k sit
f ufwrf [du
k 'f ½d*k siaf rmfvu
D sL; (j'yfpifarmfvu
D sL;)
H H
(c) O a& (j'yfaygif;armfvu D sL;)
H H
O
txufygarmfvuD sL;rsm;udk rnfonft
h ufwrfrsm;jzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;oenf;/ yg0ifaom
tufwrfta&twGuuf kd qef;ppfyg/ tufwrftcsKd ;udak zmfjyyg/
vkyif ef;(2)
atmufygZ,m;wGijf znfph u
G yf g/ rSwcf suaf &;yg/
yg0ifaomtufwrf\ tufwrf
j'yfaygif; yg0ifaomtufwrftrnf
oauFw ta&twGuf tcsKd ;
HCl H, Cl [dkuf'½dk*sif ? uvdk&if; 1:1
CO2
N2O
NH3
CH4
CHCl3
t"dutcsuf
ESpcf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf x
k ufyakd om rsKd ;rwlonfjh 'yfpiftufwrfrsm; owfrw
S x
f m;aom
tcsKd ;twdik ;f "mwkenf;t&aygif;pyfjcif;jzifh j'yfaygif;ud&k &So
d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygwdrYk S tajzrSeaf &G;cs,yf g/
(u) atmufyg "mwfaiGUarmfvu D sL;rsm;rS rsKd ;rwltufwrfwpfcx
k ufyí
kd zGUJ pnf;xm;
aom "mwfaiGUudak &G;cs,yf g/
O3, N2, O2, CO2
94
(c) atmufyg armfvu

D sL;oauFwrsm;rS j'yfaygif;armfvu
D sL;wpfcu
k kd a&G;cs,yf g/
H H
O H H C N
N
O O H H
(*) atmufygj'yfaygif;rsm;rS [du

k 'f ½d*k sit
f ufwrf 3 ckyg0ifaom j'yfaygif;udk a&G;cs,f
yg/
H2O, HCl, NH3
(C) atmufyg j'yfaygif;rsm;rS rwlnaD omj'yfpif 3 rsKd ;yg0ifaomj'yfaygif;udk a&G;cs,yf g/
HCl, CO, C2H5OH
2/ atmufygwdrYk S j'yfpif? j'yfpifarmfvu
D sL;ESihf j'yfaygif;armfvu
D sL;wku
Yd kd cGjJ cm;azmfjyyg/
O2, N2, NO, Na, H2O, Cl2
3/ atmufygwd\ Yk jcm;em;csuu f kd azmfjyyg/
(u) j'yfpiftufwrfEiS hf j'yfpifarmfvu D sL;
(c) j'yfpifEiS hf j'yfaygif;
9-3 j'yfaESmESiahf ysmf&nfrsm; (Mixtures and Solutions)
rdrw
d yYkd wf0ef;usi&f dS ajr? a&? av? tpm;taomufEiS hf aysm&f nftrsKd ;rsKd ;wdw Yk iG f j'yfrsm;
a&maESmyg0ifaeMuonf/ ,if;wdt Yk euf j'yfaESmESihf aysm&f nfwo
Ykd nf rnfuo
hJ Ykd uGmjcm;oenf;/
9-3-1 ywf0ef;usif&jdS 'yfaESmtrsdK;rsdK; (Mixtures in the Environment)
rdrw
d \
Ykd ywf0ef;usiaf e&mwdik ;f wGif ta&mtaESmrsm;pGm awGUEdik o f nf/
vkyif ef;(1)
à atmufyg yHk (9-3) (u) vufzufoyk f (c) yifv,fa& (*) &SL&du I af omavwdw Yk iG f
a&maESmyg0ifaeaom ypön;f trsKd ;trnfrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à ypön;f rsm; a&maESmyg0ifaeonft h wGuf vufzufoyk ?f yifv,fa&ESihf &SL½du
I af omav
wdo
Yk nf j'yfaESmrsm; jzpfonf/ j'yfaESmwGiyf g0ifaomypön;f rsm;onf rnfoaYkd &maESm
aeoenf;/
(u) vufzufokyf (c) yifv,fa& (*) &SL½dIufaomav

yHk (9-3) aeYpOfb0wGif awGU&SdEdkifaom ta&mtaESmrsm;
vkyif ef;(2)
à aeYpOftoH;k jyKaeaom toH;k taqmif? tpm;taomufrsm;teufrS oifoad om
ta&mtaESm 3 rsKd ;cefu
Y kd ajymyg/
95
à ausmif;rS ntdyaf vhvma&;c&D; oGm;onft

h cg ,laqmifomG ;rnfh ypön;f ta&mtaESm
5 rsKd ;cefY ajymyg/
à ausmif;yef;jct H wGi;f &Sd yef;td;k twGi;f wGif awGUEdik af om ta&mtaESmrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
t"dutcsuf
ESpcf k odrYk [kwf ESpcf x
k ufyakd omt&m0w¦ Krsm; "mwkenf;t& aygif;pyfxm;jcif; r&Sb
d J
a&maESmaeaom ta&mtaESmudk j'yfaESm[kac:onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udak jzqdyk g/
(u) tdrEf iS phf moifcef;wdw Yk iG af wGUEdik af om ta&mtaESm
3 rsKd ; pDcefu Y kd azmfjyyg/
(c) tokypf w kH iG yf g0ifaomypön;f rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ yHw
k iG jf yxm;onfh acsmif;a&udk ppf,v l ukd af omtcg awGU&Sd
&rnfh ta&mtaESmypön;f rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
9-3-2 j'yfaESm\0daoovu©Pmrsm; (Characteristics of Mixtures)
j'yfaESmwpfcjk zpfomG ;onft
h cg yg0ifzufypön;f wd\
Yk rlv*kPo
f wård sm; ajymif;vJjcif; &dS
r&dS avhvmMurnf/
vkyif ef;
à wpftyk pf v
k Qif ESpo
f uf&m tcsKd ;rwl ta&mtaESm 2 rsKd ; jyKvyk yf g/
à jyKvyk x
f m;aom ta&mtaESmtcsK;d udk rSwo f m;yg/
à &&Sad omta&mtaESmrsm;udk avhvmí atmufygZ,m;wGif jznfph u G yf g/ tkypf v
k u
kd f
twef;odYk wifjyaqG;aEG;yg/ Oyrm oJ + qm;ta&m
rSwcf suf
yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;
ta&mtaESm (u) ta&mtaESm (c)
tcsKd ; wl^rwl ? ?
oefpY ifr&I ^Sd r&dS ? ?
yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;\
? ?
½ky*f P
k of wåad jymif;vJjcif;&d^S r&dS
yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;\
? ?
"mwf*P k o f wåad jymif;vJjcif;&d^S r&dS
jyefvnfcx JG w
k Ef ikd jf cif;&d^S r&dS ? ?
txufygawGU&dcS surf sm;udk tajccHí j'yfaESm\0daoovu©Pmudk aqG;aEG;yg/
96
t"dutcsuf
j'yfaESmwGiyf g0ifaomypön;f rsm;onf rnfonft h csKd ;ESirhf qdk a&mpyfEikd o
f nf/ ta&m
taESmjzpfaomaMumifh oefpY ifrrI &Syd g/ *kPo
f wåad jymif;vJjcif;r&S?d jyefvnf cGx J w
k Ef ikd o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygypön;f rsm;udk j'yfpif odrYk [kwf j'yfaygif; odrYk [kwf j'yfaESm[lí trsK;d
tpm; cGjJ cm;yg/
a&oef?Y ysm;&nf? rif? a&Tjym;? aiG? pwD; (owåKpyf)
2/ atmufygwdt Yk euf j'yfpifwpfc?k j'yfaygif;wpfcEk iS hf j'yfaESmwpfck yg0ifaom
twGu J kd a&G;cs,yf g/
(u) av? ajrBu;D ? atmufq*D sif (c) av? a&? qm; (*) aMu;eD? a&? oJ
(C) a&cJrek ?Yf vufzuf&nf? EGm;EdYk
3/ ajrBu;D onf j'yfaESmjzpfonf/ tb,faf Mumifeh nf;/ &Si;f jyyg/
9-3-3 j'yfaESmtrsdK;tpm;rsm; (Types of Mixtures)
j'yfw\
Ykd ½kyt
f ajctaeay:rlwnfí j'yfaESmrsm;wGiv
f nf; trsKd ;tpm;trsKd ;rsKd ;
&dES ikd o
f nf/
vkyif ef;
atmufygj'yfaESmtrsKd ;rsKd ;wGiyf g0ifaom yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;\ ½kyt
f ajctaeay:
rlwnfí j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm;rsm;udk jznfph u G yf g/
pOf j'yfaESmtrsKd ;rsKd ; j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm;
1 av taiGU? taiGU
2 pwD; (owåKpyf) tcJ? ------------------
3 qm;aysm&f nfôMum;aysm&f nf ---------------- ? t&nf
4 t,fvu
f akd [myg0ifaoma& t&nf? ----------------
umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd "f mwfaiGUyg0ifaomtcsKd &nf
5 ----------------- ?t&nf
(7up, Pepsi, Cola)
t"dutcsuf
j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm;trsKd ;rsKd ;&do
S nf/ yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;\ ½kyt f ajctae ay:rlwnfí
trsKd ;tpm;uGjJ ym;Muonf/
(u) tcJ ESihf tcJ j'yfaESm (c) tcJ ESihf t&nf j'yfaESm (*) t&nf ESihf t&nf j'yfaESm
(C) taiGU ESihf t&nf j'yfaESm (i) taiGU ESit hf aiGU j'yfaESmwdYk jzpfMuonf/
97
avhusifch ef;
atmufygyHrk sm;wGif ay;xm;aomj'yfaESmrsm;\ trsKd ;tpm;udk Z,m;wGijf znfph u
G yf g/
(1)avwGifyg0ifaom"mwfaiGUrsm; (2)udkvm (Cola) (3)vdar®mf&nf (4)uefYrIefYESifhoHrIefYta&m
yHk j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm;

1
2
3
4
9-3-4 wpfom;wnf;jzpfaomj'yfaESmESihf wpfom;wnf;rjzpfaomj'yfaESmrsm;
(Homogeneous Mixtures and Heterogeneous Mixtures)
j'yfaESm&dyS g0ifzufypön;f rsm; a&maESmyg0ifaerItajctaeay: rlwnfNy;D wpfom;wnf;
jzpfaomj'yfaESmESihf wpfom;wnf;rjzpfaomj'yfaESm[lí 2 rsK;d &dES ikd o
f nf/
vkyif ef;(1)
ay;xm;aom ta&mtaESmrsm;udk avhvmNy;D awGU&dcS surf sm;udk Z,m;wGijf znfph u
G yf g/
(u) oMum;aysm&f nf (c) qm;aysm&f nf (*) oJ ESihf qm; (C) oH ESihf oJ
awGU&dcS surf sm;
ta&mtaESm yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;udk tvG,w f ul
wpfom;wnf;
trsKd ;trnf oD;jcm;pD cGx J w
k Ef ikd jf cif;
jzpf^rjzpf
jrifEikd ^f rjrifEikd f &d^S r&d(S cefUrSe;f )
vkyif ef;(2) (tkypf zk UJG ívkyaf qmif&ef)

à 'kwm¬ ? oMum;? qm;wku Yd kd bDum (beaker) odrYk [kwf zefcu
G t
f Munfwpfcpk w
D iG f a&
98
tenf;i,fEiS hf azsmyf g/ awGU&Scd suu f kd rSwof m;yg/

à xdaYk emuf oJEiS hf qm;? uefrY eI EYf iS hf oHreI ?Yf rD;aoG;rIeEYf iS hf ajrjzLrIew
Yf u
Ykd kd a&maESmyg/
awGU&Scd suu f kd rSwo
f m;yg/
à awGU&Scd surf sm;udk Z,m;wGif jznfph u G yf g/ twef;odYk wifjyyg/
à txufygprf;oyfcsurf sm;t& j'yfaESmtrsKd ;tpm; rnfrQ&adS Mumif; awGU&d&S oenf;/
,if;wdu Yk kd azmfjyyg/
ta&mtaESm awGU&Scd suf rSwcf suf (cGx

J w
k Ef ikd jf cif; &S^d r&S?d trsKd ;tpm;)
'kwm¬ +a&
t"dutcsufrsm;
wpfom;wnf;jzpfaomj'yfaESmwGif yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;onf orpGma&maESmí ysUH ESYH
wnf&adS eNy;D rsupf jd zifh oD;jcm;pDrjrifEikd yf g/
wpfom;wnf;rjzpfaomj'yfaESmwGif yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;onf uGjJ ym;pGmwnf&NdS y;D rsupf d
jzifh oD;jcm;pDjrifEikd o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
atmufygwdrYk S tajzrSeu f akd &G;cs,yf g/
1/ umAGe'f ikd af tmufq'kd f "mwfaiGUyg0ifaomtcsKd &nfrmS (wpfom;wnf;jzpfaom j'yfaESm?
wpfom;wnf;rjzpfaomj'yfaESm? tcJ? t&nf? taiGU 3 rsKd ;ygaom ta&mtaESm) jzpf
onf/
2/ j'yfaESmwpfcw k iG f j'yfpif odrYk [kwf j'yfaygif; (ESpcf ?k oH;k ck? tueft Y owfr&S)d a&maESm
yg0ifonf/
3/ oGm;wdu k af q;onf (j'yfpif? j'yfaESm? j'yfaygif;) jzpfonf/
4/ t0ga&mif uefY (qmvzm) rIet Yf csKUd ESihf ajrjzLrIet
Yf csKUd wdyYk g0ifaom j'yfaESmonf
(u) a&maESmaeonf? oD;jcm;pD rjrifEikd ?f wpfom;wnf; rjzpfyg/
(c) a&maESmraeyg? oD;jcm;pD jrifEikd o f nf? wpfom;wnf; jzpfaeonf/
(*) a&maESmaeonf? oD;jcm;pD jrifEikd o f nf? wpfom;wnf; rjzpfyg/
99
5/ a&cJoyk w
f iG f yg0ifaomypön;f rsm;onf
(u) tcsK;d wl yg0ifonf? *kPo f wåad jymif;vJjcif; &So
d nf? jyefvnfcx JG wk Ef ikd o
f nf/
(c) tcsK;d rwl yg0ifonf? *kPo f wåad jymif;vJjcif; r&S?d jyefvnfcxJG wk Ef ikd o
f nf/
(*) tcsK;d wl yg0ifonf? *kPo
f wåad jymif;vJjcif; r&S?d jyefvnfcx JG w k í f r&yg/
9-3-5 aysmf&nf\0daoovu©PmESihf aysmf&nftrsdK;tpm;rsm;
(Characteristics and Types of Solutions)
t&m0w¦ Kypön;f rsm;tm; aysm0f ifapaomt&nfukd azsm&f nf[ak c:onf/ aysm0f ifypön;f
wpfcok nf azsm&f nfwpfcw k iG f aysm0f ifonft
h cg aysm&f nfukd &&do
S nf/ xd&k &dv
S monfh aysm&f nf
rsm;\ *kPof wård sm;ESihf trsKd ;tpm;rsm;udk avhvmMurnf/
(u) qkdif;&nf (c) wpfom;wnf;aysmf&nfrsm;

yHk (9-4) aysmf&nftrsdK;rsdK;
vkyif ef;(1)
à qm;tenf;i,fEiS hf ajrjzLrIet Yf enf;i,fwu
Ykd kd bDum (beaker) odrYk [kwf zefcu
G t
f Munf
2 ckwiG f a&jzifo h ;D jcm;pDazsmyf g/
à rnfuo hJ Ykd awGU&oenf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
à ay;xm;aom aysm&f nftrsK;d rsK;d \ aysm&f nftrsKd ;tpm;? aysm0f ifypön;f ESihf azsm&f nfwYkd
udk trsKd ;tpm;cGjJ cm;azmfjyyg/ xdaYk emuf tajz rSef rrSeu
f kd tkypf v
k u
kd zf vS,í
f ppfaq;yg/
aysm&f nf
pOf aysm&f nftrsKd ;rsKd ; aysm0f ifypön;f azsm&f nf
trsKd ;tpm;
1 xH;k &nfMunf ? ? ?
atmufq*D si"f mwfaiGU aysm0f ifaeaom

2 ? ? ?
a& (tvSarG; ig;uefx&J aSd &)
100
3 *vl;udaYk ysm&f nf ? ? ?
qyfjym&nf (qyfjymrIeu
Yf kd a&wGiaf zsmf
4 ? ? ?
xm;aomt&nf)
5 rJe,f&nf ? ? ?
vkyif ef;(3)
à ESpaf ,mufwpfwpJG w D í JG (u) oJ ESihf a& (c) qm;ESiahf & (*) oMum; ESihf a& (C) qD
ESihf a& (i) qm; ESihf qD ta&mwduYk jkd yKvyk í
f awGU&dcS surf sm;udk Z,m;wGijf znfph u
G f aqG;
aEG;wifjyyg/
awGU&dcS surf sm;
ta&mtaESm &dS rSwcf suf
yg0ifzufypön;f rsm; aysm0f ifjcif; wpfom;wnf; "mwfjyKjcif; j'yfaESmâysm&f nf
&d^S r&dS jzpf^rjzpf &d^S r&dS
r&dS
r&dS
r&dS
r&dS
r&dS
t"dutcsufrsm;
azsm&f nfxw J iG f aysm0f ifypön;f rsm; vH;k 0aysm0f ifomG ;aomaysm&f nfukd wpfom;wnf;
aysm&f nf[ak c:onf/ wpfom;wnf;aysm&f nfwiG f aysm0f ifypön;f rsm;udk rsupf jd zifh rjrif
Edik ?f yg0ifzufypön;f rsm;tcsi;f csi;f "mwfjyKjcif;r&d/S
azsm&f nfxw J iG f aysm0f ifypön;f rsm; vH;k 0raysm0f ifbJ t&nfxw J iG f ysUH ESUH wnf&adS eaom
aysm&f nfukd qkid ;f &nf (Suspension) [kac:onf/ ,if;aysm&f nfonf wpfom;wnf;
r[kw?f yg0ifzufypön;f tcsKd Uudk rsupf jd zifjh rifEikd o
f nf/ yg0ifzufypön;f rsm; tcsi;f csi;f
"mwfjyKjcif;r&d/S
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufwiG af zmfjyxm;aom pum;vH;k rsm;udt k oH;k jyKí uGuv f yfjznfyh g/
aysm0f ifypön;f ? azsm&f nf? qdik ;f aejcif;? vH;k 0aysm0f if? wpfom;wnf;? wpfom;wnf;
rjzpfaom
101
(u) "mwfqu D kd a&xJox Ykd nfv

h u
kd vf Qif ---------- aysm&f nfu&kd &do S nf/
(c) raysm0f ifEikd af omypön;f rsm; (ajrjzLrIe)Yf t&nfwiG yf sUH ESUH wnf&adS ejcif;udk ------- [k
ac:onf/
(*) oD;pH"k mwfqm;rIeu Yf kd a&wGiaf zsmjf cif;jzifh ---------- aysm&f nfu&kd &do S nf/f
(C) xef;vsu&f nfwiG f xef;vsuo f nf ---------- jzpfonf/
(i) wpfom;wnf;jzpfaom j'yfaESmaysm&f nfwpfcw k iG f aysm0f ifypön;f rsm;onf -----
aeonf/
2/ atmufyguGuv f yfww Ykd iG f oifah vsmaf om pum;vH;k ? pum;pkrsm; jznfph u G yf g/
(u) qm; + ? = ? wpfom;wnf;aysm&f nf
? + azsm&f nf = ?
(c) xH;k + ? = ? ?
? + ? = aysm&f nf
3/ atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk ajzqdyk g/

(u) EGm;Edo
Yk nf rnfonfah ysm&f nf trsKd ;tpm; jzpfoenf;/
(c) refusn;f tcsKd &nf (VeVe) wGif yg0ifaomypön;f rsm;udk cefrY eS ;f yg/
(*) a&T&ifat;onf aysm&f nf odrYk [kwf j'yfaESm jzpf rjzpf ajzqdyk g/
9-4 j'yfaESmrsm;udck x
JG w
k jf cif; (Separation of Mixtures)
j'yfaESmwGif yg0ifaomypön;f rsm;\ ½kyyf ikd ;f qdik &f m*kPo
f wåad y:rlwnfí vnf;aumif;?
xkw,
f vl adk om ypön;f \obm0ay:rlwnfívnf;aumif; cGx J w
k ef nf;trsKd ;rsKd ;udk toH;k jyKEikd f
onf/
9-4-1 cGxJ wk ef nf;rsm; (Separation Techniques)
cGx
J w k ef nf;tcsKd UrSm-
(1) oHvu
kd jf zifch x
JG w
k jf cif; (Magnetic Separation) (2) t&nfMunfujhJ cif; (Decantation)
102
(3) ppf,jl cif; (4) taiGUjyefjcif; (5) aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;

(Filtration) (Evaporation) (Condensation)
yHk (9-5) cGJxkwfenf;tcsdKU

vkyif ef;
à atmufygvkyif ef;rsm;wGif rnfonfch x
JG w
k ef nf;udk toH;k jyKrnfenf;/ Z,m;wGif
jznfph u
G yf g/
vkyif ef;rsm; cGx

J w
k ef nf;
yifv,fa&rSqm;xkw,
f jl cif; ?
oHEiS hf vTpmrIet
Yf a&mrSou
H ckd x
JG w
k jf cif; ?
trdu
I yf gaoma&rSo;kH a&&&S&d efjyKvyk jf cif; ?
tdrw
f iG q
f efaq;jcif; ?
t"dutcsuf
cGx
J w
k ef nf;tcsKd UrSm-
(1) oHvu kd jf zifch x
JG w
k jf cif; (2) t&nfMunfujhJ cif; (3) ppf,jl cif; (4) taiGUjyefjcif;
(5) aiGU&nfzUJG jcif; ponfwjYkd zpfMuonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufyg vkyif ef; odrYk [kwf jzpfpOfrsm;udk oifah vsmaf omcGxJ wk ef nf;rsm;jzif,
h OS w
f yJG g/
(u) oHEiS o hf tJ a&mrSou H ckd x
JG w
k jf cif; (1) ppf,jl cif;
(c) tcJaysmaf eaomaysm&f nfrS
(2) t&nfMunfujhJ cif;
tcJujkd yefvnf&,ljcif;
(*) MuBH uw d &f nfwiG af &mygaeaom
(3) aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;
MuzH wfuav;rsm;udzk ,f&mS ;jcif;
103
(C) tenfrsm;xdik af eaoma&rS

(4) oHvu
kd jf zifch x
JG w
k jf cif;
tay:,Ha&Munfujkd yefvnf&,ljcif;
(i) xrif;td;k tzk;H twGi;f wGif
(5) taiGUjyefjcif;
a&pufuav;rsm;awGU&jcif;
9-4-2 oHvu dk jf zifch x
JG w
k jf cif; (Magnetic Separation)
pGeyYf pfypön;f rsm;rS jyefvnftok;H jyKEikd o f nfh oHwokd pH rsm;udk rnfonfeh nf;jzifh &,lEikd f
oenf;/
vkyif ef; (ausmif;om;rsm; tkypf zk UJG vkyaf qmif&ef)
à pmoifcef;twGi;f &Sd oHvu dk *f P
k o f wå&d adS om ypön;f
ESihf oHvu kd *f P
k o
f wdrå &Sad omypön;f tcsKd Uudk cGuf
wpfct k wGi;f wGif a&mxnfyh g/
à xkt d a&mtaESmay:odYk oHvu kd u f kd wifMunfyh g/ yHk (9-6) oHvdkufrS
awGU&Scd suu f kd aqG;aEG;yg/ oHpuav;rsm;udk qGJiifaeykH
t"dutcsuf
oHvu
dk *f Pk o f wå&d adS omypön;f udk oHvu kd *f P
k o
f wdrå &Sad omypön;f rsm;xJrS cGx
J w
k Ef ikd &f ef
oHvu
dk jf zifch xJG w
k jf cif;enf;udt
k oH;k jyKonf/
avhusihcf ef;
1/ atmufygta&mtaESmtwGrJ sm;teuf rnfonft h a&mtaESmtwGu J kd oHvu
kd o
f ;Hk í
cGjJ cm;Edik of enf;/
(u) ajrjzL? cJw?H aywH (c) bvdw"f m;? za,mif;wdik ?f opfom;p
(*) pmtky?f cJzsu?f yvwfpwpfabmvk;H (C) yiftyf? abmyif? puúLp
2/ oHvu kd jf zifh cGxJ wk jf cif;enf;udk rnfonfv
h yk if ef;rsm;wGif tok;H jyKEikd o
f enf;/ rnfoaYkd om
tusKd ;aus;Zl;rsm; &&SEd ikd o f enf;/
3/ oHvu kd jf zifh cGx
J wk jf cif;enf;udk rnfonft
h ajctaewGif toH;k jyKoenf;/
9-4-3 t&nfMunfujhJ cif;ESiphf pf,jl cif; (Decantation and Filtration)
t&nfMunfujhJ cif;ESihf ppf,jl cif;enf;rsm;udk rnfonfah e&mrsm;wGif awGUzl;oenf;/
vkyif ef;(1)
à (u) a&ESio hf J (c) a&ESiahf jrjzLwdu
Yk akd &maESmNy;D oJEiS ahf jrjzLudk z,f&mS ;&efo;D jcm;pD
vkyaf qmifyg/ txufyg vufawGUvkyaf qmifcsuw f iG f rnfonfch x JG w
k ef nf;rsm;udk
toH;k jyKco
hJ enf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
104
t&nfMunfujhJ cif;enf;pOftqifq h ifrh mS -

(1) a&ESio hf J ta&mwdu Yk kd bDum odrYk [kwf zefcu G x f o J Ykd
xnfyh g/
(2) arTwjH zifh aocsmpGmarTyg/ oJrsm; aumif;rGepf mG tenf
xdik o f nftxd apmifMh unfyh g/
(3) ,if;aemuf ykw H iG jf yxm;onft h wdik ;f t&nfMunfuukd yhJ g/
(4) oJrsm;onfbDum odkYr[kwf zefcGufxJwGif usefcJh
yHk (9-7)
onfukd awGU&rnf/
t&nfMunfuJhjcif;
ppf,jl cif;enf;pOftqifq h ifrh mS -
(1) a&ESihf ajrjzLta&mudk bDum odrYk [kwf zefcu G x f o
J x
Ykd nfyh g/
(2) a&ppfpuúLudk yHyk gtwdik ;f av;csK;d csK;d í uawmhyo
kH P²mef&atmif wpfcsK;d udk wpfzuf
xm;ízGiyhf g/ a&tenf;i,fqw G í f yHk (9-8) (u)twdik ;f uawmhwiG f wyfyg/
yHk (9-8) (u) a&ppfpuúLudkacguf,lykH

(3) ,if;aemuf yk(H 9-8) (c)wGif jyxm;onfh
twdik ;f ud&,d mrsm;udk wyfqifyg/
(4) ta&mtaESmt&nfukd zefacsmif;rS wpfqifh
yH(k 9-8) (c)twdik ;f a&ppfpuúLay:odYk jznf;
nif;pGm avmif;xnfyh g/
(5) t&nfMunfrsm;onf a&ppfpuúLudk jzwfoef;
oGm;Ny;D ajrjzLonf a&ppfpuúLay:wGif usecf hJ
onfukd awGU&rnf/
yHk (9-8) (c) ppf,ljcif;
vkyif ef;(2)
à ay;xm;aom yHu k Mkd unfí
h aemufusad om a&rS
aemufusad oma& Munfvifaoma&&&d&S efjyKvyk &f mwGif tok;H jyKaom
ausmufp&pfcJ ypön;f rsm;udk BuKd wifpak qmif;Ny;D a&oefpY ifjcif;
oJMurf; vkyif ef;vkyaf qmifcsuu f kd rSww
f rf;a&;yg/ rSww
f rf;
rD;aoG;cJ yHpk w
H iG f oifcef;pmacgif;pOf? tkypf ?k oifMum;oif,rl I
oJEk taxmuftulypön;f ? awGU&dcS suEf iS hf aumufcsuf
ydwyf g;p csjcif; tp&Sad om tcsut f vufrsm; yg0if&rnf/
Munfvifaoma& à þenf;udk aus;&Gmrsm;wGif ukeu f sp&dwf oufom
yHk (9-9) a&oefYpifjcif; pGm toH;k jyKEidk o
f nf/
105
vkyif ef;(3)
à ausmif;om;rsm;udt k yk pf zk UJG í rdryd wf0ef;usiüf rnfonft
h ajctaersm;wGif ESmacgif;pnf;
toH;k jyKonfukd aqG;aEG;yg/ twef;odYk wifjyyg/
(u) (c)
yHk (9-10) (u) ywf0ef;usif&Sd rD;cdk;aiGUudk ESmacgif;pnf;jzifh umuG,fykH (c) ESmacgif;pnf;
t"dutcsufrsm;
tcJEiS t
hf &nfj'yfaESmrS t&nfxw J iG f raysm0f ifEikd af omtcJukd cGx
J w
k &f eftwGuf
t&nfMunfujhJ cif;ESihf ppf,jl cif;enf;udk toH;k jyK&onf/
t&nfMunfujhJ cif;enf;ok;H &mwGif raysm0f ifEikd af omypön;f onf aumif;pGm tenfxikd f
&efvt
kd yfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ ppf,jl cif;jzifh rnfoaYkd omta&mtaESmrsm;udk cGx J w
k Ef ikd of enf;/
2/ t&nfppf,jl cif;jyKvyk &f ef t"duvdt k yfaom ypön;f udak zmfjyyg/
3/ t&nfMunfujhJ cif;ESihf ppf,jl cif;enf;wd\ Yk uGmjcm;csuu f akd zmfjyyg/
4/ a&xJ&dS vTpmrIerYf sm;udk rnfuo hJ Ykd z,fxw k rf nfenf;/
5/ aemufusad omacsmif;a&rS Munfvifaoma&&&S&d ef rnfoYkd vkyaf qmifrnfenf;/
9-4-4 taiGUjyefjcif;ESiahf iGU&nfzUJG jcif; (Evaporation and Condensation)
taiGUjyefjcif;ESihf aiGU&nfzUJG jcif; jzpfpOfrsm;udk rdrw
d yYkd wf0ef;usi&f dS rnfonfah e&mrsm;wGif
MuKH awGUzl;oenf;/
aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;
taiGUjyefjcif; rd;k &GmoGe;f rI
yHk (9-11) rdk;&Gmjcif;

106
vkyif ef;(1) (q&mESiahf usmif;om;rsm;twlwuGvyk af qmif&ef)

oMum; odrYk [kwf qm; tenf;i,f (1ZGe;f cef)Y udk
a&tenf;i,fxnfx h m;aom zefcu G x f wJ iG f vH;k 0aysm0f if
oGm;onftxdazsmyf g/ xdaYk emuf oMum;aysm&f nf odrYk [kwf
qm;aysm&f nfukd taiGUjyefZvHw k pfcw
k iG xf nfí h jznf;nif;pGm
tylay;yg/ rnfonfukd &&So d enf;/ jzpfpOfuckd efrY eS ;f yg/
yHk (9-12) qm;&nf odkYr[kwf
oMum;&nf taiGUjyefjcif;
vkyif ef;(2)
à ykH (9-13) udk avhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tajccHí aqG;aEG;yg/
à bDumtwGi;f &Sd a&rsm;qlyu G í
f taiGUxGujf cif;ESihf owåKjym;\rsuEf mS jyifwiG f a&puf
a&aygufuav;rsm; jzpfay:jcif;wdo
Yk nf rnfonfjh zpfpOfjzpfoenf;/
à pkaqmif;&&Sv d maoma&onf aomufa&? oH;k a&tjzpf tok;H jyKEikd jf cif; &Sd r&Sd xifjrif
csuaf y;yg/
à owåKjym;\rsuEf mS jyifwiG f a&pufa&aygufuav;rsm; ydrk jkd zpfay:Edik rf nfh enf;vrf;udk
aqG;aEG;yg/
à þenf;pOfukd rnfonft h ajctaewGif tok;H jyKEikd o
f enf;/
yHk (9-13) aiGU&nfzGJUjcif;
107
t"dutcsufrsm;
t&nftajctaerS taiGUtajctaeodYk ajymif;vJjcif;udk taiGUjyefjcif; [kac:onf/
t&nfonf tylcsed w f ;kd jri§ ahf jymif;vJaomaMumifh taiGUjyefjcif; jzpfEikd o
f nf/
taiGUtajctaerS t&nftajctaeodYk ajymif;vJjcif;udk aiGU&nfzUJG jcif; [kac:onf/
taiGUonf at;onfrh suEf mS jyifEiS x hf ad wGUaomtcg odrYk [kwf tat;cHaomtcg
(tylxwk jf cif;) aiGU&nfzUJG jcif; jzpfEikd o f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;enf;pOfukd rnfonft h cgwGif awGUEdik o f enf;/
2/ taiGUjyefjcif;ESihf aiGU&nfzUJG jcif; rnfuo hJ jYkd cm;em;oenf;/ t"duvdt k yfcsurf mS
tb,fenf;/
3/ yljyif;aom aEG&moDwiG f jrpfacsmif;&Sad &rsm; rnfuo hJ Ykd jzpfomG ;oenf;/
4/ eHeufapmapmjrufcif;rsm;ay:wGif a&pufuav;rsm;awGU&S&d jcif;rSm tb,faMumifh
enf;/
5/ yifv,fa&rS tdro f ;Hk qm;xkwv f yk jf cif;onf rnfonfjh zpfpOfukd tajccHxm;oenf;/
108

j'yfrsm;
j'yfpif? j'yfaygif;ESihf j'yfaESmrsm;
j'yfpif tufwrf armfvu

D sL; j'yfaygif; j'yfaESm aysm&f nf
tufwrf tvGef 1/ rsK;d wl j'yfpif 1/ wpfom; 1/ wpfom;

wpfrsK;d ao;i,f tufwrfrsm; tufwrfrsm; wnf;jzpfaom wnf;aysm&f nf
wnf;jzifh aom aygif;pyfaom owfrw S f j'yfaESm 2/ qdik ;f &nf
zGUJ pnf; tajccH armfvu D sL; tcsK;d twdik ;f 2/ wpfom;
xm;onf/ trIef 2/ rsK;d rwl "mwkenf;jzifh wnf;rjzpfaom
tufwrfrsm; aygif;pyfjcif; j'yfaESm
aygif;pyfaom
armfvu D sL;
j'yfaESmrsm;cGx
J w
k ef nf;tcsKUd
oHvu kd jf zifh t&nfMunf

ppf,jl cif; taiGUjyefjcif; aiGU&nfzUJG jcif;
cGx
J w
k jf cif; uJjh cif;
oHvu kd *f P
k f a&wGif a&wGif tcJaysm0f if taiGU
owå&d adS om raysm0f ifaom raysm0f ifaom aeaom tajctaerS
ypön;f ESihf tcJEiS hf t&nf tcJEiS hf t&nf aysm&f nf t&nf
oHvu kd *f P
k f (tcJonf tajctae
owård &Sad om aumif;rGepf mG ajymif;vJjcif;
ypön;f tenfxikd f
&rnf/)
109
tcef;(10)
pGrf;tiftrsdK;rsdK; (Forms of Energy)
ed'gef;
þtcef;wGif rlvwef;tqifüh oif,cl ahJ om pGr;f tiftrsKd ;rsKd ; (toH? tvif;? tyl?
vQypf pfEiS hf oHvu kd )f taMumif;udk csO;f uyfryI pHk o H pfjzifh qufvufavhvmoif,El ikd rf nf/ pGr;f tif
trsKd ;rsKd ;\ tajccHoabmw&m;rsm;? &if;jrpfrsm;? Mum;cHe,frsm;wGif ysUH ESUH ykrH sm;udk vufawGU
prf;oyfNy;D aMumif;usKd ;qufpyfem;vnfum tok;H cswwfrnf/
xdjYk yif pufru I @zGUH NzKd ;a&;twGuf t"duvdt k yfcsujf zpfonfh vQypf pfprG ;f tif\ tajccH
oabmw&m;udk em;vnfNy;D tok;H jyKyu Hk kd odjrifvmrnfjzpfonf/
pGr;f tifqo kd nfrmS tvkyv f yk Ef ikd af om pGr;f &nfjzpfonf/ pGr;f tifwiG f toGit f rsKd ;rsKd ;
&Sí
d wpfrsKd ;rSwpfrsKd ;odYk ajymif;vJEikd o f nf/
10-1 toH ( Sound )
10-1-1 toHjzpfay:vmyHt k rsdK;rsdK; ( Sound from Different Sources )

toHonf wkecf grIukd Mum;cHe,fwiG jf zwfoef;apNy;D tMum;tm½Hu k jkd zpfay:apaom
pGr;f tifwpf&yfjzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à ywf0ef;usiw f iG Mf um;&aom toHtrsKd ;rsKd ;udk ajymyg/
à xdt k oHrsm;onf rnfonft h oHtrsKd ;tpm;jzpfonfukd cGjJ cm;yg/
vkyif ef; (2)
toH jzpfay:vmyHu k kd vufawGUavhvmMunfyh g/
à vif;uGi;f wpfcsy\ f EIwcf rf;udk wkwjf zifah cgufNy;D
vufjzifx
h v
d Qif rnfocYkd pH m;&oenf;/ yHk (10-1) vif;uGif;wkefcgaeyHk
à tu,fí vif;uGi;f EIwcf rf;udk vufjzihu f ikd v
f u
kd f
vQif rnfojYkd zpfomG ;oenf;/
vkyif ef; (3)

à pwD;yef;uefjym;wpfcx k o
J Ykd a&xnfyh g/ ,if;\
tpGe;f udk ZGe;f wpfacsmif;jzifh acgufMunfyh g/ rnf
onft h &m jzpfay:vmoenf;/
yHk (10-2) a&rsufESmjyifwGif
à yef;uefjym;ukd vufjzifx h Md unfyh g/ rnfocYkd pH m;&
vIdif;rsm;jzpfay:aeyHk
oenf;/
à a&rsuEf mS jyifukd avhvmMunfyh g/ a&rsuEf mS jyifwiG f rnfonft h &mrsm;udk jrifEikd o
f enf;/
110
t"dutcsufrsm;
ywf0ef;usiwf iG Mf um;&aom toHtrsKd ;rsKd ;onf t&m0w¬Krsm;wkecf gjcif;rS jzpfay:
onf/ wkecf gjcif; &yfomG ;vSsif toHvnf; aysmufu, G o
f mG ;onf/
tcsKd Uaom wkecf gjcif;rsm;udk tvG,w
f uljrifEikd í
f tcsKd Uudrk l cHpm;od&EdS ikd o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oif\ywf0ef;usiw f iG f Mum;&aom obm0toHrsm;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ uREyfk w f MYkd um;&aom toHtrsKd ;rsKd ;onf rnfuo
hJ jYkd zpfay:vmoenf;/
3/ toHxu G af y:aomt&m0w¬Kwpfco k nf wkecf grI&yfwefo Y mG ;aomtcg rnfoYkd
jzpfomG ;rnfenf;/
10-1-2 toHomG ;&efj'yfom;Mum;cHe,fvt
dk yfjcif; ( Propagation of Sound in a Medium )
toHonf toHjzpfay:&mae&mrS tjcm;wpfae&modYk j'yfom;Mum;cHe,f&rdS o S m a&muf&dS
Edik o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
acgif;avmif;wD;aomtcg acgif;avmif;oH
Mum;&jcif;udk vufawGU prf;oyfavhvmMunfyh g/
à acgif;avmif;wD;aomtcg acgif;avmif;
rsuEf mS jyifonf rnfojYkd zpfaeoenf;/
à em;ESihf acgif;avmif;Mum;wGif rnfonfh
t&m &So d enf;/ yHk (10-3) toHonf avudk
à acgif;avmif;oHonf em;odaYk &muf&ef jzwfoef;EdkifaMumif; prf;oyfyHk
rnfonft h &mudk jzwfoef;vm&oenf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
toHonf taiGU (av) wGio f mru
tcJwiG v f nf; jzwfoef;oGm;Edik af Mumif; avhvmyg/
à aywHwpfacsmif;udk ,lyg/
à yHyk gtwdik ;f aywHtpGe;f wpfzufukd ausmif;
om;wpfO;D u ukwjf cpfNy;D tjcm;wpfO;D u
em;axmifyg/
yHk (10-4) toHonf tpdkiftcJudk
à ukwjf cpfou H kd Mum;Edik ?f rMum;Edik f qef;ppf
jzwfoef;EdkifaMumif;prf;oyfyHk
yg/
111
vkyif ef; (3)

toHonf tcJEiS hf taiGU (av) wGif
omru t&nfwiG v f nf; jzwfoef;oGm;Edik af Mumif;
avhvmyg/
à a&jznfx h m;aom a&yH;k wpfy;kH xJwiG f
acgif;avmif;udx
k nfíh wD;Munfyh g/
yHk (10-5) toHonfa&udk
à acgif;avmif;oHukd Mum;Edik ?f rMum;Edik f
jzwfoef;EdkifaMumif;prf;oyfyHk
qef;ppfyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
tcJ? t&nfEiS t hf aiGU Mum;cHe,fwpfrsKd ;rsKd ;&Srd o
S m toHonf toHjzpfay:&m ae&mrS
tjcm;wpfae&modYk a&muf&EdS ikd o f nf/
toHyif&if;ESiahf 0;aomae&mwGif toH\ wkecf gjcif;rSmtm;aysmo h mG ;ojzifh toHw;kd
oGm;onf/
em;pnfonf toHvufc&H mae&m (receiver) jzpfonf/ em;pnf&adS omaMumifh toH
trsKd ;rsKd ;udMk um;&jcif; jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ toHjzpfay:&mae&mESihf toHvufc&H mae&mtMum;&Sd ae&mudk rnfoaYkd c:oenf;/
2/ toHcsUJ pufrtS oHukd em;uMum;&onfrmS toHonfrnfonfMh um;cHe,fukd rnfoYkd
jzwfoef;vmoenf;/
3/ a&ul;uefxw J iG f a&ul;aeaom vlwpfa,mufonf enf;jyq&m\ tcsuaf y;
c&moHukd Mum;&onf/ xdjk zpfpOfwiG f toHonf rnfonfMh um;cHe,fukd jzwfoef;
vmoenf;/ rnfonfah e&monf toHyif&if;jzpfí rnfonfah e&monf toH
vufc&H mae&m jzpfoenf;/
10-1-3 toH\oGm;EIe;f (Speed of Sound)
wpfpuúet
Yf wGi;f toHomG ;Edik af om c&D;tuGmta0;udk toH\oGm;EIe;f [kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
toHonf t&m0w¬Krsm;wkecf gjcif;rS jzpfay:vmaMumif;ESihf toHjzwfoef;oGm;&ef tcJ?
t&nf? taiGUpaom Mum;cHe,fwpfrsKd ;&S&d rnf/
à tcJ? t&nf? taiGUpaom Mum;cHe,fo;kH rsKd ;wGif toH\oGm;EIe;f rsm; wlnrD I &Sd r&Sd
pOf;pm;ajzqdyk g/
vkyif ef; (2)
à toHonf rnfonfMh um;cHe,fwiG f tjrefq;kH oGm;Edik o
f enf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
yHk (10-6) udk Munfí
h avhvmajzqdyk g/
112
tcJ
t&nf
taiGU
tuGmta0;
yHk (10-6) tcJ? t&nf? taiGUMum;cHe,frsm;wGif toH\oGm;EIef;rsm; rwlnDykH
t"dutcsufrsm;
tcJwiG f jzwfoef;Edik af om toH\oGm;EIe;f onf wpfpuúev Yf Qif 5000 rDwmrS 6000
rDwmtwGi;f jzpfonf/
t&nfwiG jf zwfoef;Edik af om toH\oGm;EIe;f onf wpfpuúev Yf Qif 1500 rDwmtwGi;f
jzpfonf/
avwGif jzwfoef;Edik af om toH\oGm;EIe;f onf wpfpuúev Yf Qif 340 rDwmjzpfonf/
toH\oGm;EIe;f onf tcJwiG f t&nfxufyí kd vsijf refpmG oGm;Edik o f nf/ taiGUxJwiG f
taES;qH;k jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygwdrYk S tajzrSeu f kd a&G;cs,yf g/
(u) toH\oGm;EIe;f onf (taiGU ? t&nf ? tcJ) wGif trsm;qH;k jzpfonf/
(c) Mum;cHe,foyd o f nf;rI (enf;? toift h wif&h ?dS rsm;) vQif toHonf aES;auG;pGm
oGm;onf/
(*) (oHacsmif;? opfom;acsmif;? yvwfpwpfacsmif;) wGif toHonf tjrefq;kH oGm;
Edik o
f nf/
(C) (atmufq*D si?f cJ? yifv,fa&) wGif toHonf taES;qH;k oGm;Edik o f nf/
2/ Murf;jyifay:wGif avQmufomG ;aom vl\ajcoHukd Murf;jyifay:wGif xdik af eolEiS hf
vJavsmif;aeolww Ykd iG f rnfou l ajcoHukd ydí k Mum;&oenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
3/ tcJ? t&nf? taiGU Mum;cHe,fo;kH rsKd ;wGif toH\oGm;EIe;f rsm; rwlnv D Qif atmufyg (u)?
(c) ESihf (*) wdwYk iG f rnfonft h csuo f nf rSeu
f efoenf;/
tcJ t&nf taiGU

(u) taES;qH;k tv,ftvwf tjrefq;kH
(c) tjrefq;kH tv,ftvwf taES;qH;k
(*) tv,ftvwf taES;qH;k tjrefq;kH
113
10-2 tvif; (Light)

tvif;onf uREyfk w
f \
Ykd tjriftm½ku
H kd Ed;I qGay;aom pGr;f tiftoGiw
f pfrsK;d jzpfonf/
10-2-1 tvif;\t"dyÜm,f
"

vkyif ef; (1)

à ausmufoifykef;udk jrifEdkif&ef rnfonfh
t&mrsm; vdktyfoenf;/
à ausmufoifykef;udk oifwdkY jrifawGU&jcif;
onf tb,faMumifhenf;/
à arSmifaecsdef? rD;ysufcsdefwdkYwGif ausmuf
oifykef;udk tb,faMumifh rjrifawGU& yHk (10-7) tvif;a&mifjzifh
oenf;/ t&m0w¬Krsm;udk awGUjrif&yHk
à tvif;wGif rnfonfh*kPfowåd &Sdoenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf zk UJG yg/ wpfzUJG vQif 3 OD;pDzUJG í ok;H yGiq hf ikd f &yfyg/
à ykH (10-8) wGif jyxm;onft h wdik ;f "mwfr;D jzifh rSeuf x
kd ;kd Ny;D jyefvif;wef;usa&mufyu
Hk kd
vufawGUprf;oyfyg/
à rnfonfukd awGU&S&d oenf;/
jyefvif;wef;
jyifnDrsufESmjyif (MunfhrSef)
jyefaxmifh 30 H
rwfrsOf; 30 H
½dkufaxmifh
½dkufvif;wef;
yHk (10-8) MunfhrSefjzifh tvif;jyefjcif; yHk (10-9) jyifnDrsufESmjyif (MunfhrSef) wGif

prf;oyfyHk tvif;jyefyHk
jyifnrD suEf mS jyifwiG f tvif;jyefykH yHk (10-9) t& txufyg prf;oyfcsu\

f
jyifnrD suEf mS jyif (Munfrh eS )f tay: tvif;jyefyukH kd qGyJ g/
vkyif ef; (3)

à ykH (10-10) (u) twdik ;f rsuEf mS MuufrS rD;vk;H udk Nird o
f ufaeaom a&zvm;wGif Munfyh g/
114
NyKd iv
f if;wef;rsm;
(u) (c)
yHk (10-10) (u) wnfNidrfaom a&rsufESmjyifwGifay:aomyHk&dyfESifh
(c) nDnmaom rsufESmjyifwGif NydKifvif;wef;rsm; tvif;jyefyHk
à wpfzef zvm;udk tenf;i,fvyI Nf y;D ,if; rD;vk;H udk txufygtwdik ;f xyfrMH unfyh g/
(u) (c)
yHk (10-11) (u) rwnfNidrfaom a&rsufESmjyifwGifay:aomyHk&dyfESifh
(c) rnDnmaom rsufESmjyifwGif a&maxG; tvif;jyefyHk
à ykH (10-10) (u) ESihf ykH (10-11) (u)wdw
Yk iG f rnfonfu
h mG jcm;csuf awGU&oenf;/
vkyif ef; (4)
à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf rk sm;zGUJ yg/ a&cGuf odrYk [kwf a&yk;H rsm;wGif a& 3 ykH 2 ykcH efx
Y nfí
h
pmoifcef; twGi;f &Sd rD;vk;H ? rD;acsmif;atmufwiG f xm;yg/
à ykrH eS t
f vif;jyefjcif;? a&maxG; tvif;jyefjcif;wdu Yk kd prf;oyfvyk af qmifyg/
à a&Nird af omtcg rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/
à a&udk vufjzifv h yI cf wfvukd af omtcg rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/
à awGU&Scd suu f kd rSwo f m;yg/ rnfoYkd aumufcsucf srnfenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
tvif;onf uREyfk w f \Ykd tjriftm½ku H Ekd ;Id qGay;aom pGr;f tif toGiw f pfrsK;d jzpfonf/
tvif;onf ajzmifw h ef;pGmoGm;onf/ tvif;yif&if;rS tbufbufoYkd ysUH ESUH onf/
½du
k v f if;wef; (incident ray) ? jyefvif;wef;
#ESihf rwfrsO;f (normal line)
wdoYk nf jyifnrD suEf mS jyifwpfcw k nf;wGif wnf&NdS y;D ½du k af xmifh (angle of incidence)
ESihf jyefaxmifh
wdo Yk nf wlnMD uonf/
jyifnrD suEf mS jyifay:odYk NyKd iv
f if;wef;rsm; usa&mufaomtcg vm;&mbufwn l aD om
jyefvif;wef;rsm; tvif;jyefjcif;udk yHrk eS t f vif;jyefjcif;
[kac:onf/
rnDnmaom rsuEf mS jyifay:odYk NyKd iv f if;wef;rsm; usa&mufaomtcg vm;&mbuf
trdsK;rsKd ;odYk tvif;jyefjcif;udk a&maxG; tvif;jyefjcif;
[kac:onf/
115
avhusifch ef;
1/ uGuv f yfjznfyh g/
(u) tvif;onf ajzmifw h ef;pGmoGm;onf/ tvif;yif&if;rS --------------- odYk ysUH ESUH onf/
(c) ½du k vf if;wef;? --------------- ESihf rwfrsO;f wdo Yk nf jyifnrD suEf mS jyifwpfcw k nf;
wGi&f odS nf/
(*) --------------- onf ta&miftrsKd ;rsKd ;&So d nf/
(C) --------------- rsuEf mS jyifay:odYk tvif;usa&mufaomtcg a&maxG; tvif;jyef
jcif; jzpfay:onf/
2/ atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif rSeaf om pum;pkrsm;udk a&G;cs,yf g/
(u) t&m0w¬Krsm;udk jrif&jcif;rSm (½du k vf if;wef;? jyefvif;wef;? ½du k v
f if;wef;ESihf
jyefvif;wef;) aMumifjh zpfonf/
(c) tvif;onf rnDnmaom rsuEf mS jyifay:odYk usa&mufaomtcg jyefvif;wef;
onf (wpfzufwnf;? tbufbuf? qefu Y sib
f uf) odYk ysUH ESUH onf/
(*) a&uefxo J Ykd cJv;Hk usa&mufaomtcg a&rsuEf mS jyifonf (rnDnmjcif;? nDnmjcif;?
rlvtwdik ;f ) &So d nf/
3/ t&m0w¬Krsm;udk jrifawGUEdik &f ef rnfonft h &mudk vdt k yfoenf;/
4/ aeYtcgwGif t&m0w¬Krsm;udjk rifawGU&jcif;onf tb,faMumifeh nf;/
5/ jyifnrD suEf mS jyifwiG f rwfrsO;f twdik ;f 0ifvmonfh ½du k v f if;wef;twGuf jyefvif;wef;\
yHu
k kd a&;qGyJ g/
10-2-2 tvif;yif&if;rsm; (Sources of Light)
ud,
k yf ikd t
f vif;vTwEf ikd af om ypön;f rsm;udk tvif;yif&if;rsm; [kac:onf/ aeESihf Mu,f
wdo
Yk nf tvif;yif&if;rsm;jzpfNy;D xm0&tvif;vTw0f w¬Krsm;jzpfMuonf/ tvif;usa&mufrS
jrif&aom ypön;f rsm;udk wpfqifch t H vif;vTwyf pön;f rsm; [kac:onf/ t&m0w¬Krsm; avmifuRr;f
aomtcg tvif;udk xkwaf y;onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à rSew f pfcsyu
f kd vufEydS "f mwfr;D jzifh xd;k vdu
k yf g/ vufEydS "f mwfr;D onf rnfonht f vif;
vTwyf pön;f jzpfoenf;/
à rSecf syo f nf rnfonfyh pön;f jzpfoenf;/
à pmoifcef;wGif rnfonft h &m0w¬Konf ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬K jzpfoenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à pmoifcef;twGi;f &Sd t&m0w¬Krsm;udk avhvmyg/ rnfonft h &m0w¬Krsm;onf ud,k yf ikd f
tvif;vTw0f w¬Krsm;jzpfí rnfonfwoYkd nf wpfqifch t
H vif;vTw0f w¬Krsm; jzpfMu
oenf;/
116
vkyif ef; (3)

à oifwyYkd wf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&aom ud,k yf ikd t
f vif;xkwv f w T af y;aom0w¬Krsm;udk azmfjy
yg/
à ywf0ef;usiw f iG f avmifuRr;f jcif;aMumifh tyljyif;pGm&&SNd y;D tvif;udx k w
k v
f wT af y;onhf
0w¬Krsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à oifjrifawGUaeusjzpfaom vufEydS "f mwfr;D ? vQypf pfr;D oD;ESihf vQypf pfr;D acsmif;wdo Yk nf
rnfonft h wGuaf Mumifh tvif;udk &&So d enf;/
à ntcgwGif rnfonfh tif;qufrS tvif;a&mifxu G o
f nfukd oifjrifawGUoenf;/
à obm0tvif;udk rnfonfrS &&SEd ikd o f enf;/
à aeESihf vufEydS "f mwfr;D wdo Yk nf rnfonft h vif;vTw0f w¬K trsK;d tpm;jzpfoenf;/
yHk (10-12) za,mif;wdkif yHk (10-13) vSsyfppfrD;oD; yHk (10-14) ydk;pkef;MuL;
vkyif ef; (4)

à tvif;yif&if;rsm; oifcef;pmudk tESpcf sKyyf g/
t"dutcsufrsm;
_
{ ~

$
#

rSm ud, f vif;vTw0f w¬K (luminous object) ESihf wpfqifch H tvif;vTwo
k yf ikd t f nfh 0w¬K
(non-luminous object) wdjYk zpfonf/
t&m0w¬Krsm;onf avmifuRr;f aomtcgüvnf;aumif;? vQypf pfprG ;f tif&&Sad omtcg
üvnf;aumif;? "mwkypön;f rsm; "mwfjyKaomtcgüvnf;aumif;? EsLuvd,
wkejYf yefaomtcgüvnf;aumif; ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;xkwv
f w T Mf uonf/
ud,k yf ikd t
f vif;r&Sad omfvnf; ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;vTwo f nf0h w¬KrS tvif;ud&k &SNd y;D wpfqifh
jyefxw k af om0w¬Konf wpfqifch t H vif;vTw0f w¬Krsm;jzpfonf/
ud,k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬Kukd obm0tvif;vTw0f w¬K (natural luminous object) ESihf
vlwzYkd efw;D aomtvif;vTw0f w¬K
$
[lí xyfrcH jJG cm;Edik o f nf/
avhusifch ef;
(u) rD;tdro f nf --------------- aomtcgü ud,
k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬K jzpfonf/
117
(c) ud, k yf ikd tf vif;vTw0f w¬Kukd --------------- tvif;vTw0f w¬KEiS hf vlwzYdk efw;D aom
tvif;vTw0f w¬K[í l 2 rsKd ; xyfrH cGjJ cm;Edik o
f nf/
(*) --------------- onf vQypf pfprG ;f tif&&Sad omtcgü ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬Krsm;
jzpfonf/
(C) --------------- wdo Yk nf wpfqifch H tvif;vTw0f w¬Krsm; jzpfonf/
2/ ntcgwGif oif\aetdrüf tvif;a&mif&&S&d ef rnfonfyh pön;f rsm;udk tok;H jyKoenf;/

%$
3/ rdrw d yYkd wf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&onfh ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬KEiS hf wpfqifch t H vif;vTw0f w¬K
rsm;\ trnf 3 rsKd ;pDuakd zmfjyyg/
4/ xm0&ud, k yf ikd tf vif;vTw0f w¬Krsm;udak zmfjyyg/
5/ yd;k pke;f MuL;? v? Mu,frsm;onf rnfonft h vif;vTwt f rsK;d tpm;rsm; jzpfoenf;/
10-2-3 tvif;\oGm;EIe;f (Speed of Light)

vkyif ef; (1)
à rd;k &moDwiG f rd;k csKe;f oHukd Mum;&jcif;ESihf
vQypf ;D vufonfukd jrif&jcif;wdw Yk iG f
rnfonfukd OD;pGmMuKH awGU&oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à tkypf zk UJG yg/ tvif;\oGm;EIe;f xuf jref
onfh ypön;f &Sd r&Sd azmfjyyg/ ykH (10-15) vQyfpD;vufyHk
vkyif ef; (3)

à vufEydS "f mwfr;D udk cvkwzf iG v
hf Qif rnfoYkd jzpfrnfenf;/
à vufEydS "f mwfr;D wGif wyfxm;aom rD;oD;vif;&jcif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à vufEydS "f mwfr;D a&SUwGif rSet
f Munfxm;í cvkwu f zkd iG v
hf Qif rnfuo hJ Ykd awGU&oenf;/
à vufEydS "f mwfr;D a&SUwGif wpf½LS ;wpf&u G jf zifu
h mí cvkwu f zkd iG v
hf Qif rnfuo hJ Ykd jzpfomG ;
rnfenf;/
à vufEydS "f mwfr;D a&SUwGif uwfxl puúLjzifu h mí cvkwu f zkd iG v
hf Qif rnfuo hJ Ykd jzpfomG ;rnf
enf;/
vkyif ef; (4)
à tkypf zk UJG í aqG;aEG;yg/ tkypf t
k vdu
k f tvif;ayguf0w¬K? tvif;ydw0f w¬KEiS hf tvif;rIef
0w¬Kw\
Ykd trnf 3 ckppD m&if;udjk yKpyk g/
vkyif ef; (5)
à tvif;\oGm;EIe;f oifcef;pmudk tESpcf sKyyf g/
118
t"dutcsufrsm;
tvif;\oGm;EIe;f onf tjrefq;Hk jzpfonf/ tvif;onf wpfpuúev Yf Qif rdik w
f pfoed ;f
&Spaf omif;ajcmufaxmifcefY odrYk [kwf rDwmoef; 300 cefY oGm;\/ toH\oGm;EIe;f onf
avwGif wpfpuúev Yf Qif rDwm 340 cefo Y mG ;onf/
tvif;jzwfoef;Edik rf aI y:rlwnfí t&m0w¬Krsm;udk 3 rsK;d cJjG cm;Edik o
f nf/ (1) tvif;
ayguf0w¬K (transparent) - tvif;aumif;pGmjzwfoef;Edik af om t&m0w¬Krsm;udk
tvif;ayguf0w¬K[ak c:onf/ (2) tvif;ydw0f w¬K (opaque) - tvif;rjzwfoef;Edik f
aom t&m0w¬Krsm;udk tvif;ydw0f w¬K[ak c:onf/ (3) tvif;rIe0f w¬K (translucent)-
tvif;tenf;i,fom jzwfoef;Edik af omt&m0w¬Krsm;udk tvif;rIe0f w¬K[ak c:onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ trSeaf &G;yg/
(u) ausmufw;Hk onf (tvif;ydw?f tvif;ayguf? tvif;rIe?f tvif;,dik )f 0w¬Kjzpfonf/
(c) puúLonf (tvif;ydw?f tvif;ayguf? tvif;rIe?f tvif;,dik )f 0w¬Kjzpfonf/
(*) avwGif tvif;onf wpfpuúev Yf Qif (rDwm 330? rDwmoef; 340? rDwmoef; 300)
cefo Y mG ;onf/
2/ tvif;jzwfoef;Edik jf cif;ay:rlwnfí t&m0w¬Krsm;udk trsKd ;tpm;rnfrQ cGjJ cm;Edik of enf;/

%$
3/ qDprd pf uúLonf rnfuo hJ aYkd om tvif;jzwfEikd o
f nf0h w¬KtrsKd ;tpm;jzpfoenf;/
10-3 tyl ( Heat )
tylonf t&m0w¬Krsm; tylcsed af jymif;vJpOf vTaJ jymif;aom pGr;f tif odrYk [kwf tylonf
t&m0w¬Krsm; tajc (state) ajymif;vJpOf vTaJ jymif;aom pGr;f tifjzpfonf/
10-3-1 tylyif&if;rsm; ( Sources of Heat )
tylyif&f if;qdo
k nfrmS tylukd xkwvf yk af y;Edik af om yif&if;rsm;udk ac:onf/
Oyrm - avmifpm? ae? vQypf pfr;D zdk ponfwjYkd zpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à tylonf tvkyv f yk Ef ikd af Mumif; rnfoo
Ykd &d EdS ikd o
f enf;/ a&aEG;td;k qlyu
G v
f maom tajc
taeudk pOf;pm; ajzqdyk g/
vkyif ef; (2)
aerS tylprG ;f tifrsm;udk pkpnf; &&SEd ikd af Mumif; vufawGUavhvmprf;oyfyg/
à vufuikd rf eS b f v D ;l cH;k wpfcEk iS hf rD;avmifv,
G f aom puúL? 0g*Gr;f ? vJrUId wdu
Yk ,
kd yl g/
119
à aerSvmaom a&mifjcnfwef;rsm;udk wpfae&m

xJwiG pf ík usa&mufap&ef rSeb f v D ;l cH;k udk
tvif;vm&mvrf;aMumif;wGif xm;yg/
à aea&mifjcnfpí k usa&mufaomae&mwGif
puúLudx k m;vdu k yf g/
à rnfoYkd awGU&S&d rnfenf;/ tkypf tk vdu k f
awGU&Scd surf sm;udk wifjyyg/
yHk (10-16)
vkyif ef;(3)
aerStylpGrf;tifrsm; pkpnf;&&SdyHk
à tylprG ;f tifrS tjcm;rnfonfph rG ;f tifrsm;odYk
ul;ajymif;Edik o
f enf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k pGr;f tifqo kd nfrmS ,if;0w¬K\ tvkyv f yk Ef ikd af om pGr;f &nfukd
ac:onf/ tylonf tvkyv f yk Ef ikd af ompGr;f &nf&adS omaMumifh tylprG ;f tif[ak c:onf/
aeonf þurÇmajray:wGif trsm;qH;k toH;k jyKaompGr;f tifrsm;\ yif&if; jzpfonf/
tylprG ;f tifrS tjcm;pGr;f tifrsm;odv Yk nf; toGiu f ;l ajymif;Edik o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k pGr;f tifqo
kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ tylonf pGr;f tifwpf&yfjzpfaMumif; taMumif;jycsujf zifh ajzqdyk g/
10-3-2 tylcsdeEf iS hf omrdrk w
D m ( Temperature and Thermometer )
t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k tylcsed q f okd nfrmS ,if;\ rnfrQyo l nf? rnfrQat;onf qdo k nfh
tyltajctaeyifjzpfonf/
t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k tylcsed uf kd wduspmG wdik ;f wmEdik &f ef omrdrk w
D m[kac:aom tylcsed w f ikd ;f
ud&,d mudk toH;k jyK&onf/ omrdrk w D mwGif tylcsed jf rifv
h Qif t&nfrsm;xkxnfw;kd aom *kPo f wåd
udk toH;k jyKonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à yljcif;? at;jcif;udk cHpm;&onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef;(2)
yHk (10-17) wGif awGU&aom yef;uefv;kH 2 vH;k wGif a&yrmP wlnpD mG yg0ifonf/
odaYk omf tylcsed rf sm;onf rwlnyD g/
à rnfonfyh ef;uefv;kH xJ&dS a&onf tylyrmPydrk sm;oenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
120
80°C 50°C 80°C 80°C

yHk (10-17) tylcsdefrwlaom yHk (10-18) tylcsdefwlaom
a&yrmPwlonfh yef;uefvHk; 2 vHk;\ a&yrmPrwlonfh yef;uefvHk; 2 vHk;\
tylyrmPudk EdIif;,SOfavhvmjcif; tylyrmPudk EdIif;,SOfavhvmjcif;
vykife;f(3)
ykH (10-18) wiGf awUG&aom ye;fuev f ;kH 2 v;kHwiGf yg0iafom a&yrmPrsm; rwn
l MDuyg/
oaYkdomf tyclsedrfsm; waleonu f kd awUGEikdyfgon/f
à rno
f nyhfe;fuev
f ;kHx&JadS&onf tyylrmP yrkdsm;oen;f/ tb,afMumiehfn;f/
vykife;f (4)
t&m0wK¬wpcf\ k tyclsedu
f kd twt d usov d akdomtcg tyclsedw f ikd;fu&d,
d m
(omrrkdwD m) ukd to;kHjyK&aMumi;f vuafwUGavv h myg/
à t&, G w f l cuG EfpSv f ;kH,ylg/ yxrcu G w f iGf a&at;xnyhfg/ 'w k ,
d cuG w
f iGf a&cyfaE;GaE;G
(ten;fi,o f m yaloma&) xnyhfg/
à omrrkdw D mjzihf cuG EfpScfu
G xf &JdS a&tyclsedu f kd wikd;fyg/
à rno f Ykd awUG&&dSrnefn;f/ tykpft k vukd f awUG&cdSsurfsm;ukd q&mx h w
H ijfyyg/
vykife;f (5)
à omrrkdw D mukd rno
f nahfe&mwiGf jrizf;lygoen;f/
tce;ftyclsedu
f okd &deMfunahfom e&Hu H yof mrrkdw
D m? u,
kd t
f yclsedw
f ikd;f omrrkdw
D mEiShf
vuafwUGce;fo;kH omrrkdw D mwYkd jzpyfgon/f
eH&HuyfomrdkrDwm vufawGUcef;oHk;omrdkrDwm udk,ftylcsdefwdkif;omrdkrDwm

yHk (10-19) omrdkrDwmtrsdK;rsdK;
vykife;f (6)
tykpfv
k u
kd f ykH (10-19) uakdvv
h mí avv
h mawUG&cdSsurfsm;ukd q&mEiSt
hf jyet
f veSf
aq;GaE;Gyg/
121
vkyif ef; (7)

tkypf v
k u
kd f yHk (10-20) wGiaf wGU&aom omrdrk w
D mrsm;\ tylcsed u
f zkd wfí uGuv
f yf
wGijf znfyh g/
°F °C °F °C °F °C
_____°C _____°C _____°C
(u) _____°F (c) _____°F (*) _____°F
yHk (10-20) omrdkrDwmrSjyaeaom tylcsdef 3 rsKd;
à rnfonfo
h mrdrk w
D monf tylcsed t
f jrifqh ;kH jzpfoenf;/ rnfrQ&o dS enf;/
à rnfonfo
h mrdrk w
D monf tylcsed t
f edrq
hf ;kH jzpfoenf;/ rnfrQ&odS enf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
tylyrmPtwd;k tavsmo h nf t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k tylcsed u f akd jymif;Ekid o
f nf/
t&m0w¬KrnfrQyo l nf? at;onfujkd yaom twdik ;f twmonf tylcsed jf zpfonf/
vlwpfa,muf\ omreftylcsed o f nf 37°C (98.6°F) jzpfonf/
t&m0w¬Kwpfc\ k tylcsed u f kd twdtusov d akd omtcg tylcsed w f ikd ;f ud&, d m
(omrdrk w D m) udk toH;k jyK&onf/
tylcsed \ f 'D*&Durkd w S o
f m;&ef 'D*&Dqv J pf ;D ,yf (°C) ESihf 'D*&Dzm&if[u kd f (°F) wdu Yk kd
toH;k jyKonf/
tcef;tylcsed u f o kd &d ef Munfah om eH&u H yfomrdrk w D m? vl\ cE¨mud, k t f ylcsed u f o
kd &d ef
wdik ;f aom ud, k t f ylcsed w
f ikd ;f omrdrk w
D mESihf a&cJrw S ?f a&qlrw S ?f aysm&f nfEiS hf azsm&f nf
rsm;\ tylcsed rf sm;udk wdik ;f wm&mwGio f ;kH aom vufawGUcef;oH;k omrdrk w D m[lí
omrdrk w D mtrsKd ;rsKd ; &So
d nf/
omrdrk w D mwGif a&qlaomtcgjyonfh a&qlrw S Ef iS hf a&cJaomtcgjyonfh a&cJrw S f
[lí ta&;Bu;D aom trSwt f om;ESpcf k &So d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tylEiS t hf ylcsed jf cm;em;csuuf akd zmfjyyg/
2/ yljcif;?at;jcif;udck pH m;&onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
3/ omrdrk w D mqdo k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
4/ eH&u H yfomrdrk w D mudrk nfonft h wGut f oH;k jyKoenf;/
5/ vufawGUcef;oH;k omrdrk w D mESihf ud, k t
f ylcsed wf ikd ;f omrdrk w
D mwd\
Yk uGjJ ym;jcm;em;csuf
rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
122
10-3-3 tylu;l enf;rsm; ( Transfer of Heat )

tylonf wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk ul;ajymif;&mwGif enf;oH;k enf;jzifh ul;ajymif;Edik o
f nf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à oHacsmif;wpfacsmif;\ tpGe;f wpfzufukd tylay;aomtcg oHacsmif;\ tjcm;wpfzuf
wGif ylvmonfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
j'yfom;rsm;jzifh yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;aomypön;f rsm;wGif j'yfreI rf sm; ud,
k w
f idk af &GUvsm;jcif;
r&Sad om tyl vufqifu h rf;vdu
k jf cif;udk tylavQmufu;l jcif;[kac:onf/
yHk (10-21) tylavQmuful;jcif; yHk (10-22) tylpD;ul;jcif;
vkyif ef; (2)

à a&aEG;td;k wnf&mwGif a&aEG;qlyu G vf monfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
tylvufc&H &Sad om 0w¬Kj'yfom; uk, d w
f idk af &GUvsm;jcif;jzifh tylonf wpfae&mrS
wpfae&modYk ul;ajymif;jcif;udk tylp;D ul;jcif;[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (3)
à rD;vIaH omtcg aEG;vmonf[k cHpm;&onfrmS
tb,faMumifeh nf;/
tylonf jzmxGujf cif;a&mifjcnfjzpfaomaMumifh
jzmul;jcif;enf;jzifh tyljzmul;Edik of nf/ Mum;cHe,fr&Sad om yHk (10-23) tyljzmul;jcif;
e,f? av[me,f (vacuum) wdw Yk iG v
f nf; tyljzwfoef;Edik f
onf/
vkyif ef; (4)

à tylonf wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk rnfoYkd ul;ajymif;oenf;/ rnfonfeh nf;rsm;jzifh
ul;ajymif;Edik o
f enf;/
vkyif ef; (5)
tylu;l ajymif;&mwGif rnfonfeh nf;jzifh ul;ajymif;yHu
k kd pOf;pm;ajzqdyk g/
123
(u) (c) (*) (C)

yHk (10-24) tylul;ajymif;enf;rsm;
t"dutcsufrsm;
tylonf ylaomae&mrS at;aomae&modYk odrYk [kwf tylcsed jf rif&h mrS edr&hf modYk
ul;ajymif;oGm;Edik o f nf/
j'yfom;rsm;jzifh yg0ifzUJG pnf;xm;aomypön;f rsm;wGif j'yfreI rf sm; ud, k w f idk af &GUvsm;jcif;
r&Sad om tyl vufqifu h rf;vdu
k jf cif;udk tylavQmufu;l jcif;[kac:onf/
tylvufc&H &Sad om 0w¬Kj'yfom; uk, d wf idk af &GUvsm;jcif;jzifh tylonf wpfae&mrS
wpfae&modYk ul;ajymif;jcif;udk tylp;D ul;jcif;[kac:onf/
tylonf a&mifjcnfwpfrsK;d jzpfaomaMumifh jzmul;jcif;enf;jzifh tyljzmul;Edik o f nf/
Mum;cHe,fr&Sad ome,f? av[me,f (vacuum) wdw Yk iG v
f nf; tylu;l Edik o
f nf/
j'yfom;Mum;cHe,f&o dS nfjzpfap? r&So d nfjzpfap tylonf wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk
ul;ajymif;Edik o
f nf/ tylonf wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk ul;ajymif;&mwGif enf; 3 enf;
jzifh ul;ajymif;Edik o
f nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygay;xm;aomjzpfpOfrsm;ESihf oifah vsm&f m tylu;l enf;rsm;udk wGyJ g/
(u) a&aEG;td;k xJ&adS &udt k ylay;aomtcg a&rsm;qlyu G o
f mG ;jcif; (1) tylavQmufu;l jcif;
(c) aerS urÇmodYk tyla&muf&jdS cif; (2) tylp;D ul;jcif;
(*) aumfzcD u G tf wGi;f &Sd pwD;ZGe;f ylvmjcif; (3) tyljzmul;jcif;
2/ tylu;l enf; 3 rsKd ;udak zmfjyyg/
3/ tylavSsmufu;l jcif;jzpfpOfwpfcu k akd &;yg/
4/ tylp;D ul;jcif;jzpfpOfukd rdrd yd wf0ef;usiw f iG f jrifz;l ygovm;/ aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
5/ tylp;D ul;jcif;enf;udtk oH;k jyKí jyKvyk x f m;aomypön;f 2 rsKd ;udak zmfjyyg/
6/ oifyh wf0ef;usi&f dS tyljzmul;jcif;jzpfpOfwpfcu k kd &Si;f jyyg/
10-3-4 tylavQmuf0w¬KESihf tylum0w¬Krsm; ( Heat Conductors and Insulators )
tylavQmufu;l jcif;jrefaom0w¬Kukd tylavQmuf0w¬K[ak c:í tylavQmufu;l jcif;
aES;aom0w¬Kukd tylum0w¬K[ak c:onf/ Oyrm 'eft;kd onf tylavQmuf0w¬KjzpfNy;D
vufE;DS 0wfonf tylum0w¬Kjzpfonf/
124
vkyif ef; (1)

à ylaomxrif;td;k ? [if;td;k rsm;udk vufE;DS 0wfjzifh
udik jf cif;ESihf vufE;DS 0wfrygbJ udik jf cif;wdw
Yk iG f
rnfonfx h ;l jcm;csuu
f kd awGU&oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2) yHk (10-25) ylaomxrif;tdk;udk
à pwD;ZGe;f wpfacsmif;ESiYf 0g;wlwpfacsmif;udk a&aEG; vufESD;0wfjzifh udkifyHk
xJoYkd wpfNyKd iwf nf;ESpyf g/ rnfonfu pwifí yloenf;/
à ywf0ef;usiw f iG af wGU&aom tylavQmufu;l jcif;jrefaom t&m0w¬Krsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à tylavQmuf0w¬Krsm;udk rnfonft h wGuf toH;k jyKMuoenf;/
vkyif ef; (3)
à ywf0ef;usiw
f iG af wGU&aom tylavQmufu;l jcif;aES;aom t&m0w¬Krsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à tylum0w¬Krsm;udk rnfonft h wGuf toH;k jyKMuoenf;/
vkyif ef; (4)
tkypf t
k vdu
k f q&may;aomuwfjym;rsm;udk trsKd ;tpm;cGí
J ausmufoifyek ;f &Sd Z,m;
wGif uyfyg/
tylavQmuf0w¬K tylum0w¬K tylavQmufEiS t
hf ylum ESprf sKd ;wGx
J m;aom0w¬K
t"dutcsufrsm;
tylavQmufu;l jcif; jrefaom0w¬Kukd tylavQmuf0w¬K[ak c:onf/ Oyrm - owåKypön;f
tylavQmufu;l jcif; aES;aom0w¬Kukd tylum0w¬K[ak c:onf/ Oyrm - yvwfpwpf?
csnxf nfponfh owåKr[kwaf omypön;f rsm;
tylrsm; wpfae&mrSwpfae&modYk vsijf refpmG ul;ajymif;Edik &f ef tylavQmuf0w¬Krsm;udk
toH;k jyKonf/
twGi;f rStyl tjyiforYkd xGuaf p&ef? tjyifrt
S yl twGi;f odrYk 0ifap&ef tylumypön;f rsm;
udk toH;k jyKonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tylavQmuf0w¬Kqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/ tylavQmuf0w¬K 5 rsKd ;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ tylum0w¬Kqo kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/ tylum0w¬K 5 rsKd ;udk azmfjyyg/
3/ tylavQmuf0w¬KEiS hf tylum0w¬Kwo Ykd nf rnfouYkd mG jcm;oenf;/
4/ rD;zdak csmifo;kH ',ft;kd ? 'eft;kd rsm;udk rnfonft h wGuaf Mumifh owåKypön;f rsm;jzifh
jyKvyk x f m;oenf;/
5/ a&cJy;kH rsm;udk rnfonft h wGuaf Mumifh yvwfpwpfrsm;jzifh jyKvyk x f m;oenf;/
125
10-4 vQyfppf (Electricity)

vQypf pfonf wnfNird vf Qypf pf odrYk [kwf a&GUvsm;vQypf pfwEYkd iS q
hf ufE,
T af eaom jzpfpOf
jzpfonf/
10-4-1 wnfNidrv f Qyfppf (Static Electricity)
ypön;f wpfcok nf ,if;twGi;f &Sd vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+) ta&twGuEf iS hf vQypf pf"mwfr (-)
ta&twGuw f v l Qif vQypf pfryhJ pön;f jzpfonf/ ypön;f wpfctk wGi;f &Sd vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+)
ta&twGuf rajymif;vJEikd yf g/ vQypf pf"mwfr (-) ta&twGuef nf;oGm;vQif ypön;f onf vQyf
ppfzkd (+) aqmif\/ vQypf pf"mwfr (-) ta&twGurf sm;vQif ypön;f onf vQypf pf"mwfr (-)
aqmif\/
(u) (c) (*)

ykH (10-26) (u) vQyfppf"mwfrJh (c) vQyfppf"mwfzdk (*) vQyfppf"mwfraqmif t&m0w¬K
vkyif ef; (1)
à ykH (10-26) wGijf yxm;onfh t&m0w¬K 3 ckwiG &f o dS nfh vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+) ? vQypf pf
"mwfr (-) ta&twGuu f kd a&wGuyf g/
à rnfonfh t&m0w¬Konf vQypf pf"mwfr (-) ? vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+) ESihf vQypf pf"mwfrahJ qmif
t&m0w¬Kjzpfoenf;/ taMumif;jycsujf zifh ajzqdyk g/
à vQypf pf"mwfzkd odrYk [kwf vQypf pf"mwfraqmif t&m0w¬K rnfuo hJ Ydk jzpfay:&oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf zk UJG yg/ ykH (10-26) udk OyrmjyKí vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+) ta&twGuf
udk ude;f aoxm;Ny;D vQypf pf"mwfr (-) ta&twGut f enf;trsm;jzifh vQypf pf"mwfr?hJ
vQypf pf"mwfzEkd iS hf vQypf pf"mwfr t&m0w¬Kwu Ykd q
kd í
JG ajzqdyk g/
vkyif ef; (3)
à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf zk UJG yg/ a&S;OD;pGm yvwfpwpf
bD; odrYk [kwf aywHu, kd íl puúLacgufMum;wGif
n§yNf y;D tBurd rf sm;pGm yGww f u
kd yf g/
à yGww f u kd x
f m;aom yvwfpwpfb;D odrYk [kwf
aywH udk ao;i,fayghyg;aompuúLprsm; teD;wGif
xm;yg/ yHk (10-27) yHk (10-27)
à rnfonfukd jrifawGU&oenf;/ yvwfpwpfaywHonf
à tb,faMumifh þodYk jzpf&oenf;/ puúLpi,frsm;udk qJGiifaeyHk
126
à Z,m;wGif azmfjyxm;aomypön;f rsm;onf wpfcEk iS hf wpfcyk w

G w
f u
kd v
f Qif jzpfay:vmrnfh
vQypf pf"mwfzEkd iS hf vQypf pf"mwfraqmif ypön;f rsm;jzpfonf/
vQypf pf"mwfzakd qmif ypön;f vQypf pf"mwfraqmif ypön;f
qHyif yvwfpwpfb;D ^ylazmif;
puúL yvwfpwpfaywH
yd;k om;p PVCydu
k f
vkyif ef; (4)
à wnfNird v f Qypf pfukd obm0wGif rnf
onfjh zpf&yfü awGU&oenf;/
à vQypf ;D vufjcif;udk pOf;pm;Munfyh g/
tb,faMumifh þodjYk zpfonfukd cefrY eS ;f
yg/
à wnfNird v f Qypf pfukd rdryd wf0ef;usiw
f iG f
ykkH (10-28) wnfNidrf vQyfppfaMumifh rnfonfyh pön;f rsm;ü tok;H jyKoenf;/
vQyfpD;vufpOf
vkyif ef; (5)
à tcsK&d nfb;l cGH (tvlreD , D )H udk pm;yGaJ y:wGif vSí J
xm;yg/
à 2 aycefY &Snaf om PVC yvwfpwpfyu kd v
f ;Hk udk
yd;k pESihf tBurd rf sm;pGm yGwwf ukd yf g/
à xdyk u kd v
f ;Hk udk tcsK&d nfb;l cGH teD;od, Yk íl prf;oyf
Munfyh g/ ykH (10-29)
rnfoYkd awGUjrif&oenf;/ ykH (10-29)
à tb,faMumifh þodYk jzpf&oenf;/ wnfNidrfvQyfppfprf;oyfyHk
vkyif ef; (6)

à #
tBurd Bf urd f Nz;D aeyg/ xdaYk emuf yHk (10-30) wGif

jyxm;onft h wdik ;f a&bHyk ikd rf S ajz;nif;pGmusaeaom
a&teD;wGif bD;udk xm;yg/
à rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/
à qHyifukd yvwfpwpfb;D jzifh tBurd Bf urd f Nz;D Ny;D aemuf
xdb
k ;D udk tenf;i,f cGmvdu k yf g/ ykH (10-30) a&bkHydkifrSusae
à qHyiftaetxm; rnfoYkd ajymif;vJomG ;oenf;/ aoma&jzifh bD;udkprf;oyfykH
127
vkyif ef; (7)

à yvwfpwpfb;D 2 acsmif;udk ,lyg/ ykH (10-31) wGif
jyxm;onft h wdik ;f yvwfpwpfb;D wpfacsmif;udk
BuKd ;jzifh csnyf g/
à csnx f m;onfh yvwfpwpfb;D ESihf usew f pfacsmif;
wduYk kd yd;k om;pjzifh wpfNyKd ief ufyw G yf g/
à csnx f m;onfh yvwfpwpfb;D udk Nird o f ufpmG xm;yg/
à usew f pfacsmif;udk BuKd ;jzifh csnx f m;onfh yvwfpwpf
bD; teD;odYk ,lvmyg/
à rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/ ykH (10-31) yvwfpwpfbD;
à tb,faMumifh þodjYk zpf&oenf;/ 2 acsmif;jzifh prf;oyfykH
t"dutcsufrsm;
vQyp f pfwiG f vQypf pf"mwfzkd (+) ESihf vQypf pf"mwfr (-) [lí 2 rsK;d &So d nf/
t&m0w¬KEp S cf k yGww f u kd v
f Qif vQypf pf"mwfr (-) aqmifaom trIeu f kd xkwaf y;jcif;ESihf
vufcjH cif;ay:rlwnfí vQypf pf"mwfzakd qmif odrYk [kwf vQypf pf"mwfraqmifonfh
ypön;f [lí owfrw S o f nf/
aMu;eD? oHrPdwr Ykd mS yGww f u kd af omfvnf; vQypf pfowåd csucf si;f ysujf y,fojzifh
vQypf pf"mwf tNrJ raqmifay/ vQypf pf"mwfaqmifapvdv k Qif bufx&Djzifh qufxm;&
onf/
t&m0w¬Kukd yGww f u kd af y;vQif &&Sad omvQypf pfrmS wnfNird v f Qypf pfjzpfonf/
wnfNir d vf Qypf pfonf yGww f u kd cf &H aomt&m0w¬K\ rsuEf mS jyifwiG jf zpfay:Ny;D tjcm;
wpfae&modpYk ;D ul;oGm;jcif;r&Sb d J jzpfay:onfah e&mwGiw f nf&adS eonhf vQypf pfjzpfonf/
rsK;d wlvQyp f pfrsm;onf wGe;f uefNy;D rsK;d rwlvQypf pfrsm;onf qGiJ ifMuonf/
wnfNir d vf Qypf pfukd y&ifwm (printer) rsm;? rdwLå ul;pufrsm;ESihf um;? pufb;D aq;rIwf
jcif; wdw Yk iG tf oH;k jyKonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ t&m0w¬K 2 ck yGww f u
kd vf Qif rnfonfv h Qypf pfukd &&So
d enf;/
2/ rsKd ;wlaom vQypf pfrsm;onf tcsi;f csi;f rnfoYkd jyKrMl uoenf;/
3/ rsKd ;rwlaom vQypf pfrsm;onf tcsi;f csi;f rnfoYkd jyKrMl uoenf;/
4/ yGww f u kd af omfvnf; vQypf pfowåd csucf si;f ysujf y,fonfh t&m0w¬Kuakd zmfjyyg/
5/ rsKd ;wlvQypf pfweG ;f uefjcif;ESihf rsKd ;rwlvQypf pfqiJG ifjcif;wdt
Yk wGuf rdrud ,
kd w
f ikd f
prf;oyfEikd o f nfh ypön;f 1 pkH udak zmfjyyg/
6/ rsKd ;wlvQypf pf"mwftcsi;f csi;f wGe;f uefru I kd rnfonfph rf;oyfcsurf sm;wGif awGUEdik f
oenf;/
128
10-4-2 a&GUvsm;vQyfppf odrYk [kwf vQyfpf ;D (Current Electricity)
vkyif ef; (1)

à yk-H (10-32)wGijf yxm;onft h wdik ;f eef;BuKd ; wpfzuf
udk "mwfcJ (tr) \ atmufbufEiS hf xdxm;ygu
rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/
à rnfonft h wGuaf Mumifh þodjYk zpf&oenf;/
à eef;BuKd ;ponf "mwfc\ J atmufbufEiS hf rxdxm; yHk (10-32) a&GUvsm;vQyfppfudk
onft h csed w
f iG f rnfoaYkd wGUjrif&oenf;/ vufawGUprf;oyfykH
à vQypf ;D ywfvrf;wGif rD;oD; rD;vif;jcif;? rD;rvif;jcif; jzpf&onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf zk UJG yg/ txufyga&GUvsm;vQypf pfprf;oyfcsuu
f kd vufawGUvkyf
aqmifyg/
t"dutcsuf
"mwfc?J bufx&DwjYkd zift h oH;k jyKonfh vQypf pfypön;f rsm;ESihf aetdrw f iG f "mwfBuKd ;ESihf
csw
d q f uftok;H jyKaom vQypf pfypön;f wdwYk iG f pD;qif;onhv f Qypf pfrmS a&GUvsm;vQypf pf
odrYk [kwf vQypf ;D jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vQypf pfjzift
h ok;H jyKaom ypön;f trnf 3 rsKd ;udk azmfjyyg/
2/ rD;cvkwzf iG o
hf nft h cg rD;acsmif; rD;vif;&jcif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
3/ rD;oD;? rD;acsmif;rsm;twGi;f vQypf pfp;D jcif;aMumifh rnfonfwu Ykd kd &&So
d enf;/
4/ a&GUvsm;vQypf pfEiS hf wnfNird v
f Qypf pf jcm;em;csuuf kd azmfjyyg/
10-4-3 wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qyfp;D ESihf jyefveS v
f Qyfp;D (Direct Current-DC & Alternating Current-AC)
vkyif ef; (1)
ykH (10-33) (u)

jyefvSefvQyfpD; pD;onfhypönf; ykH (10-33) (c) wdkuf½dkufvQyfpD; pD;onfhypönf;
à tdrw
f iG t
f ok;H jyKonfh vQypf pfypön;f rsm;\ trnf rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
à vQypf pfypön;f rsm;teuf rnfonfyh pön;f onf "mwfcjJ zifh tok;H jyKEikd o
f nfyh pön;f ESihf
rnfonfh ypön;f onf aetdro
f ;Hk vQypf pfjzifh tok;H jyKonfh ypön;f jzpfoenf;/
129
vkyif ef; (2)

à ykH (10-34) wGif jyxm;onft h wdik ;f "mwfcJ 1 vk;H ?
0dik ,
f mBuKd ; 2 p? rD;oD; 1 vH;k wdjYk zifh vQypf ;D ywfvrf;udk
wnfaqmufyg/ rnfonfukd awGUjrifMuoenf;/
à tb,faMumifh þodjYk zpf&oenf;/
à yHk (10-34) wGijf yxm;onft h wdik ;f vQypf ;D ywfvrf;ykH ykH (10-34)
udk vufawGUvkyaf qmifyg/ wdkuf½dkufvQyfpD;ywfvrf;ykH
t"dutcsufrsm;
wduk ½f ukd v f Qypf ;D wGif vQypf ;D onf "mwfc\ J twGi;f tzdik w k rf S rD;oD;? rD;oD;rS 0dik ,
f mBuKd ;
udjk zwfNy;D trikwo f Ykd ywfvrf;jynfph ;D ojzifh rD;oD; rD;vif;vmonf/ OD;wnfbuf
wpfzufwnf;udo k mpD;qif;aom vQypf ;D jzpfonf/
jyefveS v f Qypf ;D wGif vQypf ;D onf ykrH eS t f csed yf ikd ;f rsm;wGif OD;wnfbufrsm;udk tjyeftvSef
ajymif;ípD;qif;aom vQypf ;D jzpfonf/
aetdrt f aqmufttkrH sm;ESihf puf½t Hk vky½f w Hk wYkd iG tf ok;H jyKaeonfh vQypf ;D rSm jyefveS f
vQypf ;D jzpfonf/ jrefrmEdik if w H iG o
f ;kH pGaJ om jyefveS v f Qypf ;D onf Adt Yk m; 220 jzpfonf/
rnfonfv h Qypf ;D rqdk Adt
Yk m; 100 ausmyf gu tEÅ&m,f&o dS nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oifyh wf0ef;usiw f iG &f adS om "mwfcoJ ;kH ypön;f 3 rsK;d udk azmfjyyg/ ,if;wdu
Yk kd toH;k jyK&ef
rnfonfh vQypf ;D vdo k enf;/
2/ vQypf pfa&aEG;td;k udtk oH;k jyKvQif rnfonfh vQypf ;D vdo k enf;/
3/ oifyh wf0ef;usiw f iG f toH;k rsm;aom vQypf pfo;kH pufypön;f 3 ckukd azmfjyyg/
10-4-4 ½d;k ½d;k wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qyfp;D ywfvrf; (Simple DC Circuit)
vkyif ef;(1)
(u) (c)
yHk (10-35) (u) ½dk;½dk;wdkuf½dkufvQyfpD;ywfvrf; (c) vufESdyf"mwfrD;ykH
à "mwfct J oH;k jyKaomvQypf pfypön;f rsm;wGif rnfonfh vQypf ;D pD;oenf;/
à "mwfct J oH;k jyKaomvQypf pfypön;f rsm;wGif wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qypf ;D onf rnfoYkd pD;oenf;/
à wdu k ½f u
kd vf Qypf ;D prf;oyfcsut
f wGuf rnfonfyh pön;f rsm; vdt k yfoenf;/
à yHk (10-35) (u)wGif jyxm;onft h wdik ;f cvkwyf gonfh vQypf pfywfvrf;yHu k kd vufawGU
vkyaf qmifyg/
130
t"dutcsufrsm;
wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qypf ;D qdo
k nfrmS OD;wnfbufwpfzufwnf;udo k m pD;qif;aomvQypf ;D
jzpfonf/
cvkwzf iG xhf m;csed w
f iG f "mwfcJ 2 awmifx h ;kd vufEydS "f mwfr;D wGif wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qypf ;D onf
a&SU"mwfc\ J tzdik w
k rf S rD;oD;? xdrk w S pfqifh cvkwzf iG x hf m;onfukd jzwfp;D Ny;D
'kw,d "mwfc\ J trikwo f Ykd vQypf ;D wpfywfjynfh jzwfp;D ojzifh rD;oD; rD;vif;onf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ "mwfcEJ pS af wmifx h ;kd vufEydS "f mwfr;D wGif rnfonfh vQypf ;D pD;oenf;/
2/ vufEydS "f mwfr;D wGif tb,faMumifh cvkwv f tkd yfoenf;/
3/ cvkwzf iG xhf m;csed w
f iG f vufEydS "f mwfr;D ü vQypf ;D pD;qif;yHu
k kd &Si;f jyyg/
10-4-5 vQyfu;l ypön;f ESihf vQyfumypön;f ( Conductor & Insulator)

vQypf pf jzwfp;D oGm;Edik o
f nfh t&m0w¬Krsm;udk vQyu
f ;l ypön;f rsm;[kac:onf/
vQypf pf jzwfoef;roGm;Edik o f nfh t&m0w¬Krsm;udk vQyu f mypön;f rsm;[kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)

à 0dik ,f mBuKd ;tydik ;f tpwpfcu
k kd OD;pGm avhvmyg/
à rnfonfyh pön;f rsm;udk awGU&So d enf;/
à tb,faMumifh aMu;eef;rQiu f kd þodjYk yKvyk x
f m;&oenf;/
vkyif ef; (2)

à oli,fcsi;f rsm;ESihf tkypf zk UJG yg/ atmufygprf;oyfcsuu f kd tqifv
h u
kd v
f yk af qmifyg/
à yHk (10-36) wGijf yxm;onft h wdik ;f 0dik ,f mBuKd ;? "mwfc?J rD;oD;wdu Yk kd tok;H jyKNy;D
vQypf ;D ywfvrf;wpfck jyKvyk jf yyg/
à ,if;vQypf ;D ywfvrf;&Sd ikwf
(A) ESihf ikwf (B) udk pwD;ZGe;f ?
puúLn§yu f vpf? oGm;Mum;xd;k
wH (0g;? opfom;)? abmyif?
ajrjzL? cJw?H cJzsuf wpfcck si;f
pDEiS hf Mum;jzwfqufo, G f
MunfNh y;D vQypf ;D ywfvrf;udk
avhvmyg/ ykH (10-36) 0g;jzifh vQyfumypönf;prf;oyfyHk
131
à rnfonfukd awGU&oenf;/
à rnfonfyh pön;f udo
k ;Hk vQif rD;oD; rD;vif;onfukd awGU&oenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à rnfonhyf pön;f udo
k ;Hk vQif rD;oD; rD;rvif;oenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
à a&wGif vQypf pfp;D Edik jf cif; &Sd r&Sd ajzqdyk g/
t"dutcsufrsm;
vQypf pfavhvm&mwGif "mwfcu J okd m toH;k jyK&rnf/
vQypf pf jzwfp;D oGm;Edik o
f nfh t&m0w¬Krsm;udk vQyu f ;l ypön;f rsm;[kac:onf/
Oyrm – a&T? aiG? aMu;eD? aMu;0g? oH? oGy?f tvlreD , D rf? oHrPdponfh owåKypön;f rsm;
vQypf pf jzwfoef;roGm;Edik o f nfh t&m0w¬Krsm;udk vQyu f mypön;f rsm;[kac:onf/
Oyrm– a&mfbm? zef? a<uxnf
a&wGif vQypf pf pD;Edik o f jzifh a&onf vQyu f ;l ypön;f jzpfonf/
vQyu f mypön;f rsm;tok;H jyKonft h cg tEÅ&m,frjzpf&eftwGuf ajcmufaoGUaomypön;f
rsm;jzpf&ef vdt
k yfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ vQyu f ;l ypön;f ESihf vQyu
f mypön;f wd\
Yk jcm;em;csuu f kd azmfjyyg/
2/ vQyu f ;l ypön;f ESihf vQyu f mypön;f prf;oyfcsut f wGuf vdt k yfaomypön;f rsm;udk
azmfjyyg/
3/ vQyu f ;l ypön;f ESihf vQyu
f mypön;f prf;oyfyt
kH qifq h ifu h kd &Si;f jyyg/
4/ oiftoH;k jyKaomypön;f rsm;teuf vQyu f ;l ypön;f ESihf vQyu f mypön;f 3 rsKd ;pDukd cJjG cm;
azmfjyyg/
10-5 oHvu
kd f ( Magnet )
10-5-1 oHvu kd \ f t"dyÜm,f

%

oHvu
kd q
f o kd nfrmS oHuqkd iJG ifEikd af omypön;f jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à Murf;jyifay:wGif jyefu Y saJ eaom yiftyfrsm;udk vufEiS rhf xdbJ rnfonfeh nf;jzifh
tjrefq;kH aumufEikd o
f enf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à oHvu kd o
f nf rnfoaYkd omypön;f rsKd ; jzpfoenf;/ oHvu
dk t
f rsKd ;tpm; rnfrQ&o
dS enf;/
vkyif ef; (3)
à obm0oHvu kd u
f kd rnfoYkd em;vnfygoenf;/
132
à vlvyk o
f v
H u
kd u
f kd rnfoYkd em;vnfygoenf;/ vlvyk f
oHvu
kd o
f nf rnfonfyh o
kH P²mefrsm; &Syd goenf;/
vkyif ef; (4) yHk (10-37)

oHvu kd o f nf oHukd qGiJ ifEikd af Mumif; vufawGU avhvmyg/ obm0oHvdkuf
à oHacsmif;? uvpf? csw d ?f pmtky?f yiftyfrsm;? cJw?H Mu,fo;D ?
zefa*:vDv;kH ? oHr?dI aomhrsm;? trdu I pf rsm;? oJ?
oHreI pf rsm;udk a&mxm;í pm;yGaJ y:wGif wifxm;yg/
4if;wdt Yk eD;odYk oHvu
kd af csmif; udk ,lvmyg/
à rnfonfh 0w¬Kypön;f rsm;onf oHvu kd af csmif;wGif uyfyg
oGm;í rnfonfyh pön;f rsm;onf pm;yGaJ y:wGif usecf hJ
aMumif; avhvmprf;oyfyg/ yHk (10-38) vlvkyfoHvdkuf
t"dutcsufrsm;
oHvu kd qf o kd nfrmS oHuq kd iJG ifEikd af omypön;f jzpfonf/
oHvu kd wf iG f obm0oHvu kd Ef iS hf vlvyk o f v H u
kd [ f íl trsKd ;tpm; 2 rsKd ;&Sod nf/
r*¾eufwu kd f (ac:) oHatmufq'kd f (Fe3O4) yg0ifaom ajrrSxu G o
f nfh "mwfowåKonf
oHreI pf rsm;udk qGiJ ifEikd af omaMumifh obm0oHvu kd jf zpfonf/
½d;k ½d;k oHrPdacsmif;ESihf oHacsmif;rsm;udk oHvu kd "f mwf&&Sad tmifjyKvyk jf cif;jzifh &&Sv
d m
aom oHvu kd af csmif;onf vlvyk o f vH u
kd jf zpfonf/
oHvu kd rf sm;wGif yHo k P²meftrsKd ;rsKd ;&Sod nf/ t&G,t f pm; txltyg;trsKd ;rsKd ;&So
d nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oHvu kd q
f o
kd nfrmS tb,fenf;/
2/ obm0oHvu kd Ef iS hf vlvyk o
f vH u
kd f rnfou
Ydk mG jcm;oenf;/
3/ oHvu kd u
f kd toH;k jyKí jyKvyk x f m;aom ypön;f 3 rsKd ;udk azmfjyyg/
10-5-2 oHvu kd 0f if½;kd pGe;f rsm; ( Poles of Magnet )
oHvu kd af csmif;wGif awmif0if½;kd pGe;f (South Pole) ESihf ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f (North Pole) [lí
0if½;kd pGe;f ESpcf &k o
dS nf/ xdt k pGe;f ESpzf ufwiG f oHvu
kd jf yif;tm;onf trsm;qH;k jzpfonf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à jrif;cGmyHo k vH u
kd Ef iS hf oHvu
kd w
f ;kH udk oHreI pf rsm; twGi;f odEYk pS yf g/
à oHvu kd af csmif;\ rnfonfah e&mwGif oHreI pf trsm;qH;k uyfomG ;onfukd avhvmyg/
133
vkyif ef; (2)

à tyfacsmif;wpfacsmif;? tyfcsnt f enf;i,fEiS hf tm;
jyif;aom oHvu kd Ef iS hf tm;aysmah om oHvu dk wf ;kH
ESpw f ;kH ,lyg/
à csnx f ;kd xm;aomtyfukd oHvu kd 0f if½;kd pGe;f ESihf tenf;
i,fcmG xm;yg/ tyfacsmif; rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;oenf;/
à oHvu kd Ef iS hf tyfMum;tuGmta0;udk ajymif;vJay;yg/
tyfacsmif;rnfoYkd jzpfomG ;oenf;/
à tyfacsmif;udk oHvu kd \
f tv,fae&mteD;wGif
xm;yg/ rnfojYkd zpfomG ;oenf;/ yHk (10-39) tyfonf
oHvdkufESifh rxdbJ avxJwGif
vkyif ef; (3)
ysHaeyHk
à puúL? yvwfpwpfjym;ESihf oHjym;rsm;ud, k yl g/
à xdyk pön;f rsm;udk tyfEiS hf oHvu kd rf xdbJ avxJysaH epOf ,if;wdMYk um;ü wpfcNk y;D wpfcx k m;
í oHvu dk \ f qGiJ iftm;udk prf;oyfyg/ oHvu kd t f m;onf puúL? yvwfpwpfEiS hf oHjym;
wduYk kd azmufxiG ;f í qGiJ ifEikd jf cif; &Sd r&Sd avhvmyg/
à avhvmawGU&Scd surf sm;udk aqG;aEG;wifjyyg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
oHvu kd af csmif;wGif awmif0if½;kd pGe;f (South Pole) ESihf ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f (North Pole)
[lí 0if½;kd pGe;f ESpcf &k o dS nf/
tm;jyif;aomoHvu kd o f nf tyfukd a0;uGmaomtuGmta0;wpfcx k q d EJG ikd Nf y;D tm;aysmh
aomoHvu kd o f nf tyfukd eD;aomtuGmta0;wpfco k oYkd m qGEJ ikd af Mumif; awGU&\/
oHvu kd Ef iS ehf ;D vQif qGt J m;rsm;í oHvu kd Ef iS ahf 0;vQif qGt J m;enf;onf/
oHvu kd t f m;aysmjh cif; odrYk [kwf oHvu kd t f m;jyif;jcif;udk oHvu kd 0f if½;kd pGe;f jyif;tm;
(unit pole) twda k umuf (up) ESihf wdik ;f wm&\/
oHvu kd t f m;onf oHvu kd o
f wdrå &Sad om (oHr[kwaf om) ypön;f rsm;udk azmufxiG ;f
qGiJ ifEikd \
f / oHxnfypön;f rsm;udrk l azmufxiG ;f qGiJ ifEikd jf cif; r&Syd g/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oHvu kd \f tpGe;f ESpzf ufwiG f qGiJ iftm;ydrk sm;onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
2/ oHvu kd Ef iS hf oHacsmif;Mum;wGif rnfonfyh pön;f udx
k m;ygu oHvukd \
f qGiJ iftm;udk &yfwefY
Edik rf nfenf;/ tb,faMumifeh nf;/
10-5-3 oHvu kd w
f eG ;f tm;ESihf qGt
J m; ( Magnetic Repulsion and Attraction )
oHvu
kd t
f csi;f csi;f wGe;f uefaom odrYk [kwf qGiJ ifaomtm;udk oHvu kd t
f m;[kac:onf/
134
vkyif ef; (1)

oHvu kd af csmif;ESihf oHacsmif;udk eD;uyfpmG xm;ygu
oHvu dk af csmif;onf oHacsmif;udk qGiJ ifaMumif; awGU&onf/
oHvu kd \f qGiJ iftm;udk oHvu kd t f m;[kac:onf/ oHvu kd f
onf oHypön;f rsm;udo k m oHvu kd tf m;ESihf qGEJ ikd o
f nf r[kwf
ay/ oHvu kd t
f csi;f csi;f vnf; tm;oufa&mufr&I o dS nf/ yHk (10-40) rsdK;wl
à oHvu kd tf csi;f csi;f eD;uyfpmG xm;ygu rnfoYkd jzpf 0if½dk;pGef;rsm;wGef;uefí
rnfenf;/ rsdK;rwl0if½dk;pGef;rsm; qGJiifaeyHk
à oHvu kd f 2 acsmif;jzifh tkypf v k u
kd f vufawGUavhvmyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
oHvu dk t f rsKd ;rsKd ;\ 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;udk vufawGU avhvm&SmazGyg/
à jrif;cGmyHo k v
H u kd ?f ,lyokH v H ukd ?f uGi;f yHo
k v H u
kd ?f Mu,fo;D yHok vH u kd Ef iS hf oHvukd w
f ;kH ponfh
oHvu kd f 5 rsKd ;udk tkypf w k pfppk , D yl g/
à ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f ESihf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f emrnfygaom oHvu kd af csmif;udv k nf;,lyg/
à xdo k v H u kd af csmif;udk toH;k jyKí oHvu kd f 5 rsKd ;\ 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;udk &Smyg/ rnfonfh
tcsuu f kd toH;k jyKí &Smrnfenf;/
à oHvu kd \ f tay:wGif puúLtoH;k jyKí ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f udk (N) ESihf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f udk (S)
[k rSwo f m;yg/
t"dutcsufrsm;
oHvu kd \ f qGiJ iftm;udk oHvu kd t
f m;[kac:onf/
oHvu dk f 2 acsmif;\ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ck odrYk [kwf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ckukd rsKd ;wl
0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;[kac:onf/ ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f wpfcEk iS hf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f wpfcu k kd rsKd ;rwl
0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;[kac:onf/
rsKd ;rwl0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ckukd eD;uyfpm G xm;ygu wpfcEk iS whf pfck qGiJ ifaMumif;awGU&onf/
rsKd ;rwlvQif qGt J m;oufa&mufonf/
rsKd ;wl0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ckukd eD;uyfpm G xm;ygu tcsi;f csi;f wGe;f uefaMumif; awGU&onf/
oHvu dk 0f if½;kd pGe;f rsKd ;wlvQif wGe;f tm;oufa&mufonf/
oHvu kd t f m;onf oHvu kd o f wdrå &Sad om (oHr[kwaf om) ypön;f rsm;udk azmufxiG ;f
qGiJ ifEikd \ f / oHxnfypön;f rsm;udrk l azmufxiG ;f qGiJ ifEikd jf cif; r&Syd g/
avhusifch ef;
(u) oHvu kd \
f qGiJ iftm;udk ---------- [kac:onf/
135
(c) oHvu kd f 2 acsmif;\ ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f wpfcEk iS hf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f wpfcu k kd -------
0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;[kac:onf/
(*) oHvu dk f 2 acsmif;\ ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ck odrYk [kwf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ckukd ------
---- 0if½;kd pGe;f rsm;[kac:onf/
(C) oHvu dk 0f if½;kd pGe;f rsm; rsKd ;rwlvQif ---------- oufa&mufonf/
(i) oHvu kd Ef iS hf t&m0w¬KwpfcMk um; wGe;f tm;jzpfay:vQif xdt k &m0w¬Kwpfco k nfvnf;
---------- jzpfonf/
2/ oHvukd f 2 acsmif;\ 0if½;kd pGe;f 2 ckukd eD;uyfpmG xm;ygu rnfoYkd jzpfrnfenf;/
tb,faMumifeh nf;/
3/ atmufygoHvu kd tf wGrJ sm;wGif rnfonft h wGrJ sm;onf oHvu
kd wf eG ;f tm;udk jyaeoenf;/
N S N S N S S N S N S N S N
(u) (c) (*) N S

(C)
10-5-4 oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f ( Magnetic Field )

oHvu kd t
f m;vrf;aMumif;rsm; wnf&&dS me,f odrYk [kwf oHvu
kd t
f m;rsm;oufa&mufaom
e,fukd oHvu
kd pf ufuiG ;f [kac:onf/
vkyif ef; (1)
à oHvu kd af csmif;ESihf oHacsmif;udk eD;uyfpmG xm;ygu oHvu kd af csmif;onf oHacsmif;udk
qGiJ ifEikd af Mumif; avhvmod&cdS NhJ y;D jzpfonf/ xdo
k Ykd qGiJ ifEikd o
f nfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
vkyif ef; (2)
à oHvu dk pf ufuiG ;f qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
à oHvu kd af csmif;\ ywf0ef;usiw f iG &f aSd om oHvu
kd pf ufuiG ;f rsm;udk jrifEikd jf cif; &Sd r&Sad jzyg/
vkyif ef; (3)
oHvu kd w
f iG f oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f &Sad Mumif; avhvmMunfyh g/
à oHvu kd af csmif;? oHvu kd t f rd af jrm§ if? cJwEH iS hf pm&Guw f uYkd kd ,lyg/ pm&Gu\ f tv,fwiG f
oHvu kd af csmif;udk xm;yg/
à oHvu kd af csmif;\ ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f teD;wGif oHvu dk tf rd af jrm§ ifux kd m;í 4if;\ajrmuf
0if½;kd pGe;f ESihf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f udk cJwt H oH;k jyKí trSwf rSwo f m;yg/ awmif0if½;kd pGe;f udk
a&mufonftxd trSwrf w S o f m;jcif;udk xyfumxyfum vkyaf qmifyg/
à trSwrf sm;udq k ufvQif oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;wpfcu k kd &&Srd nf/
à ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f teD;&Sd prSwt f rsKd ;rsKd ;rS txufygenf;twdik ;f qufvufvyk af qmifyg/
à oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk avhvmyg/ rnfonfukd awGU&S&d oenf;/
136
(u) (*)
(c) (C)
yHk (10-41) oHvkdufwGif oHvdkufpufuGif;&SdaMumif; prf;oyfyHk
vkyif ef; (4)
rsKd ;wl0if½;kd pGe;f ESpcf Mk um;wGif jzpfay:aeaom oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk
oHvu kd t
f rd af jrm§ iftoH;k jyKí vufawGUa&;qGyJ g/
à oHvu kd af csmif;ESpaf csmif;? oHvu kd t
f rd af jrm§ if? pm&GuEf iS hf cJww H uYkd kd ,lyg/
à oHvu kd Ef pS af csmif;\ ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f tcsi;f csi;f ESihf awmif0if½;kd pGe;f tcsi;f csi;f udk yHyk g
twdik ;f xm;yg/ ,if;wdMYk um;wGijf zpfay:aeaom oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk
oHvu kd tf rd af jrm§ iftoH;k jyKí vkyif ef; (3) twdik ;f vufawGUa&;qGyJ g/
yHk (10-42) rsdK;wl0if½dk;pGef;rsm;\oHvdkufpufuGif;

vkyif ef; (5)
rsKd ;rwl0if½;kd pGe;f ESpcf Mk um;wGif jzpfay:aeaom oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk
oHvu kd t
f rd af jrm§ iftoH;k jyKí vufawGUa&;qGyJ g/
à oHvu kd af csmif;ESpaf csmif;? oHvu kd t f rd af jrm§ if? pm&GuEf iS chf w
J w H u Ykd ,
kd yl g/
à #
$
= !
=

_

Mum;wGijf zpfay:aeaom oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk oHvu kd t
f rd af jrm§ iftoH;k
jyKí vkyif ef; (3) twdik ;f vufawGUa&;qGyJ g/
yHk (10-43) rsdK;rwl0if½dk;pGef;rsm;\oHvdkufpufuGif;
137
t"dutcsufrsm;
oHvukd tf m;vrf;aMumif;rsm; wnf&&dS me,f odrYk [kwf oHvu kd t f m;rsm; oufa&mufae
aome,fukd oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f [k ac:onf/
oHvukd pf ufuiG ;f udk rjrifEikd yf g/ ,if;onf oHvu kd \
f ywf0ef;usiw f iG &f aSd om oHvu kd f
tm;vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk pdwu f ;l jzifyh akH zmfxm;jcif;om jzpfonf/
oHvukd tf m;vrf;aMumif;rsm;onf ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f rSxu G í f awmif0if½;kd pGe;f odYk
OD;wnfonf/
oHvukd tf m;vrf;aMumif;rsm;onf wpfcEk iS w hf pfck jzwfausmjf cif; r&Syd g/
avhusifch ef;
1/ oHvu kd af csmif;teD;wGif oHacsmif;udx k m;ygu oHvu kd af csmif;u oHacsmif;udk qGiJ if
onfrmS tb,faMumifeh nf;/
2/ oHvu kd pf ufuiG ;f qdo
k nfrmS tb,fenf;/
3/ oHvu kd af csmif;\ 0ef;usiw f iG &f adS om oHvu dk pf ufuiG ;f vrf;aMumif;rsm;udk yHq
k í JG
azmfjyyg/
toHoifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;
toH
t&m0w¬Krsm;wkecf gjcif;rS toHomG ;&ef j'yfom;

toH\oGm;EIe;f
jzpfay:vmjcif; Mum;cHe,f 3 rsKd ;
tcJ t&nf taiGU

tcJ t&nf taiGU
138
tvif;oifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;

tvif;
tvif;\ t"dymÜ ,f tvif;\ jrefEeI ;f
tvif;\ yif&if;rsm;
ud,
k yf ikd t
f vif;vTw0f w¬K wpfqifch t
H vif;vTw0f w¬K
obm0 tvif;vTw0f w¬K vlwzYkd efw;D aom tvif;vTw0f w¬K
tyloifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;

tyl
&&SEd ikd af om yif&if;rsm; tylcsed f ul;ajymif;jcif;
wdik ;f wm&ef ylaomae&mrS

ae
at;aomae&modYk
avmifpm omrdrk w
D m
vQypf pfr;D zdk
ºC ºF
enf;oH;k enf;
tylavQmufu;l jcif; tylp;D ul;jcif; tyljzmul;jcif;
tylavQmuf0w¬K tylum0w¬K
139
vQyfppfoifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;
vQypf pf
wnfNird v
f Qypf pf a&GUvsm;vQypf pf vQyu
f ;l ypön;f vQyu
f mypön;f
(vQypf ;D )
wdu
k ½f u
kd v
f Qypf ;D jyefveS v
f Qypf ;D
½d;k ½d;k vQypf ;D ywfvrf;
oHvu
kd o
f ifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;
oHvu
kd f
trsK;d tpm; oHvu

kd t
f m;
obm0oHvu
kd f vlvyk o
f v
H u
kd f oHxnfypön;f rsm; oHr[kwaf om
udk azmufxiG ;f ypön;f rsm;udk
qGiJ ifEikd jf cif;r&Syd g/ azmufxiG ;f qGiJ if
Edik o
f nf/
0if½;kd pGe;f
ajrmuf0if½;kd pGe;f awmif0if½;kd pGe;f
0if½;kd pGe;f wl 0if½;kd pGe;f rwl
wGe;f uefjcif; qGiJ ifjcif;
140
tcef; (11)
aetzGJUtpnf; (Solar System)
ed'gef;
þtcef;wGif aetzGUJ tpnf;&Sd t"duyg0ifrrI sm;jzpfonfh ae? N*Kd [Bf u;D 8 vH;k ? t&HN*Kd [f
(v) rsm;? N*Kd [o
f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ;rsm;? OuúmysrH sm;ESihf Mu,fwcH eG rf sm;taMumif;wdu
Yk kd oif,&l rnfjzpf
onf/ rlvwef;wGif ae? urÇm? vwd\ Yk taetxm;? N*Kd [rf sm;\ vSnyhf wfy?kH t&G,t f pm;?
tuGmta0;wdEYk iS yhf wfoufonfh tajccHtaMumif;t&mrsm;udk awGUjrifcNhJ y;D jzpfonf/
11-1 aetzGUJ tpnf;&Sd t"duyg0ifrrI sm;
11-1-1 aetzGUJ tpnf;
aeudAk [kjd yKNy;D N*Kd [w f o Ykd nf t&G,t f pm;trsK;d rsK;d jzifh tuGmta0;trsK;d rsK;d rS vSnyhf wf
aeonf/ uREyfk w f oYkd nf aerS wwd,ajrmuftuGmta0;wGi&f adS om N*Kd [f (urÇm) ay:wGif
aexdik v
f su&f odS nf/ uREyfk w f Ykd urÇmudk t&HN*Kd [w f pfcjk zpfonfh (v) u vSnyhf wfvsu&f o dS nf/
nOft h cg aumif;uifuakd rmhMunfv h Qif vESihf rSwd w f w
k rf w
dS w
f w
k jf zpfaeaomMu,frsm;udk
awGU&onf/ vESiehf ;D onfh awmufyonft h &mrSm aomMumN*Kd [jf zpfonf/ N*Kd [w f ikd ;f onf aerS
vmaom tvif;udjk yefxw k af y;aomaMumifh tNrv J if;aeonf/ aeonf Mu,fwpfcjk zpfonf/
Mu,fwo Ykd nf wpfcEk iS w hf pfck uDvrkd w D m uka#oef;aygif;rsm;pGm a0;uGmonf/ ta&twGurf sm;
rSmvnf; uka#rsm;pGm&So d nf/ uREyfk w f aYkd etzJUG tpnf;\ yifrj'yfxk 99.8 &mcdik Ef eI ;f onf
A[dck suf aeüom wnf&\ dS / tuGmta0;rSm aerS urÇmodYk tvif;tvsijf zifv h mvQif puúeYf
500 vm&rnf/ aerS teD;qH;k Mu,foYkd tvif;tvsijf zifo h mG ;vQif 4ESpo f mG ;&rnfjzpfonf/
N*Kd [o
f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ;
*sLyDwm
,la&;eyf
AD;eyfpf r
rm;pf
ae
rmusL&D eufyuRe;f
urÇm
apwef
Mu,fwcH eG f
yHk (11-1) aetzGUJ tpnf; (rSwcf su-f yHo k nfpau;jzifh qGx

J m;jcif;r[kwyf g/)
vkyif ef; (1)
aetzGUJ tpnf;wGif t"dutm;jzifh ae? N*Kd [Bf u;D 8 vH;k ? t&HN*Kd [f (v) rsm;? N*K[d o
f rd f
N*Kd [rf mT ;rsm;? OuúmysrH sm;ESihf Mu,fwcH eG rf sm;yg0ifonf/ aeonf aetzGUJ pnf;\ tv,fA[dw k iG f
141
&So
d nf/ aeonf tawmftoift h &G,t f pm;&Sad om Mu,fwpfv;kH jzpfonf/ ae\twGi;f ydik ;f &Sd
[duk 'f ½d*k sit
f ufwrfrsm;aygif;pyfNy;D [Dv, D rf"mwfaiGUjzpfay:jcif;rS tylprG ;f tifEiS hf tvif;
pGr;f tif xkwv f w
T af y;onf/ vlom;wdo Yk nf aerSprG ;f tifukd jzmxGujf cif;enf;jzifh &&So
d nf/

k ukd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
à obm0tm;jzifh aerS rnfonfph rG ;f tifrsm; vlom;wdYk &&So d enf;/ rnfo&Ykd &So
d enf;/
à urÇmrSMunfv
h Qif aeonf t&G,t f pm; Bu;D rm;Ny;D tjcm;Mu,frsm;onf t&G,t f pm;
ao;i,fjcif;rSm tb,fah Mumifeh nf;/
à ntcg aumif;uifwiG f tNrv J if;aeaom t&mudk rnfoaYkd c:oenf;/
à ntcg aumif;uifwiG f rSw d w f wk f rSw
d w
f wk f jzpfaeaomt&mudk rnfoaYkd c:oenf;/
t"dutcsufrsm;
urÇmonf aetzGUJ tpnf;twGi;f &Sad eaom N*Kd [jf zpfaomaMumifh aeudk tjcm;Mu,frsm;
xufBu;D onf[k xif&onf/
N*Kd [of nf ,if;\0if½;kd ay:wGif vnfae(spin)Ny;D ae\j'yfqt JG m;aMumifh aeudk
vSnyhf wf(rotate) aeonf/ N*Kd [rf sm;tm;vH;k onf aerSusa&mufaomtvif;udk
jyefvnfxw k af y;&í tNrv J if;ae\/
Mu,frsm;onf ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;vTwaf omfvnf; tvGeaf 0;uGmaomaMumifh rSwd w
f w
k f
rSw
d w f wk f (twinkle) jzpfae\/
avhusifch ef;
1/ aewGif tylprG ;f tifEiS t hf vif;pGr;f tif rnfoYkd jzpfay:aeoenf;/
2/ vlom;wdo Yk nf aerSprG ;f tifukd rnfonfeh nf;jzifh &&So
d enf;/
3/ aerSprG ;f tifrsm; r&&Syd gu ouf&rdS sm; rnfoYkd jzpfrnfenf;/
11-1-2 N*dK[ford Nf *dK[frmT ;rsm;? OuúmysHrsm;ESihf Mu,fwcH eG rf sm;
vkyif ef; (1)
N*Kd [o
f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ;qdo k nfrmS N*Kd [x f uft&G,t f pm;ao;i,faom ausmufom;xk tpdik f
tcJrsm;jzpfNy;D uGi;f yHpk jH zifh aeudk vSnyhf wfaeMuonf/
yHk (11-1) udMk unfí h atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk tkypf v k ukd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
à aetzGUJ tpnf;wGif rnfonfwYkd yg0ifoenf;/
à yHw k iG f rm;pf (t*FgN*Kd [)f ESihf *sLyDwm (Mumoyaw;N*Kd [)f Mum;ü rnfonft h &mrsm;
jrifawGU&oenf;/
à N*Kd [Ef iS Nhf *Kd [o
f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ; wlnrD &I dS r&Sd aqG;aEG;yg/
142
vkyif ef; (2)

Ouúmysq
H o
kd nfrmS urÇmah vxkEiS hf j'yftydik ;f tprsm; yGww
f u
kd rf aI Mumifh avmifuRr;f Ny;D
tylEiS hf tvif;xkwv f w
T af omt&mrsm; jzpfonf/

k ukd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
à ntcg aumif;uifwiG f Mu,fa<ujcif;udk jrifawGU
Edik yf gonf/ Mu,fa<ujcif;rSm tb,faMumifh jzpf
ay:vmonf[x k ifoenf;/
https://goo.gl/images/6A5GGk
yHk (11-2) Mu,fa<ujcif;
t"dutcsufrsm;
N*Kd [o
f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ;qdo k nfrmS N*Kd [x f uft&G,t f pm;ao;i,faom ausmufom;xk
tpdik tf cJrsm;jzpfNf y;D uGi;f yHpk jH zifh aeudk vSnyhf wfaeMuonf/
Ouúmysq H o kd nfrmS urÇmah vxkEiS hf j'yftydik ;f tprsm; yGww f u
kd rf aI Mumifh avmifu
f Rr;f Ny;D
tylEiS hf tvif;xkwv f wT af om t&mrsm;jzpfonf/ j'yftydik ;f tprsm; ajrjyifay:odYk us
vmpOf jrifawGU&jcif;udk Mu,fa<ujcif; [kac:onf/
Ouúmtydik ;f tprsm;onf avxktwGi;f tm;vH;k avmifuRr;f roGm;bJ urÇmrh suEf mS jyif
ay:odYk usa&mufvmonf/ xdOk uúmtydik ;f tprsm;udk OuúmcJrsm;[kac:onf/
Mu,fwcH eG q f okd nfrmS wpfcgwpf&o H mjrif&Ny;D at;pufaeaom tvif;rJjhJ 'yfxjk zpf
onf/ ud, k yf ikd b
f OJ yHv
k rf;aMumif;jzifh aeudv k n
S yhf wfaeNy;D aeodcYk sO;f uyfvmrS
tvif;a&mifxu G v f monf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ atmufygwdu Yk kd uGuv f yfjznfyh g/
(u) N*Kd [rf sm;onf rdr\ d --------- ay:wGiv f nfaeNy;D aeudk vSnyhf wfaeonf/
(c) N*Kd [o f rd Nf *Kd [rf mT ;rsm;onf uGi;f yHpk jH zifh ---------- udv k n S yhf wfaeonf/
(*) aeudv k n S yhf wfaeNy;D ESprf sm;pGmMumrS awGUjrif&aom tvif;rJjh 'yfxrk mS --------
jzpfonf/
2/ atmufygwdu Yk , kd OS wf yJG g/
(u) OuúmysH (1) ud,
k yf ikd t
f vif;xkwv f wT rf &I o
dS nf/
(c) Mu,f (2) ud,
k yf ikd t
f vif;xkwv f wT rf rI &Syd g/
(*) N*Kd [f (3) avxkEiS yhf w G w f ukd &f mrStvif;xkwv f wT o
f nf/
143
11-1-3 t&HN*dK[f (v) rsm;

vkyif ef; (1)
k u
à t&HN*Kd [qf o
kd nfrmS rnfoaYkd omt&m jzpfoenf;/
à ntcg aumif;uifwiG f vudk rnfoaYkd om yHo k P²mefrsm;jzifh awGUjrifz;l oenf;/
AD;eyfpf f
aomMumN*Kd [f
AD;eyfpf
aomMumN*Kd [f
yHk (11-3) urÇmrS vudk yHo

k P²meftrsK;d rsK;d jrif&yHk
(rSwcf su-f yHo
k nf pau;jzifh qGx
J m;jcif; r[kwyf g/)
vkyif ef; (2)
k u
à ae? urÇm? vwd\ Yk t&G,t f pm; wlnrD I &Sd r&Sd aqG;aEG;yg/ urÇmrSMunfv
h Qif rnfoYkd
jrif&oenf;/
yHk (11-4) ae? urÇm? v t&G,t f pm;

ae v EdiI ;f ,SOyf kH
(rSwcf su-f yHo
k nf pau;jzifh qGx J m;jcif;
urÇm r[kwyf g/)
t"dutcsufrsm;
t&HN*Kd [f (v) rsm;onf aetzGUJ tpnf;twGi;f &SNd *Kd [rf sm;udk vSnyhf wfaeonf/
vuduk rÇmrSjrif&jcif;rSm aea&mifjcnfukd vrsuEf mS jyifrS tvif;jyefjcif;aMumifh jzpf
onf/ vonf urÇmESiehf ;D uyfNy;D aeonf urÇmESiahf 0;uGmaomaMumifh urÇmrS
Munfvh Qif vESiahf eonf t&G,t f pm;wlonf[k xif&jcif; jzpfonf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tkypf t
k vdu k f ae? urÇm? vwd\ Yk t&G,t
f pm;rsm;udk ywf0ef;usirf &S &SEd ikd af om ypön;f
rsm;jzifh erlemyHw
k zl efw;D jyKvyk yf g/
144

(u) vonf urÇmrSMunfv h Qif aeESihf t&G,t f pm;wlonf[x k if&jcif;rSm (vESiahf e
t&G,t f pm; trSew f n
l jD cif;? vESiu
hf rÇm eD;uyfjcif;? vESiu
hf rÇm a0;uGmjcif;) aMumifh
jzpfonf/
(c) vudk urÇmrSjrif&jcif;rSm (aerStvif;udk tvif;jyefjcif;? vtwGi;f rS "mwfaiGUrsm;
xkwv f wT jf cif;? urÇmrS tvif;ud&k &Sjd cif;) aMumifh jzpfonf/
(*) urÇmudv k nS yhf wfaeaom vonf aetzGUJ tpnf;twGi;f &Sd (t&HN*Kd [?f Mu,f? N*Kd [)f
jzpfonf/
11-2 N*dK[frsm;\0daoovu©Pmrsm;
vkyif ef; (1)
k u
à aetzGUJ tpnf;twGi;f &Sd N*Kd [Bf u;D 8 vH;k udk tpOfvu kd af jymjyyg/
vkyif ef; (2)
Z,m;udak vhvmNy;D atmufygar;cGe;f udk tkypf v k u kd f aqG;aEG;ajzqdyk g/
à N*Kd [Bf u;D rsm;\xl;jcm;csurf sm;udk urÇmN*Kd [Ef iS Ehf iId ;f ,SOyf g/
(urÇmN*Kd [\
f tcsi;f 0uf - 6400 uDvrkd w D m)
rdr0d if½;kd ay:wGif

aerS urÇmESihf aeudk 1ywf
urÇmESihf 1ywfvnf&efMumcsed f
tuGmta0; EdiI ;f & vSn&fh ef
N*Kd [f EdiI ;f & j'yfxk
uDvrkd w
D m tcsi;f Mumcsed f
urÇm-1
(km) urÇm-1 &uf em&D rdepf (&uf)
rmusL&D (Ak'[
¨ ;l N*Kd [)f 58 oef; 0.333 0.055 58 15 30 88
AD;eyfpf (aomMumN*Kd [)f 108 oef; 1 0.815 243 224
urÇmN*Kd [f 150 oef; 1 1 24 365
rm;pf (t*FgN*Kd [)f 228 oef; 0.5 0.10744 24 37 686
*sLyDwm
778 oef; 11 317.82 9 50 4332
(Mumoyaw;N*Kd [)f
1427
apwef (paeN*Kd [)f 9 95.16 10 14 10759
oef;
145
2871
,la&;eyfN*Kd [f 4 14.371 10 49 30707
oef;
4500
eufyuRe;f N*Kd [f 4 17.147 6 15 48 90777
oef;
rSwcf suf / / Z,m;ygude;f rsm;onf tvGwu

f surf w
S &f ef r[kwyf g/
t"dutcsufrsm;
aeESiehf ;D aom twGi;f bufN*Kd [Bf u;D 4 vH;k udk ajrom;ausmufom;rsm;jzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;
Ny;D tjyifbufN*Kd [Bf u;D 4 vH;k udk "mwfaiGUrsm;jzifh zGUJ pnf;xm;onf/
urÇmN*Kd [Ef iS Ehf iId ;f ,SOv
f Qif j'yfxEk iS hf t&G,t
f pm;Bu;D rm;aom N*Kd [Bf u;D rsm; &So
d uJo
h Ykd
ao;i,faomN*Kd [rf sm;vnf; &So d nf/
rmusL&D (Ak'[ ¨ ;l N*Kd [)f wGif avxkr&Syd g/ useNf *Kd [rf sm;wGif avxk&odS nf/
avhusifch ef;
1/ tjyifbufN*Kd [Bf u;D 4 vH;k wGif vlom;rsm; aexdik Ef ikd rf rI &Sjd cif;rSm tb,faMumifeh nf;/
2/ atmufygwdu Yk kd ,SOwf yJG g/
(u) urÇmN*Kd [Ef iS hf t&G,t f pm;wlnD (1) rmusL&D (Ak'[ ¨ ;l N*Kd [)f
(c) "mwfaiGUrsm; at;cJaeaomN*Kd [f (2) AD;eyfpf (aomMumN*Kd [)f
(*) &moDOwkr&Sad omN*Kd [f (3) eufyuRe;f N*Kd [f
aetzGUJ tpnf; oifcef;pmudk jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif;/
(tylEiS thf vif; xkwv f wT af om (ausmufom;xk
(N*Kd [rf sm;udk vSnyhf wf? j'yftydik ;f tprsm;) tpdik t
f cJrsm;? aeudk
ud, k yf ikd t
f vif;r&S)d OuúmysrH sm; uGi;f yHpk v
H n
S yhf wf)
vrsm; N*Kd [o
f rd Nf *K[
d rf mT ;rsm;
aetzGUJ tpnf;
ae Mu,fwcH eG rf sm;
(omref Mu,fwpfv;kH ? N*Kd [rf sm; (aeudk vSnyhf wf?
jzmxGujf cif;jzifh tylEiS hf tvif;rJjh 'yfx)k
(aeudk vSnyhf wf? ajrom;
tvif;pGr;f tifxw k v
f w
T )f
ausmufom;? "mwfaiGUrsm; jzifh
zGUJ pnf;xm;)
146
aemufqufwGJ
(Periodic Table)
tvSnfhrSefZ,m;
147

Grade 6 - Science (သိပ္ပံ)

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2019 ckESpf? Zefe0g&Dv?

tkyfa& - 1691932 tkyf

tvkyftrdefYtrSwf - F ^18 jzifh

oif½;kd rmwdumtusOf;csKyf (acgif;pOfrsm;)

oif,Ml u&rnfeh nf;vrf;rsm;

oif½;kd rmwdumtusOf;csKyf (oif,rl &I v'frsm;)

j'yf0w¬Krsm;zGUJ pnf;yH?k ½ky*f P

vkyif ef; (2)

taMumif;t&m odyHÜ enf;ynm

rdrI sKd ;pdwrf sm;rS aq;0g;xkwv

rsKd ;wl vQypf pftcsi;f csi;f wGe;f uefMuonf/

1-3 xif&mS ;ausmfMum;aom odyyÜH nm&SiBf uD;rsm;

yHk (1-1) tcef;tylcsed w

odyyHÜ nm&Sirf sm; trnf wDxiG rf eI ,fy,f

rm&DusL&D a&'D,o kd wå<d ujcif;qdik &f m okawoeudk

½dpk vif;z&efuvif 'Dtefat (DNA) ? tmtefat (RNA) wd\ Yk

trsKd ;trnf twkid ;f twm\,lepf (unit)

uDv*kd &rf (kilogram) kg

vkyif ef; (3)

(*) axmufwikd f (C) oH;k acsmif;axmuf

vkyif ef; (4)

vkyif ef; (1)

puf½yk rf sm;toH;k jyKí um;rsm;wyfqifxw

txufygprf;oyfcsurf S awGU&Scd surf sm;udk oH;k oyfwifjyyg/

yHk (1-3) "mwfaiGUonf tylaMumifh ajymif;vJykH

yHk (2-1) csed cf iG rf sm;

j'yf tajctae xkxnf &S^d r&Sd yHo

pmtkyf tcJ &Sd &Sd r&

2/ atmufyguGuv f yfrsm;udk jznfph uG yf g/

(u) tcJ (*) taiGU

trIerf sm;\ wnf&ydS kH

\ vkyaf qmifcsuEf iS hf awGU&Scd suu

2-4-1 aysmfjcif;ESiahf ysmfrw

vkyif ef;(1) tylay;

yHk (2-11) tcJt&nfaysmjf cif;

tcef; (2) udk jyefvnfo;Hk oyfjcif;

tcJ t&nf taiGU

tcJ t&nf taiGU

(u) (c) (*)

(c) Murf;jyifay:wGif abmvH;k wpfv;kH udk vSrd v

3-2-2 ½ke;f jyeftm; (Elastic Force)

½ke;f jyefowå&d o dS nfh t&m0w¬Kwpfcak y:odYk oufa&mufvu kd af om tm;udk z,fvu kd yf gu

yHk (3-6) vQypf pf"mwfzrkd sm;ESihf vQypf pf"mwfrrsm;tMum; jzpfay:aomtm;trsK;d rsK;d

3-2-4 oHvu kd tf m; (Magnetic Force)

yHk (4-1-u) owå0grsm;

à atmufazmfjyyg tyifrsm;\ trnfrsm;udk aygufa&muf&mae&mtvdu

taphrsm;yg&So d nf/ yGiahf qmifyifrsm;udk aph&u

vkyif ef; (2)

tjrpfppf ? yifpnfppfrsm;&So d nf/

à ay;xm;aom yHw k pfypkH o

(u) (c) (*) (C)

(i) (p) (q)

yHk (4-3) ouf&rdS sm;\ vu©Pm&yfrsm;

vkyif ef; (4)

3/ ay;xm;aomvu©PmESihf wlnaD omtjyKtrlukd ,SOw f yJG g/

yHk (4-4) ausm½d;k &So

tkypf ak cgif;aqmifwpfO;D urdrw

(u) (c) (*) (C) (i)

ajcaxmuf&adS om owå0grsm; ajcaxmufr&Sad om owå0grsm;

tkypf k 1 cGjJ cm;&ef - ausm½d;k rJo

ajcaxmuf 3 pHk ajcaxmuf 5 pHEk iS hf ajcaxmuf

Oyrm - yifu h ?l Oyrm - uif;ajcrsm;?

yHk (4-5) ajcaxmuf&adS om ausm½d;k rJo